Differential Calculus

Course Contents:
 Function: Domain, Range, Inverse function and graph functions, Limits,
Continuity, Properties of continues functions.
 Ordinary Differentiation: Differentiability, Differentiation of real-valued
functions, Successive differentiation, Leibnitz theorem.
 Expansion of functions: Rolle’s theorem, Lagrange’s means value theorem,
Taylor’s and Maclaurin’s formula, Maxima and minima.
 Partial Differentiation: Tangent and normal, Applications of derivatives.
Introduction
 In higher mathematics and various branches of science very often we have
to deal with changeable quantities which are interrelated to one another,
and in many such cases we have occasions to investigate how one of these
quantities changes with a gradual change in the other.
 For example, in a given amount of gas enclosed in a cylinder with a
movable piston, and kept at a constant temperature, the volume and
pressure are interdependent, and a change in one produces a
corresponding change in the other; or again, for a falling particle, the
height from the ground depends on the time, and changes with it the area
of a circle changes with its radius, etc.
 In differential calculus, we deal with the way in which one quantity varies
with another when the change in the latter is ultimately very small, or
more properly, with the rate of change of one quantity with another, as
also other allied problems.
 In these investigations we shall be dealing with relations between pure numbers
which represent the magnitudes (with proper signs) of the quantities and not with
the concrete quantities themselves. So that the results will be general I nature,
applicable to any pair of interdependent quantities under similar mathematical
conditions.
 In the following discussions we shall be concerned with the system of real numbers
only, meaning by real numbers, zero, integers, rational and irrational numbers,
positive or negative.
Preliminary Definitions and Notations
 Aggregate or Set: A system of real numbers defined in any way whatever is
called an aggregate or set of numbers. i.e., { − 1, 0.5, 2, − 2, 3, − 3, 4, − 4, 2, − 3 7
}

 Variable: An element, feature, or factor that is liable to vary or change.

A variable is a value that can be changed depending on conditions. Let x
be a symbol used during any mathematical investigation in which may be set of
real numbers. Then x is called a ‘variable’ and the totality of values of x constitutes
what is called the domain of x. i. e., In the expression, x! x may be considered a real
variable whose domain is the aggregate of positive integers. Variables are usually
denoted by letters of the alphabet, such as x, y, z, u, v, w, g, h, etc.
 Continuous Variable: If x assume successively every numerical value of an
aggregate of all real numbers from a given number ‘a’ to another given number ‘b’
then x is called a continuous real variable. The domain or interval of x in this case is
denoted by [a, b] or a ≤ ≤ .
 If a be omitted from domain, it is indicated as a < ≤ .
 If b be omitted from domain, it is denoted as a ≤ <
 If a and b be omitted from domain, it is denoted as a < <
 It is noted that a < < is open whereas a ≤ ≤ is said to be closed. i. e., in the
expression (5 − )( + 3), x is a continuous real variable whose domain is -3 ≤
≤ 5; in + 2/ 7 − , the real variable x has interval -2 ≤ ≤ 7.
 The interval [a, b] is very often graphically represented on the x-axis by means of
the length bounded by the two points A ( = ) and B ( = ).

The length of the interval [a, b] is obviously = − = −

Therefore, = − .
 Constant: The data consist of constant or fixed values that never be
changed. A symbol which retains the same numerical value throughout a set
of mathematical operations is called a constant. It is noted that numerical
constant: 2, -3, e, , alphabetic constant: a, b, , etc.
 Functions: In mathematics, an expression, rule, law that defines a
relationship betw een one variable to another variable. Simply, a
relation or an expression involving one or more variables. Function can be
defined as a single and definite value for every value of x in its domain. It’s
mathematical expression is, f( ). Other function can be expressed as, ( ), F( ),
∅ ( ) etc.
Example: ( ) = 3 − 3 + 2; ( ) = ( + )

 G raphical Representation of Functions: The function by which graphical

representation can be explained. Let, y =f(x) be a real valued function with
domain A. Then the graph of the function y =f(x) is defined to be the set of all
points in the plane with Cartesian co-ordinates (x, f(x), where y =f(x), x ∈ A).
Suppose, = ( ) = 2+1; when = 0, − 1, 1, − 2, 2, − 3, 3 = ? Put these
values on Cartesians co-ordinates and represent the graphs.
 Domain & Range of a Functions:
In mathematics, the domain of a function is the set of inputs
accepted by the function. It is sometimes denoted by dom (f) or
dom f, where f is the function.
A function f from X to Y. The set of points in the red oval x is the domain of f.
More precisely, given a function ∶ → , the domain of f is X.
For a function ∶ → , the set Y is called the codomain, and the set of values
attained by the function (which is a subset of Y) is called its range or image.
 Classification of Functions: The function can be classified as follows-
(i) Even and O dd Functions: Let f(x) be a function defined in a domain D ( ∈ R)
where D is such that x ∈ D→ −x ∈ D. The function f(x) is said to be an even function
if f( −x) = f(x), for all x ∈ D and f(x) is called to be an odd function if f( −x) = − f(x)
for all x ∈ D. It is to be noted that the graph of an even function is symmetrical
about the y-axis while the graph of an odd function is symmetrical in opposite
quadrants. Every function can be expressed as the sum of an even and odd function.
It is also remind that inverse of an even function isn’t be defined.

Example: f( ) = 2, f( ) = cosx when x ∈ are even function for f( − ) = ( − )2=

f( ), F( ̅) = cos ( − ) = cosx = F( )
Again, ∅ ( ) = 3, ( ) = sinx, where x ∈ , ∅(− )=(−
)3 = − 3 = − ∅ ( ), ( − ) = − sinx = − ( ).
(ii) Periodic Function: A function f(x) defined in a domain D is said to be a periodic
function of period be the least positive real number such that f(x + ) = f(x) for
all x ∈ D. [ H ere x+ ∈ , for all x ∈ ]. f( ) = cosx, x ∈ R periodic function of
period 2 , since 2 is the least positive number such that f( + 2 ) = sin ( + 2 ) =
sinx = f( ) for all x ∈ .
(iii) Explicit and Implicit Functions: If D ( ∈ R) be the domain of a function f, we can
express the function as y =f(x); x ∈ D. If a function can be expressed in the form
explicit function. i. e., f(x) = x3+2x2+10x, x ∈ R is an explicit function. Suppose, let
x, y be two variables where the relation between x and y in expressed by an
equation say, ∅ ( , ) = 0 then it is called an implicit function. If 2+ 2 = 2, then
2 2 2 2 2
∅( , )= + − =0 is the implicit function. H ere, = ± − , -a ≤ ≤ So,
2 2 2 2
we have two explicit function, viz., 1
= − , − ≤ ≤ 2
= − − , −
≤ ≤
(iv) Parametric Function: Let x = f( ) and y = ∅ ( ) be two function of the variable
t in the interval a ≤ ≤ . By eliminating t from the relations; = ( ), = ∅ ( ) we
shall have a relation connecting x and y. i. e. y can be regarded as a function of x.
such functions are called parametric functions, if x = 2, = 2 , we can easily see
that, 2 = 4ax, i. e. 2 − 4ax = 0 which is an implicit function of x and y. H ere, = 2
, = 2 together constitute a parametric function, t being called parameter.
(v) Composite Function: The composite mapping of a function is called the
composite function of two real values of functions. The composite function is also
called a function of a function.
Let f:A→B be a function defined by = ( ) such that f is bijective. i. e. both one-
one and onto. Then there exits as unique function g : B → such that ( ) =
↔ ( ) = , for all ∈ and for all ∈ .
In such case a situation g is said to be the inverse of f and we write,
= − 1: B→ .

If f and g are inverse to each other,

( ≈ )( ) = ( ≈ )( ) =
i. e. { ( )} =g{ ( )}.
 M iscellaneous W orked O ut Examples
2
Exp.1: Show that ( ) = log ( + 1 + ) is an odd function of x.

2 2
Soln: ( ) +f( − ) = log ( + 1 + ) + log ( − + 1 + )
= log {( + 1 + 2)( − + 1 + 2
)}
= log {1 + 2 − 2}
= log1
=0
H ence, ( − ) = −f( ) is odd
i.e. ( ) = −f( − ) function for all ∈ .
⇒ − ( )= f( − )
⇒ f( − ) = − ( )

Thus, ( ) is an odd function of x.

Exp.2: Prove that any function of x, defined for all real values of x, can be expressed as
the sum of an even and an odd function of x.

Soln: Let ( ) be any function of x defined for all real value of x.

Therefore, we can write,
1 1
( ) = { ( ) + ( − )} + { ( ) − ( − )}
2 2
= ∅ ( ) + ( ), say

1
N ow, as ∅ ( ) = { ( ) + ( − )}
2
1
∅ ( − ) = { ( − ) + ( )}
2
1
∅ ( − ) = { ( ) + ( )}
2
1
= ×2 ( )
2
=f( )
∴ ∅(− )= ∅( )
H ence, ( − ) =f( ) is even function for all ∈
So, ∅ ( ) is an even function of x.
Also,
1
( ) = { ( ) − ( − )}
2
1
( − ) = { ( − ) − ( )}
2
1 , ( − ) = −f( )
= − { ( ) − ( − )}
2
1
= − { ( ) + ( )}
2
1
= − ×2 ( )
2
= −f( )
i. e. ( − ) = −φ( )
So that, ( ) is an odd function of x.