EC1301A ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS LTPC

3 003
OBJECTIVES:
 To acquaint the students with the construction, theory and operation of the basic electronic devices
such as PN junction diode, Bipolar and Field effect Transistors, Power control devices, LED, LCD and
other Opto-electronic devices.
 To introduce different biasing circuits, amplifiers and power supplies.
UNIT I SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES 9
PN diode Current equations, Diffusion and drift current densities, Switching Characteristics, NPN -PNP -
Operations-Early effect-Current equations-Input and Output characteristics of CE, CB, CC.
UNIT II FET AND SPECIAL SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES 9
JFETs–Drain and Transfer characteristics, MOSFET-Characteristics-D-MOSFET,E-MOSFET
Characteristics, UJT, SCR, Diac,Triac,LDR-LED,LCD-Opto Coupler, CCD.
UNIT III BJT AMPLIFIERS 9
BJT– Need for biasing - DC Load Line and Bias Point – DC analysis of Transistor circuits – Various biasing
methods of BJT – Bias Circuit Design - Thermal stability - Stability factors – Bias compensation techniques
using Diode, thermistor and sensistor. BJT Amplifiers: CE, CB and CC amplifiers, h-parameter analysis of CE
& CB amplifiers.
UNIT IV FET AMPLIFIERS 9
JFET - DC Load Line and Bias Point -Various biasing methods of JFET - JFET Bias Circuit Design -
MOSFET Biasing - Biasing FET Switching Circuits ,FET amplifiers: CS and CD amplifiers, Current Mirror
and Current Steering Circuits, Differential Amplifier with resistive and Active loads
UNIT V POWER SUPPLIES 9
Linear mode power supply - Rectifiers - Filters - Half-Wave Rectifier Power Supply - Full-Wave Rectifier
Power Supply-Voltage regulators: Voltage regulation-Linear series, shunt and switching Voltage Regulators-
Over voltage protection - BJT and MOSFET – Switched mode power supply (SMPS) - Design of Regulated
DC Power Supply.
TOTAL : 45 PERIODS
COURSE OUTCOMES:
At the end of the course the students will be able to:
1. Explain the V-I characteristic of diode,UJT and SCR
2. Describe the equivalence circuits of transistors
3. Operate the basic electronic devices such as PN junction diode, Bipolar and Field effect Transistors,
Power control devices, LED, LCD and other Opto-electronic devices.
4. Design and understand different biasing circuits, amplifiers and power supplies.
TEXTBOOKS:
1. Salivahanan.S,Suresh Kumar.N,Vallavaraj.A ,Electronic Devices and circuits ‖,Third
Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill, 2008.
2. Donald A Neaman, ―Semiconductor Physics and Devices ‖,Fourth Edition, Tata McGraw Hill
Inc.2012.
REFERENCES:
1. Robert Boylestad and Louis Nashelsky,―Electron Devices and Circuit Theory ‖Pearson
Prentice Hall, 10th edition, July2008.
2. R.S.Sedha, A Text Book of Applied Electronics ‖Chand Publications, 2006.
3. Yang,―Fundamentals of Semiconductor devices, Mc Graw Hill International Edition, 1978
 UNIT – I
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

1. Explain how the depletion region at PN junction is formed and explain with relevant sketches for
charge density, electric field intensity and potential energy barrier at the junction. (8)
OR
Explain the basic structure of the PN junction. (8)
OR
Explain the theory of PN junction diode. (8)
OR
Explain how a barrier potential is developed at the PN junction. (4) OR
Explain the operation of PN junction under zero voltage (no bias voltage) applied bias.
Theory of pn junction:

 In a piece of semiconductor material, if one half is doped by p-type impurity and the other half is
doped by n-type impurity, a p-n junction is formed. The plane dividing the two halves or zones is
called p-n junction.
 In a p-n junction on p-side there are large numbers of holes while on n side there are large numbers of
free electrons. Hence overall p-n junction acts as a non-uniform distribution of charge carriers.
 When such non-uniform distribution exists then the charge carriers start moving from high
concentration to low concentration area. This is called ‘Diffusion’.
 In unbiased p-n junction, the majority holes on p-side start diffusing into n-side while the majority free
electrons on n-side start diffusing into p-side.
 In n-region, the holes diffusing from p-side recombine with free electrons. Thus due to additional
positively charged holes, these atoms on n-side become positive immobile ions, just near the junction
in n-region.
 In p-region, the free electrons diffusing from n-side recombine with holes. Thus due to additional
negatively charged free electrons, these atoms on p-side become negative immobile ions, just near the
junction in p-region.
 As more holes diffuse on n-side, large immobile positive charge accumulates near the junction on n-
side. This positive charge repels the positively charged holes and the diffusion of holes stops.
 Similarly, large immobile negative charge accumulates near the junction on p-side. This negative
charge repels the negatively charged electrons and the diffusion of electrons stops.
 Thus there exists a wall near the junction with negative immobile charge on p-side and positive
immobile charge on n-side. There are no charge carriers in this region. The region is depleted of the
charge carriers and hence called depletion region, depletion layer or space charge region.
  In equilibrium condition, the depletion region gets widened up to a point where no further electrons or
holes can cross the junction. Thus it acts as a barrier.

Symbol

Open circuited PN junction

Barrier potential:

 Due to immobile positive ions on n-side and immobile negative ions on p-side there exists an
electric field across the junction.
 This creates potential difference across the depletion region which acts as a barrier. This is called
barrier potential, junction potential, built-in potential or cut-in potential of p-n junction.
 It is also called height of the depletion region. The barrier potential depends on,
1. The type of semiconductor used
2. The concentration of donor impurity on N-side
3. The concentration of acceptor impurity on P-side
4. The intrinsic concentration of basic semiconductor
5. The temperature.
 The magnitude of contact potential VO varies with doping levels and temperature. VO is 0.72v for
silicon and 0.3v for germanium.
2. With neat diagram explain the working of a PN junction diode in forward bias and reverse bias
and show the effect of temperature on its V-I characteristics. (8)
OR
Describe the action of PN junction diode under forward bias and reverse bias condition. (13)
Forward bias condition:

 When positive terminal of the battery is connected to the P-type and negative terminals the N-type
of the PN junction diode, the bias voltage is known as forward bias.

Operation:

 The applied potential with external battery acts in opposition to the internal potential barrier.

 Under forward bias condition, the applied positive potential repels the holes in P-type region so that
the holes moves towards the junction and the applied negative potential repls the electrons in the N-
type region and the electrons moves toward the junction.
 When the applied potential is more than the internal barrier potential the depletion and internal
potential barrier disappear.
V-I characteristics of a diode under forward bias:

 As the forward voltage (Vf ) is increased, for Vf <Vo, the forward current If is almost zero (OA region)
because the potential barrier prevents the holes from P-region and electrons from N-region to flow
 across the depletion region in the opposite direction.
 For Vf >Vo , the potential barrier at the junction completely disappears and hence, the holes cross the
junction from P-type to N-type and the electrons cross the junction in the opposite direction, resulting
in relatively large current flow in the external circuit.
Threshold voltage or cut-in voltage:

 It is the voltage above which the current increases in a diode. It is 0.3v germanium for and 0.7v for
silicon.
 At the certain cut in voltage, the potential barrier is overcome and the current through the junction
starts to increases rapidly.

Reverse bias condition:

 When the negative terminal of the battery is connected to P-type and positive terminal of the
battery is connected to N-type of the PN junction, the bias applied is known as reverse bias.

Operation:

 Under applied reverse bias, holes which form the majority carriers of the P-side move towards the
negative terminal of the battery and electrons which form the majority carrier of the N-side are
attracted towards the positive terminal of the battery.
 Hence, the width of the depletion region which is depleted of mobile charge carriers increases. Thus,
the electric field produced by applied reverse, is in the same direction as the electric field of the
potential barrier.
 Hence the resultant potential barrier is increased which prevents the flow of majority carriers in both
directions; the depletion width, w is proportional to √𝑉𝑜 under reverse bias condition.
 Therefore, theoretically no current should flow in the external circuit. But in practice, a very small
current of the order of a few microamperes flows under reverse bias.
V-I characteristics:
  Under the reverse bias condition, the thermally generated holes in the P-region are attracted
towards the negative terminal of the battery and the electrons in the N-regions are attracted
towards the positive terminal of the battery.

 Consequently, the minority carriers, electrons in the P-region and holes in the N-region, wander
to over to the junction and flow towards their majority carrier side giving rise to a small reverse
current is known as reverse saturation current Io.
 The magnitude of reverse saturation current mainly depends upon junction temperature because
the major source of majority carriers is thermally broken covalent bands.
Breakdown voltage:

 Though the reverse saturation current is not dependent on the applied reverse voltage, if reverse
voltage is increased beyond particular value, large reverse current can flow damaging the diode.
This is called reverse breakdown of a diode.
 For large applied reverse bias, the free electrons from the N-type moving towards the positive
terminal of the battery acquire sufficient energy to move with high velocity to dislodge valance
electrons from semiconductor atoms in the crystal. These newly liberated electrons, in turn,
acquire sufficient energy to dislodge other parent electrons.
 Thus, a large number of free electrons are formed which is commonly called as an avalanche of
free electrons. This leads to the breakdown of the junction loading to very large reverse current.
The reverse voltage at which the junction breakdown occurs is known as breakdown voltage.
Effect of temperature on the p-n junction diode:
 The rise in temperature increases the generation of electron-hole pairs in semiconductors and
increases their conductivity. As a result, the current through the p-n junction diode increases with
temperature as given by diode current equation,
I = Io [e V /η VT – 1]
 The temperature has the following effects of diode parameters,
  The cut-in voltage decreases as the temperature increases. The diode conducts at smaller voltage
at large temperature.
 The reverse saturation current increases as temperature increases. This increase in reverse current
I0 is such that it doubles at every 10°C rise in temperature. Mathematically,
I02 = I01 2(∆T/10)
Where, IO1 = saturation current of the diode at temperature (T1)
IO2 = saturation current of the diode at temperature (T1)
ΔT = T2-T1
 The voltage equivalent of temperature VT also increases as temperature increases.
 The reverse breakdown voltage increases as temperature increases.

 Figure shows the effect of increased temperature on the characteristics curve of a p-n junction
diode. A Germanium diode can be used up to a maximum of 75ºc and a silicon diode to a
maximum of 175ºc.

3. Explain the PN diode switching times with necessary wave forms. (8)
OR
Explain the switching characteristics of diode. (6) (DEC 2015)
OR
Write short notes on diode switching characteristics. (8) (NOV 2014)

Diode switching characteristics:

 Diodes are often used in a switching mode. When the applied bias Voltage to the PN diode is
suddenly reversed in the opposite direction, the diode response reaches a steady state after an interval
of time, called the “recovery time’.
 The “Forward recovery time “, tfr is defined as the time required for forward voltage or current to
reach a specified value ( time interval between the instant of 10% diode voltage to the instant this
 voltage reaches within 10% of its final value) after switching diode from its reverse to forward
biased state.
 When the PN junction diode is forward biased, the minority electron concentration in the P-region
is approximately linear.
 If the junction is suddenly reverse biased at t1, then because of this stored electronic charge. The
reverse current (IR) is initially of the same magnitude as the forward current (IF).
 The diode will continue to conduct until the injected or excess minority carrier density (p –P0) or (n
–N0) has dropped to zero.
 However the stored electrons are moved into then-region and contact, the available charge quickly
drops to an equilibrium level and a steady current eventually flows corresponding to the reverse bias
voltage as shown in fig. (c).
 In fig (b), the applied voltage Vi =VF for the time up to t1 is in the direction to forward bias the
diode. The resistance RL is large when compared to the drop across the diode. Then the current is,
I ≈ VF / RL = IF

 Then at time t =t1, the input voltage is suddenly to the value of -VR. Due to the reasons above, the
current does not become zero and has the value
I ≈ VR / RL = - IR until the time t=t2
 At time t=t2 ,when the excess minority carriers have reached the equilibrium state, the magnitude
of the diode current starts to decrease ,as shown in fig (d).

 During the time interval from t1 to t2, the injected minority carriers have remained stored and hence
this time is called the “storage time (ts).
 After the instant t1 = t2, the diode gradually recovers and ultimately reaches the steady state. The time
interval between t2 and the instant t3, when the diode has recovered nominally, is called the transition
 time (tr).
 The recovery is said to have completed
a. When even the minority carriers remote from the junction have diffused to the junction and
crossed it ,and
b. When the junction transition capacitance ,CT across the reverse biased junction has got charged
through the external resistor RL to the voltage , -VR
 The reverse recovery time (or turn off time) of a diode, trr is the interval from the current reversal
at t =t1 until the diode has recovered to a specified extent in terms either of the diode current or of
the diode resistance.
i.e. trr = ts + tr

 For commercial switching type diodes the reverse recovery time, trr ranges from less than 1ns up
to as high as 1µs.
 The, trr can be reduced by shortening the length of the P-region in a PN junction diode.
 The storage charge, the switching time can also be reduced by introduction of gold impurities
into the junction diode by diffusion. The gold dopant sometimes called a life time killer, increases
the recombination rate and removes the stored minority carriers. This technique is used to produce
diodes and other devices for high speed applications.

4. Define and derive the drift and diffusion currents. (8)

OR
Derive the expression for drift current density. (12)
OR
Derive the expression for diffusion current density. (12)

The flow of charge through a semiconductor material is of two types, namely drift and diffusion. The
net current flows through a PN junction diode also have two components, via
1. Drift current
2. Diffusion current
Drift current:

 When an electric field is applied across the semiconductor material, the charge carriers attain a
certain drift velocity Vd, which is equal to the product of the mobility of the charge carriers and
the applied electric field intensity, E,

Vd α E; Vd = µE
  The holes moves towards the negative terminal of the battery and electrons move towards the
positive terminal. This combined effect of movement of charge carriers constitutes a current know
as drift current.
Definition of drift current:
 It is defined as the flow of electric current due to the motion of the charge carriers under the
influence of an external electric field.
 The drift current density due to the charge carriers such as free electrons and holes are current
passing through a square centimeter perpendicular to the direction of flow. The equation for the
drift current density Jn, due to free electrons is given by
Jn = qnµnE A/cm2

 And the drift current density Jp due to holes is given by

Jp = qpµpE A/cm2

Where, n= number of free electrons per cubic centimeter

P= number of free holes per cubic centimeter

µn= mobility of electrons in cm2 /v-s

µp= mobility of holes in cm2 /v-s

E=applied electric field intensity in V /cm

q =charge of an electron =1.6 x10-19 coulomb

 Total drift current density of a semiconductor is given by,

J =Jn +Jp
J= qE (nµn +pµp)
 Thus, the total drift current of a semiconductor is given by,

Idrift = Ielectron + Ihole

Ielectron = Jn.A = qnµnE Amp/cm2

Ihole= Jp. A = qpµpE Amp/cm2

Idrift = EAq[nµn+ pµp]

Diffusion current:

 Even in the absence of applied voltage, electric current flow in a semiconductor provided a
concentration gradient exist in the material. It exists, if the number of either electrons or holes
is greater in one region of a semiconductor as compared to the rest of the region.
 In a semiconductor material, the charge carriers have the tendency to move from the region of
higher concentration of the same type of charge carriers. Thus the movement of charge carriers
takes place resulting in a current called “diffusion current”.
 The diffusion current depends on the material of the semiconductor, type of charge carriers
and the concentration gradient.

 In fig (a), the hole concentration p(x) in a semiconductor bar varies from a high value to a low value
along the x=axis and is constant in the y-and z- directions.
 Diffusion current density due to holes, Jp is given by
𝐝𝐩
Jp = -qDp A/cm2
𝐝𝐱

 Since the hole density p(x) deceases with increasing x as shown in fig(b) dp/dx is negative sign in
the above equation is needed in order that Jp has a positive sign in the positive x-direction.
 Diffusion current density due to the free electrons Jn is given by
𝐝𝐧
Jn = qDn A/ cm2
𝐝𝐱

 Where dn/dx and dp/dx are the concentration gradients for electrons and holes in X- direction and
Dn and Dp are the diffusion co-efficient expressed in cm2/s for electrons and holes.

Total current:

 The total current in a semiconductor is the sum of drift current and diffusion current. For a P-type
 semiconductor, the total current per unit area (i.e.) total current density is given by

Einstein relationship for semiconductor:

 The equation which relates the mobility µ and the diffusion coefficient D is known as the
“Einstein relationship”.
𝐃𝐩 𝐃𝐧 𝐊
= = = VT
𝛍𝐩 𝛍𝐧 𝐪

Diffusion length (L):

 The average distance that on excess charge carrier can diffuse during its life time is called the
diffusion length, L.

L= √𝑫𝝉
Where D= diffusion co-efficient
𝜏 = carrier life time
 Related through Einstein’s relation,

D = µ𝑲𝑻
𝒒

5. Explain the current components in a PN junction diode. (8) (MAY 2014)

 It is indicated that when a p-n junction diode is forward biased a large forward current flows,
which is mainly due to majority carriers. The depletion region near the junction is very small,
under forward bias condition.
 In forward biased condition holes get diffused into n-side from p-side while electrons get diffused
into p-side from n-side.
 So on p-side, the current carried by electrons which is diffusion current due to minority carriers,
decreases exponentially with respect to distance measured from the junction. This current due to
electrons, on p-side which are minority carriers is denoted as Inp.
 Similarly holes from p-side diffuse into n-side carry current which decreases exponentially with
 respect to distance measured from the junction. This current due to holes, on n-side which are
minority carriers is denoted as Ipn.
 If distance is denoted by x then,
Inp(x) = current due to electrons in p-side as a function of x
Ipn(x) = current due to holes in n-side as a function of x
 At the junction i.e. at x=0, electrons crossing from n-side to p-side constitute a current, Inp(0) in the
same direction as holes crossing the junction from p-side to n-side constitute a current, Ipn(0).
 Hence the current at the junction is the total conventional current I flowing through the circuit.
I= Ipn (0) + Inp (0)
 Now Ipn(x) decreases on n-side as move away from the junction on n-side. Similarly Inp(x) decreases
on p-side as move away from junction on p-side.
 But as the entire circuit is a series circuit, the total current must be maintained at I, independent of
x.
 This indicates that on p-side there exists one more current component which is due to holes on p-
side which are the majority carriers. It is denoted by Ipp(x) and the addition of the two currents on p- side
is total current I.
Ipp(x) = current due to holes in p-side.
 Similarly on n-side, there exists one more current component which is due to electrons on n-side
which are the majority carriers. It is denoted by Inn(x) and the addition of the two currents on n-side is
total current I.
Inn(x) = current due to holes in p-side.
 On p-side, I = Ipp(x) + Inp(x)
 On n-side, I = Inn(x) + Ipn(x)
 These current components are plotted as a function of distance in figure.
 The current Ipp decreases towards the junction, at the junction enter the n-side and become Ipn
which further decreases exponentially.

 Similarly the current Inn decreases towards the junction, at the junction enter the p-side and
become Inp which further decreases exponentially.

 So sum of the currents carried by electrons and holes at any point inside the diode is always
constant equal to total forward current I. but the proportion due to holes and electrons in
constituting the current varies with the distance, from the junction.

Derive the PN diode current equation from the quantitative theory of diode currents. (8)
OR
Explain and derive the diode current equation. (12)
OR
Explain the theory of PN junction diode and derive the diode current equation. (16)

Quantitative theory of p-n junction diode:

 Let us now consider the expression for the total current as a function of applied voltage
assuming that the width of the depletion region is zero.
 Let, pp = hole concentration in p-type at the edge of depletion region.
nn = electron concentration in n-type at the edge of depletion region.
pn = hole concentration in n-type at the edge of depletion region.
np = electron concentration in p-type at the edge of depletion region.
PART-A:
1. What is mass action law?(MAY 2014)

The mass action law states that under thermal equilibrium for any semiconductor, the product of
the number of holes and number electrons is constant and is independent of the amount of donor and
acceptor impurity doping.
n.p = ni2,
Where, ni is intrinsic concentration
n is the number of free electrons per unit volume
p is the number of holes per unit volume

2. Define drift and diffusion current. (DEC 2015) & (NOV 2014)
Drift current: The drift current is defined as the flow of electric current due to the motion of the
charge carriers under the influence of an electric field. (APR 2015)
Diffusion current: A movement of charge carriers due to the concentration gradient in a semiconductor
is called diffusion. When charge carriers move, the current is constituted in a bar. This current due to
diffusion is called diffusion current.

3. Consider a silicon PN junction at T=300 K so that ni = 1.5x1010 cm-3. The n type doping is 1x1016
cm-3 and a forward bias of 0.60V is applied to the PN junction. Calculate the minority hole
concentration at the edge of the space charge region. (APR 2015)
Solution:
Pn(0) = pno 𝒆𝑽⁄𝑽𝑻
Minority carrier hole concentration is
2 10 2

𝑛𝑖 (1.5𝑥10 )
Pno = = 1016
𝑁𝐷

= 2.25x104cm-3
Pn(0) = 2.25x104 e(0.6 /0.020) = 2.59 cm-3
4. Sketch the forward bias characteristics of the PN junction diode. ( APR 2015)

V-I characteristics of a diode under forward bias:

5. Consider a Si PN junction at T=300 K with doping concentrations of Na = 1016 cm-3 and Nd =

1015 cm-3. Assume that ni = 1.5x 1010 cm-3. Calculate width of the space charge region in a PN
junction, when a reverse bias voltage VR = 5V is applied. (NOV 2014)
Solution:

𝟐𝜺𝟎 𝜺(𝑽𝟎 + 𝑽𝑹) 𝑵𝑨+𝑵𝑫

W=√ [ ]
𝒒 𝑵𝑨𝑵𝑫

𝟏⁄𝟐
−𝟏𝟒 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔+𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟓
= (𝟐𝑿𝟖. 𝟖𝟓𝑿𝟏𝟎 𝑿𝟏𝟏. 𝟖(𝟎. 𝟔 + 𝟓) [ 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟓
])

= 2.83 X10-4 cm

6. What is the principle operation of a PN junction diode in reverse bias condition? (MAY
2014)
When the positive terminal of the battery is connected to N-type and negative terminal
to p-type then the PN junction is said to be reverse bias. Under this condition, holes moves towards
negative terminal and electrons move towards positive terminal. Hence, the width of the depletion
region increases and a small amount of current flows through it.
7. Write down the diode current equation?
The diode current equation is,
I = Io [e V /η VT – 1]
Where, Io = Reverse saturation current in amperes
I= Diode current
V = Applied voltage
VT = Voltage equivalent of temperature in volts
η = 1 for germanium diode and 2 for silicon diode

8. Define transition capacitance.

A capacitance existing at the PN- junction when the diode is reverse biased, where the two
regions act as the plates while the depletion region acts as dielectric is called a transition capacitance
of a diode.
CT = ε A / W
Where, ε is the permittivity of the material
A is the cross-sectional area of the junction
W is the width of the depletion layer over which the ions are uncovered.

9. What is diffusion capacitance?

The capacitance that exists in a forward biased junction is called a diffusion or storage
capacitance. This is also defined as the rate of change of injected charge with applied voltage.
CD = τ I / η VT
Where, τ is the mean life time for holes and electrons
I is the diode forward current
VT is the Voltage equivalent of temperature in volts
η = 1 for germanium diode and 2 for silicon diode.

10. Define barrier potential in a PN junction diode.

Due to immobile positive charges on N-side and negative charges on P- side, there exists an
electric field across the unbiased PN junction. This creates potential difference across the junction
which is called a barrier potential. Thus the voltage across the depletion region or barrier is called a
barrier potential.
11. What is meant by PIV (Peak inverse voltage) of a PN junction diode?
In reverse biased, opposite polarity voltage appears across diode. The maximum reverse
voltage which diode can withstand without breakdown is called Peak inverse voltage.

12. What is meant by dynamic resistance of diode?

The dynamic resistance of a diode is given by
R= η VT / Io [e V /η VT – 1]
Where, Io = Reverse saturation current in amperes
V = Applied voltage
VT = Voltage equivalent of temperature in volts
η = 1 for germanium diode and 2 for silicon diode

13. What are the difference between drift and diffusion current?

S.No Drift current Diffusion current

It is developed due to potential gradient. It is developed due to charge concentration
1.
gradient
This phenomenon is found in both metals This is found only in semiconductors.
2.
and semiconductors.

14. What is depletion region?

In a PN junction, the diffusion of holes and electrons start initially. Near the junction, holes
recombine in n-region to form immobile positive ions. Similarly electrons recombine in p-region to form
immobile negative ions. With sufficient accumulation of such immobile ions on both sides, the diffusion
stops. So near the junction, there exists a region in which immobile positive and negative charges reside
while mobile charge carriers in this region get completely depleted. This region is called depletion
region.

15. Define knee voltage or cut-in voltage of a diode.

When diode is forward biased, some voltage is necessary to overcome barrier potential, to make
diode conduct. This is called its cut- in voltage. The minimum voltage at which the diode starts
conducting and current starts increasing exponentially is called cut – in voltage, offset voltage, break-
point voltage, threshold voltage or knee voltage. It is denoted as Vγ and its value is 0.3V for
germanium and 0.7V for silicon. Below this voltage, the diode current is very small and practically
considered to be zero.
16. What is avalanche breakdown?
When reverse voltage is increased, the velocity of charge carriers increases. In such highly
accelerated charge carrier collides against electron involved in covalent bond, then it breaks the covalent
bond and creates new electron-hole pair. These secondary particles also accelerate and involve in the
further collisions to produce more electron-hole pairs. This is called carrier multiplication. Due to such
large number of charge carriers breakdown of junction takes place. Such a breakdown is called
avalanche breakdown.

17. What is meant by breakdown voltage in PN junction diode?

In reversed biased condition, as reverse voltage increases the reverse current is almost constant
up to certain value of reverse voltage. At some reverse voltage, the diode breaks down and large reverse
current flows through it. The voltage at which the diode breakdown occurs is called reverse breakdown
voltage.

18. State the effect on temperature of PN junction diode.

The temperature has the following effects of diode parameters,

 The cut-in voltage decreases as the temperature increases. The diode conducts at smaller
voltage at large temperature.
 The reverse saturation current increases as temperature increases. This increase in reverse
current I0 is such that it doubles at every 10°C rise in temperature. Mathematically,
I02 = I01 2(∆T/10)
 The voltage equivalent of temperature VT also increases as temperature increases.
 The reverse breakdown voltage increases as temperature increases.

19. What is meant by doping in a semiconductor? (DEC 2015)

The process of adding impurity atoms to the intrinsic (pure) semiconductor to improve their
conduction capability is called doping.

20. What is diffusion current in PN junction diode? (MAY 2016)

A movement of charge carriers due to the concentration gradient in a semiconductor is

called diffusion. When charge carriers move, the current is constituted in a bar. This current due to
diffusion is called diffusion current.
 21. A silicon diode has a saturation current of 7.5µA at room temperature 300ºK. Calculate the
saturation current at 400ºK.
Solution:

T1=300ºK, T2=400ºK, I01=7.5µA,(given)

ΔT=T2-T1= 100
I02 = I01 2(∆T/10)
= 7.5x 2(100/10) = 7680µA=7.68mA
22. Define storage time. (MAY 2016)

When the diode is switched from forward biased to reverse biased, the minority charge carriers
remain stored and decrease slowly to zero. This time for which minority charge carriers remain stored
is called storage time.

23. Define transition time.

The time required by the diode current to reduce to its reverse saturation value, after minority
carrier concentration reduces to zero is called transition time.

24. Define reverse recovery time.

The total time required by a diode to switch from ON to OFF state which is addition of storage
time and transition time is called reverse recovery time of a diode.

25. Draw the VI characteristics of PN junction diode

26. What is “Early effect” or Base width modulation in CB configuration and give its
consequences?
OR
What is meant by Base width modulation? (MAY 2016)
 When reverse bias voltage VCB increases, the width of depletion region also increases, which
reduces the electrical base width. This effect is called as ‘Early effect’ or ‘Base width
modulation’.
This decrease in base width has two consequences:
• There is less chance for recombination within the base region. Hence and also α
increase with an increase in the magnitude of the collector junction voltage.
• The charge gradient is increased with in base, and consequently, the current of
minority carriers injected across the junction increases. This increases emitter current
slightly.
• For extremely large voltages, the effective base-width may be reduced to zero,
causing voltage breakdown in the transistor. This phenomenon is called the “punch
through”.
27. A transistor has β =150, find the collector and base current, if IE = 10mA. (MAY 2016)
Solution:
150
α=𝛽 =
150+
= 0.99
1+𝛽
1

α = 𝐶 , 𝐼 = 𝛼𝐼
𝐼𝐸 𝐶 𝐸

IC = 0.99 X 10X 10-3 = 9.93 mA

w.k.t, IE = IB +IC
IB = 10 -9.93 = 0.07 mA
28. The common- base d.c current gain of a transistor is 0.967. If the emitter current is 10mA,
what is the value of base current? (DEC 2016)
Solution:
α = 𝐶 , 𝐼 = 𝛼𝐼
𝐼𝐸 𝐶 𝐸

IC = 0.967 X 10X 10-3 = 9.67 mA

w.k.t, IE = IB +IC
IB = 10 -9.67 = 0.33 mA
29. Calculate the collector and emitter current levels for a BJT with αd.c= 0.99 and IB = 20µA.
(NOV 2014)
Solution:
β=𝐶,
𝐼𝐵
0.99
β=𝛼 = = 100
1−𝛼 1−0.9
9

IC = β IB = 100 x 20 µA= 2mA

w.k.t, IE = IB +IC
IE = 2x10-3 + 20x10-6 = 2.02Ma

30. Among CE, CB, and CC configurations, which one is the most popular? Why?
 The common - emitter configuration is widely used amongst three configurations because:
 Provides high voltage gain and high current gain
 Provides high power gain
 Can be cascaded efficiently

31. Draw the input and output characteristics of a transistor in CE configuration and mark the
cut-off, saturation and active regions.
 The input and output characteristics of a transistor in CE configuration,

Output characteristics
32. What is large signal current gain?
The ratio of the collector – current increment to the base – current change from cut off
to IB, and hence β is called the large signal current gain of common emitter transistor. The D.C.
current gain of the transistor is given by
βd.c = hFE = IC / IB.

33. Calculate β of a transistor when α = 0.98

Solution:
β = α / 1- α
Here, α = 0.98
β = 0.98 / 1- 0.98
β = 49

34. Name the operating modes of a transistor.

The operating modes of transistor are:
 Active region- In this region, the emitter-base junction is forward biased while
collector-base junction is reverse biased.
 Cut- off region- In this region, both emitter-base junction and collector-base
junction is reverse biased.
 Saturation region- In this region, both emitter-base junction and collector-base
junction is forward biased.

35. Why collector region of a transistor is larger in area than emitter region?
The emitter area in the transistor is considerably smaller than the collector area. This is because
the collector region has to handle more power than the emitter and more surfaces are required for heat
dissipation.

36. What is the difference between the bipolar and unipolar device? (NOV 2014)
The operation depends on the both majority and minority charge carriers and hence the name
bipolar. These transistors are called BJT (Bipolar junction transistor).
The operation depends on the majority charge carriers only and hence the name uniipolar.
These transistors are called FET (Field effect transistor).
37. What is the need for biasing in the transistor? (MAY 2014)
The process of giving proper supply voltages for obtaining the desired Q-point is known as
biasing.
Need for biasing:
 To achieve faithful amplification.
 To avoid thermal runaway.

38. What is meant by thermal runaway? (DEC 2015)

As a consequence of the junction power dissipation, the junction temperature rises, and this turn
increases the collector current, with a subsequent increase in power dissipation. If this phenomenon,
referred to as thermal runaway, continues, it may result in permanently damaging the transistor.
A Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a three-terminal semiconductor device
in which the operation depends on the interaction of both majority and minor-
ity carriers and hence, the name bipolar. The BJT is analogous to a vacuum
triode and is comparatively smaller in size. It is used in amplifier and oscillator
circuits, and as a switch in digital circuits. It has wide applications in comput-
ers, satellites and other modern communication systems. The FET is a device
in which the flow of current through the conducting region is controlled by
an electric field. Hence, the name Field Effect Transistor (FET). As current
conduction is only by majority carriers, the FET is said to be a unipolar device.
The construction, operation, characteristics and applications of both BJTs and
FETs are discussed in this chapter.

The BJT consists of a silicon (or germanium) crystal in which a thin layer of
N-type Silicon is sandwiched between two layers of P-type silicon. This transis-
tor is referred to as PNP. Alternatively, in an NPN transistor, a layer of P-type
material is sandwiched between two layers of N-type material. The two types of
the BJT are represented in Fig. 4.1.
The symbolic representation of the two types of the BJT is shown in Fig. 4.2.
The three portions of the transistor are Emitter, Base and Collector, shown as
 E C

(a)

E C

(b)

E, B and C, respectively. The arrow on the emitter specifies the direction of cur-
rent flow when the EB junction is forward biased.
Emitter is heavily doped so that it can inject a large number of charge carriers
into the base. Base is lightly doped and very thin. It passes most of the injected
charge carriers from the emitter into the collector. Collector is moderately
doped.

As shown in Fig. 4.3, usually the emitter-base junction is forward biased and
collector-base junction is reverse biased. Due to the forward bias on the emit-
ter-base junction an emitter current flows through the base into the collector.
Though the, collector-base junction is reverse biased, almost the entire emitter
current flows through the collector circuit.

As shown in Fig. 4.4, the forward bias applied to the emitter base junction of an
NPN transistor causes a lot of electrons from the emitter region to crossover to
the base region. As the base is lightly doped with P-type impurity, the number
of holes in the base region is very small and hence the number of electrons that
combine with holes in the P-type base region is also very small. Hence a few
electrons combine with holes to constitute a base current IB. The remaining elec-
trons (more than 95%) crossover into the collector region to constitute a collec-
tor current IC. Thus the base and collector current summed up gives the emitter
current, i.e. IE = – (IC + IB).
In the external circuit of the NPN bipolar junction transistor, the magnitudes of
the emitter current IE, the base current IB and the collector current IC are related
by IE = IC + IB.
As shown in Fig. 4.5, the forward bias applied to the emitter-base junction of a
PNP transistor causes a lot of holes from the emitter region to crossover to the
base region as the base is lightly doped with N-types impurity. The number of
electrons in the base region is very small and hence the number of holes com-
bined with electrons in the N-type base region is also very small. Hence a few
holes combined with electrons to constitute a base current IB. The remaining
holes (more than 95%) crossover into the collector region to constitute a collec-
tor current IC. Thus the collector and base current when summed up gives the
emitter current, i.e. IE = – (IC + IB).

In the external circuit of the PNP bipolar junction transistor, the magnitudes of
the emitter current IE, the base current IB and the collector current IC are related
by
IE = IC + IB (4.1)
This equation gives the fundamental relationship between the currents in a bipo-
lar transistor circuit. Also, this fundamental equation shows that there are cur-
rent amplification factors a and b in common base transistor configuration and
common emitter transistor configuration respectively for the static (d.c.) cur-
rents, and for small changes in the currents.
The large signal current gain of a common
base transistor is defined as the ratio of the negative of the collector-current
increment to the emitter-current change from cut-off (IE = 0) to IE, i.e.
(IC – ICBO)
a = – __________ (4.2)
IE – 0
where ICBO (or ICO) is the reverse saturation current flowing through the reverse
biased collector-base junction, i.e. the collector to base leakage current with
emitter open. As the magnitude of ICBO is negligible when compared to IE, the
above expression can be written as
 IC
a = __ (4.3)
IE
Since IC and IE are flowing in opposite directions, a is always positive. Typical
value of a ranges from 0.90 to 0.995. Also, a is not a constant but varies with
emitter current IE, collector voltage VCB and temperature.
In the active region of the transistor, the emit-
ter is forward biased and the collector is reverse biased. The generalised expres-
sion for collector current IC for collector junction voltage VC and emitter current
IE is given by

IC = – a IE + ICBO (1 – eVc/VT) (4.4)

If VC is negative and |Vc | is very large compared with VT , then the above equa-
tion reduces to
IC = – a IE + ICBO (4.5)
If VC, i.e. VCB, is few volts, IC is independent of VC. Hence the collector current
IC is determined only by the fraction a of the current IE flowing in the emitter.

IC = – a IE + ICBO
Since IC and IE are flowing in opposite directions,
IE = – (IC + IB)
Therefore, IC = – a [– (IC + IB)] + ICBO
IC – a IC = a IB + ICBO

IC (1– a) = a IB + ICBO
a ICBO
IC = _____ IB + _____
1–a 1–a
a
Since b = _____ , (4.6)
1–a
the above expression becomes
IC = (1 + b) ICBO + b IB (4.7)
In the common-emitter (CE) transistor circuit,
IB is the input current and IC is the output current. If the base circuit is open, i.e,
IB = 0, then a small collector current flows from the collector to emitter. This is
denoted as ICEO, the collector-emitter current with base open. This current ICEO
is also called the collector to emitter leakage current.
In this CE configuration of the transistor, the emitter-base junction is forward-
biased and collector-base junction is reverse-biased and hence the collector cur-
rent IC is the sum of the part of the emitter current IE that reaches the collector,
and the collector-emitter leakage current ICEO. Therefore, the part of IE, which
reaches collector is equal to (IC – ICEO).
Hence, the large-signal current gain (b) is defined as,

(IC – ICEO)
b = __________ (4.8)
IB
From the equation, we have

IC = bIB + ICEO (4.9)

Comparing Eqs. (4.7) and (4.9), we get the relationship between the leakage
currents of transistor common-base (CB) and common-emitter (CE) configura-
tions as
ICEO = (1 + b) ICBO (4.10)

From this equation, it is evident that the collector-emitter leakage current (ICEO)
in CE configuration is (1 + b) times larger than that in CB configuration. As
ICBO is temperature-dependent, ICEO varies by large amount when temperature
of the junctions changes.
The magnitude of emitter-current is

IE = IC + IB
Substituting Eqn. (4.7) in the above equation, we get

IE = (1 + b) ICBO + (1 + b) IB (4.11)

Substituting Eqn. (4.6) into Eqn. (4.11), we have

1 1
IE = _____ ICBO + _____ IB (4.12)
1–a 1–a
The d.c. current gain is defined as the ratio of
the collector current IC to the base current IB. That is,
IC
bd.c. = hFE = __ (4.13)
IB

As IC is large compared with ICEO, the large signal current gain (b) and the d.c.
current gain (hFE) are approximately equal.

When a transistor is to be connected in a circuit, one terminal is used as an input

terminal, the other terminal is used as an output terminal and the third terminal
is common to the input and output. Depending upon the input, output and com-
mon terminal, a transistor can be connected in three configurations. They are:
(i) Common base (CB) configuration, (ii) Common emitter (CE) configuration,
and (iii) Common collector (CC) configuration.
 This is also called grounded base configuration. In
this configuration, emitter is the input terminal, collector is the output ter-
minal and base is the common terminal.
This is also called grounded emitter configuration. In
this configuration, base is the input terminal, collector is the output termi-
nal and emitter is the common terminal.
This is also called grounded collector configuration.
In this configuration, base is the input terminal, emitter is the output ter-
minal and collector is the common terminal.
The supply voltage connections for normal operation of an NPN transistor in
the three configurations are shown in Fig. 4.6.

IC

IE E C IC
IB B
C +
–
E – B
+ +
+ –
–
IE IB

(a) (b)

IE

E
–
IB B +

C
+
–
IC

(c)

The circuit diagram for determining the static characteristics curves of an NPN
transistor in the common base configuration is shown in Fig. 4.7.
To determine the input characteristics, the collector-
base voltage VCB is kept constant at zero volt and the emitter current IE is
increased from zero in suitable equal steps by increasing VEB. This is repeated
 IE IC

E C IC – +
– A A
+
– B +
– +
VEE V VEB VCB V V
+ IB – – cc
+

for higher fixed values of VCB. A curve is drawn between emitter current IE
and emitter-base voltage VEB at constant collector-base voltage VCB. The input
characteristics thus obtained are shown in Fig. 4.8.

IE (mA)
VCB > 1 V VCB = 0 V
3.5

2.5

1.5

0.5

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 VEB (V)

When VCB is equal to zero and the emitter-base junction is forward biased as
shown in the characteristics, the junction behaves as a forward biased diode
so that emitter current IE increases rapidly with small increase in emitter-base
voltage VEB. When VCB is increased keeping VEB constant, the width of the base
region will decrease. This effect results in an increase of IE. Therefore, the curves
shift towards the left as VCB is increased.
To determine the output characteristics, the emitter
current IE is kept constant at a suitable value by adjusting the emitter-base volt-
age VEB. Then VCB is increased in suitable equal steps and the collector current
IC is noted for each value of IE. This is repeated for different fixed values of IE.
Now the curves of IC versus VCB are plotted for constant values of IE and the
output characteristics thus obtained is shown in Fig. 4.9.
From the characteristics, it is seen that for a constant value of IE, IC is inde-
pendent of VCB and the curves are parallel to the axis of VCB. Further, IC flows
even when VCB is equal to zero. As the emitter-base junction is forward biased,
the majority carriers, i.e. electrons, from the emitter are injected into the base
region. Due to the action of the internal potential barrier at the reverse biased
collector-base junction, they flow to the collector region and give rise to IC even
when VCB is equal to zero.
As the collector voltage VCC is made
to increase the reverse bias, the space charge width between collector and base
tends to increase, with the result that the effective width of the base decreases.
This dependency of base-width on collector-to-emitter voltage is known as the
Early effect. This decrease in effective base-width has three consequences:
(i) There is less chance for recombination within the base region. Hence, a
increases with increasing |VCB|.
(ii) The charge gradient is increased within the base, and consequently, the
current of minority carriers injected across the emitter junction increases.
(iii) For extremely large voltages, the effective base-width may be reduced to
zero, causing voltage breakdown in the transistor. This phenomenon is
called the punch through.
For higher values of VCB, due to Early effect, the value of a increases. For exam-
ple, a changes, say from 0.98 to 0.985. Hence, there is a very small positive slope
in the CB output characteristics and hence the output resistance is not zero.

The slope of the CB characteristics will give the following four transistor param-
eters. Since these parameters have different dimensions, they are commonly
known as common base hybrid parameters or h-parameters.
It is defined as the ratio of the change in (input) emit-
ter voltage to the change in (input) emitter current with the (output) collector
voltage VCB kept constant. Therefore,
 DVEB
hib = _____, VCB constant (4.14)
DIE
It is the slope of CB input characteristics IE versus VEB as shown in Fig. 6.8. The
typical value of hib ranges from 20 W to 50 W.

collector current to the corresponding change in the (output) collector voltage

with the (input) emitter current IE kept constant. Therefore,
DIC
hob = _____, IE constant (4.15)
DVCB
It is the slope of CB output characteristics IC versus VCB as shown in Fig. 6.9.
The typical value of this parameter is of the order of 0.1 to 10 m mhos.

put) collector current to the corresponding change in the (input) emitter current
keeping the (output) collector voltage VCB constant. Hence,
DIC
hfb = ____ , VCB constant. (4.16)
DIE
It is the slope of IC versus IE curve. Its typical value varies from 0.9 to 1.0.
It is defined as the ratio of the change in the
(input) emitter voltage and the corresponding change in (output) collector volt-
age with constant (input) emitter current, IE.
DVEB
Hence, hrb = _____ , IE constant (4.17)
DVCB
It is the slope of VEB versus VCB curve. Its typical value is of the order of 10 – 5
to 10 – 4.

To determine the input characteristics, the collector to

emitter voltage is kept constant at zero volt and base current is increased from
zero in equal steps by increasing VBE in the circuit shown in Fig. 4.10.
The value of VBE is noted for each setting of IB. This procedure is repeated for
higher fixed values of VCE, and the curves of IB Vs. VBE are drawn. The input
characteristics thus obtained are shown in Fig. 4.11.
When VCE = 0, the emitter-base junction is forward biased and the junction
behaves as a forward biased diode. Hence the input characteristic for VCE = 0 is
similar to that of a forward-biased diode. When VCE is increased, the width of
the depletion region at the reverse biased collector-base junction will increase.
Hence, the effective width of the base will decrease. This effect causes a decrease
in the base current IB. Hence, to get the same value of Ib as that for VCE = 0, VBE
should be increased. Therefore, the curve shifts to the right as VCE increases.
 IB (mA)
250 VCE = 0V VCE > 0 V

200

150

100

50

0 VBE(V)
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

To determine the output characteristics, the base

current IB is kept constant at a suitable value by adjusting base-emitter volt-
age, VBE. The magnitude of collector-emitter voltage VCE is increased in suitable
equal steps from zero and the collector current IC is noted for each setting VCE.
Now the curves of IC versus VCE are plotted for different constant values of IB.
The output characteristics thus obtained are shown in Fig. 4.12.
From Eqs. (4.6) and (4.7), we have
a
b = _____ and IC = (1 + b) ICBO + b IB
1–a
For larger values of VCE, due to early effect, a very small change in a is reflected
0.98
in a very large change in b. For example, when a = 0.98, b = _______ = 49. If
1 – 0.98
0.985
a increases to 0.985, then b = ________ = 66. Here, a slight increase in a by
1 – 0.985
about 0.5% results in an increase in b by about 34%. Hence, the output char-
acteristics of CE configuration show a larger slope when compared with CB
configuration.
The output characteristics have three regions, namely, saturation region, cut-off
region and active region. The region of curves to the left of the line OA is called
the saturation region (hatched), and the line OA is called the saturation line. In
this region, both junctions are forward biased and an increase in the base cur-
rent does not cause a corresponding large change in IC. The ratio of VCE(sat) to
IC in this region is called saturation resistance.
The region below the curve for IB = 0 is called the cut-off region (hatched). In
this region, both junctions are reverse biased. When the operating point for the
transistor enters the cut-off region, the transistor is OFF. Hence, the collector
current becomes almost zero and the collector voltage almost equals VCC, the
collector supply voltage. The transistor is virtually an open circuit between col-
lector and emitter.
The central region where the curves are uniform in spacing and slope is called
the active region (unhatched). In this region, emitter-base junction is forward
biased and the collector-base junction is reverse biased. If the transistor is to be
used as a linear amplifier, it should be operated in the active region.
If the base current is subsequently driven large and positive, the transistor
switches into the saturation region via the active region, which is traversed at
a rate that is dependent on factors such as gain and frequency response. In this
ON condition, large collector current flows and collector voltage falls to a very
low value, called VCEsat, typically around 0.2 V for a silicon transistor. The tran-
sistor is virtually a short circuit in this state.
High speed switching circuits are designed in such a way that transistors are
not allowed to saturate, thus reducing switching times between ON and OFF
times.
The slope of the CE characteristics will give the following four transistor param-
eters. Since these parameters have different dimensions, they are commonly
known as common emitter hybrid parameters or h-parameters.
It is defined as the ratio of the change in (input) base

VCE kept constant. Therefore,

DVBE
hie = _____, VCE constant (4.18)
DIB
It is the slope of CE input characteristics IB versus VBE as shown in Fig. 4.11.
The typical value of hie ranges from 500 to 2000 W.
It is defined as the ratio of change in the (output)
collector current to the corresponding change in the (output) collector voltage
with the (input) base current IB kept constant. Therefore,
DIC
hoe = _____ , IB constant (4.19)
DVCE
It is the slope of CE output characteristic IC versus VCE as shown in Fig. 4.12.
The typical value of this parameter is of the order of 0.1 to 10 m mhos.
It is defined as a ratio of the change in the (out-
put) collector current to the corresponding change in the (input) base current
keeping the (output) collector voltage VCE constant. Hence,
DIC
hfe = ____, VCE constant (4.20)
DIB
It is the slope of IC versus IB curve. Its typical value varies from 20 to 200.
It is defined as the ratio of the change in the
(input) base voltage and the corresponding change in (output) collector voltage
with constant (input) base current, IB. Hence,

DVBE
hre = _____ , IB constant (4.21)
DVCE
It is the slope of VBE versus VCE curve. Its typical value is of the order of 10–5
to 10–4.

The circuit diagram for determining the static characteristics of an NPN transis-
tor in the common collector configuration is shown in Fig. 4.13.
To determine the input characteristics, VEC is kept at
a suitable fixed value. The base-collector voltage VBC is increased in equal steps
and the corresponding increase in IB is noted. This is repeated for different fixed
values of VEC. Plots of VBC versus IB for different values of VEC shown in Fig.
4.14 are the input characteristics.

The output characteristics shown in Fig. 4.15 are the

same as those of the common emitter configuration.
 Property CB CE CC
Input resistance Low (about 100 W) Moderate High
(about 750 W) (about 750 kW)
Output resistance High Moderate Low
(about 450 kW) (about 45 kW) (about 25 W)
Current gain 1 High High
Voltage gain About 150 About 500 Less than 1
Phase shift between 0 or 360° 180° 0 or 360°
input & output
voltages
Applications for high frequency for audio frequency for impedance
circuits circuits matching

In a transistor amplifier with a.c. input signal, the ratio of change in output
current to the change in input current is known as the current amplification
factor.
DIC
In the CB configuration the current amplification factor, a = ____ (4.22)
DIE

DIC
In the CE configuration the current amplification factor, b = ____ (4.23)
DIB

DIE
In the CC configuration the current amplification factor, g = ____ (4.24)
DIB

We know that D IE = D IC + D IB

By definition, D IC = a D IE

Therefore, D IE = a D IE + D IB

i.e. D IB = D IE (1 – a)
Dividing both sides by D IC, we get

DIB ____
____ DIE
= (1 – a)
DIC DIC

1 __
__ 1
Therefore, = a (1 – a)
b
 a
b = ______
(1 – a)
b 1 __
1
Rearranging, we also get a = ______ , or __
a–b=1 (4.25)
(1 + b)
From this relationship, it is clear that as a approaches unity, b approaches infin-
ity. The CE configuration is used for almost all transistor applications because
of its high current gain, b.
IB is the
input current and IE is the output current.
DIE
From Eq. (4.22), g = ____
DIB

Substituting D IB = D IE – D IC, we get

DIE
g = _________
DIE – DIC
Dividing the numerator and denominator on RHS by DIE, we get
DIE
____
DIE 1
g = _________ = _____
DI
____ DI 1–a
– ____
E C
DIE DIE
1
Therefore, g = _____ = (b + 1) (4.26)
1–a

A load resistor RL is connected in series with the collector supply voltage VCC of
CB transistor configuration as shown in Fig. 4.16.
A small change in the input voltage between emitter and base, say DVi, causes
a relatively larger change in emitter current, say DIE. A fraction of this change
in current is collected and passed through RL and is denoted by symbol a ¢.
Therefore the corresponding change in voltage across the load resistor RL due
to this current is DV0 = a¢ RL DIE.
 DV0
Here, the voltage amplification Av = ____ is greater than unity and thus the
DVi
transistor acts as an amplifier.

We know from the characteristics of CE configuration, the current amplifica-

a
tion factor is b ∫ _____,
1–a
and IC = (1 + b) ICBO + bIB
The above equation can be expressed as

IC – ICBO = bICBO + bIB

IC – ICBO
Therefore, b = ___________
IB – (– ICBO)

The output characteristics of CE configuration show that in the cut-off region,

the values IE = 0, IC = ICBO and IB = – ICBO. Therefore, the above equation gives
the ratio of the collector-current increment to the base-current change from cut-
off to IB, and hence b is called the large-signal current gain of common-emitter
transistor.
The d.c. current gain of the transistor is given by
IC
bd.c. ∫ hFE ∫ __
IB
Based on this hFE value, we can determine whether the transistor is in saturation

or not. For any transistor, in general, IB is large compared to ICBO. Under this
condition, the value of hFE ª b.
The small-signal CE forward short-circuit gain b ¢ is defined as the ratio of a
collector-current increment DIC for a small base-current change DIB, at a fixed
collector-to-emitter voltage VCE.

i.e.
∂IC
b ¢ ∫ ___|
∂IB VCE

If b is independent of currents, then b ¢ = b ª hFE. However, b is a function of

∂b
current, then b ¢ = b + (ICBO + IB) ___. By using b ¢ = hfe and b ª hFE. Therefore,
∂IB
the above equation becomes

hFE
hfe = _________________
∂hFE
1 – (ICBO + IB) ____
∂IC