Anatomy and Physiology

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NEUTRO has no electrical charge

N Neutrons in each atom. For example, because
THE CHEMICAL BASIS OF LIFE carbon has 6 protons and 6 neutrons, its mass
number is 12(6 + 6 = 12 ).
TOPIC OUTLINE PROTON has one positive charge
1 Chemistry ELECTR has one negative charge.
2 Elements And Atom ON
3 Electrons And Chemical Bonding NUCLEU Protons and neutrons are found in the center of
4 Relationship Between Electronegativity And Chemical S the atom.
Bonding
5 Ionic Bonding ELEMENTS AND ATOM
6 Covalent Bond → The nucleus accounts for 99.97% of an atom’s mass, but only 1-
7 Chemical Reaction ten-trillionth of its volume. Most of the volume of an atom is
8 Energy And Chemical Reactions occupied by the electrons, although it is impossible to know
9 Acid And Base precisely where any given electron is located at any particular
1 Ph Scale moment.
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1 Normal Values (Human Blood)
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1 Salts And Buffers
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1 Inorganic Molecules
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1 Oxygen And Carbon Dioxide
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1 Water
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1 Organic Molecules
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1 Purpose Of Organic Molecules
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1 Four Major Groups Of Organic Molecule
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CHEMISTRY ELECTRONS AND CHEMICAL BONDING

→Chemicals make up the body’s structures, and the interactions CHEMICAL BONDS  this level is the interaction
of chemicals with one another are responsible for the body’s between atoms to form molecules by
functions. either sharing or transferring their
→ The processes of nerve impulse generation, digestion, muscle outermost electrons
contraction, and metabolism can all be described in chemical ELECTRON SHELLS the energy levels are often drawn
terms. Many abnormal conditions and their treatments can also be as concentric rings
explained in chemical terms. VALENCE SHELL outermost shell, The number of
DEFINITIONS OF TERMS electrons in the valence shell
MATTER  all living and nonliving things determines an atom’s chemical
MASS  amount of matter in an object behavior.
WEIGHT  gravitational force acting on an object of a OCTET If an atom’s valence shell is not at
given mass. its maximum, it will form bonds with
ELEMEN simplest type of matter having unique other atoms to achieve a full valence
T chemical properties shell
ELECTRONEGATIV is the ability of the atom’s nucleus
ITY to pull electrons toward it. Atoms
with a strong electronegativity are
those with 6 or 7 electrons in the
valence shell—these are very close
to achieving an octet. Atoms with a
weak electronegativity are those with
only 1 or 2 electrons in the valence
shell—these are farther away from
achieving an octet.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ELECTRONEGATIVITY AND

ATOM is the smallest particle of an element that has
CHEMICAL BONDING
the chemical characteristics of that element. An
→ Electronegativity - a measure of how much an atom attracts
element is composed of atoms of only one kind.
electrons from another atom to form a chemical bond. Covalent
For example, the element carbon is composed of
bonds are formed by the sharing of electrons between atoms that
only carbon atoms, and the element oxygen is
have the same electronegativity (nonpolar covalent bond; e.g., H2)
composed of only oxygen atoms.

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or a relatively small difference in electronegativities (polar 2. As the atoms get closer together, each hydrogen atom’s
covalent bonding; e.g., H2O). Ionic bonds are formed by the positively charged nucleus begins to attract the electron of the
transfer of electrons between two atoms that have very different other hydrogen atom.
electronegativities (e.g., NaCl). 3. A nonpolar covalent bond forms when the electrons are shared
equally between the nuclei, because the electrons have the same
attraction to each Nucleus.

IONIC BONDING
→ After an atom gains an electron, it has one more electron than it
has protons and is negatively charged. A chlorine atom (Cl) can
accept an electron to become a negatively charged chloride ion
(Cl−). After this transfer of electrons, both chlorine and sodium
have full valence shells.

CHEMICAL REACTION
(a) A sodium atom (Na) loses an electron to become a → Synthesis Reactions - When two or more reactants combine to
smaller, positively charged ion, and a chlorine atom form a larger, more complex product, the process: A + B → AB
(Cl) gains an electron to become a larger, negatively → A-P-P + Pi → A-P-P-P
charged ion. The attraction between the oppositely → Decomposition reaction - reactants are broken down into
charged ions results in ionic bonding and the formation smaller, less complex products. A decomposition reaction is the
of sodium chloride. reverse of a synthesis reaction and can be represented in this way:
(b) The Na+ and Cl− are organized to form a cube-shaped → AB → A + B
array. → A-P-P-P → A-P-P + P
(c) A photomicrograph of saltncrystals reflects the cubic → Adenosine Diphosphate and Phosphate group
arrangement of the ions. → Reversible reaction - can run in the opposite direction, so that
the products are converted back to the original reactants.
→ CO2 + H2O ⇄ H+ + HCO3
→ carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) form hydrogen ions
(H+) and bicarbonate ions (HCO3−).

DEFINITIONS OF TERMS
ENERGY  is defined as the capacity to do work.
Energy is the ability to put matter into
motion
POTENTIAL  is stored energy.
ENERGY
KINETIC  is energy caused by the movement of an
ENERGY object and is the form of energy that actually
does work.
MECHANICA is energy resulting from the position or
L ENERGY movement of objects
CHEMICAL is a form of potential energy stored within
ENERGY the chemical bonds of a substance.

ENERGY AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS

(a) The input of energy is required for the synthesis of ATP.
COVALENT BOND
(b) Energy is released as a result of the breakdown of ATP.
1. Initially the two atoms do not interact, because they are too far
apart. Each hydrogen atom has 1 electron.

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→ Base - proton acceptor

pH SCALE
→ a means of referring to the H+ concentration in a solution
→ Neutral Solution pH 7
→ Basic fewer H than OH = ph above 7
***Lower the pH number, the higher the H concentration.

The majority of this energy released is used by cells to do work A pH of 7 is considered neutral. Higher acidity (higher
such as synthesizing or transporting certain molecules in the cell, concentration of H+) causes a lower pH, so that values less than 7
or to do mechanical work such as contracting muscles. are acidic (the lower the number, the more acidic). Lower acidity
(lower concentration of H+) causes a higher pH, so that values
DEFINITIONS OF TERMS greater than 7 are basic (the higher the number, the more basic).
CATALYST  increases the rate of a chemical reaction, Representative fluids and their approximate pH values are listed.
without itself being permanently changed or
depleted.

ENZYME  is a protein catalyst that increases the rate

at which a chemical reaction proceeds,
without the enzyme being permanently
changed.

Activation energy (EA) is required to initiate chemical reactions.

Without an enzyme, a chemical reaction can proceed, but it needs
more energy input. Enzymes lower the activation energy, making it
easier for the reaction to proceed. Correlation of pH and hydrogen ion concentrations shown in
decimal form and scientific notation.
ACID AND BASE
→ Acid - proton donor. (HCl → H+ + Cl−). Because a hydrogen NORMAL VALUES (HUMAN BLOOD)
atom without its electron is a proton, any substance that releases → Acidosis – Below 7.35
hydrogen ions (H+) in water is an acid. For example, hydrochloric → Alkalosis – Above 7.45
acid (HCl) in the stomach forms H+ and chloride ions (Cl−)
SALTS AND BUFFERS
→ Salt is a compound consisting of a positive ion other than H+
and a negative ion other than OH−.
HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O

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(Acid) (Base) (Salt) (Water) (3)as regulatory molecules. Carbon atoms bound together
→Buffer - a chemical that resists changes in pH when either an by covalent bonds constitute the “backbone” of many
acid or base is added to a solution containing the buffer large molecules
FOUR MAJOR GROUPS OF ORGANIC MOLECULE
1. When an acid is added to an unbuffered water solution, the CARBOHYDRA (1) they are parts of other organic
result is increased H+ and decreased pH. TES molecules,
2. Buffers reduce large changes in pH by binding and releasing (2) they are broken down to
H+. provide energy, and
3. When an acid is added to a buffered solution, the buffer binds to (3) when undigested, they provide
the H+, preventing these ions from causing a decrease in the pH of bulk (fiber) in feces. In most
the solution. carbohydrates, for each carbon
atom there are two hydrogen
atoms and one oxygen atom.
Note that this two-to-one ratio
is the same as in water (H2O).
Kinds of Carbohydrates:
• Monosaccharides simple
sugars. egs. are Glucose
(blood sugar) and fructose
(fruit sugar)
• Monosaccharides are
considered the building blocks
of carbohydrates because
larger, more complex
carbohydrates are formed by
covalent bonds that link many
monosaccharides together.
• Disaccharides are formed
when two monosaccharides
are joined by a covalent bond.
For example, glucose and
fructose combine to form the
INORGANIC MOLECULES disaccharide sucrose (table
→ Inorganic chemistry - generally deals with substances that do sugar)
not contain carbon, although a more rigorous definition is that it
deals with substances that lack carbon-hydrogen bonds.
→ Organic chemistry - is the study of carbon-containing
substances, with a few exceptions.

OXYGEN AND CARBON DIOXIDE

→ Oxygen (O2) - a small, nonpolar, inorganic molecule consisting
of two oxygen atoms bound together by a double covalent bond.
About 21% of the gas in the atmosphere is O2, and it is essential
for most living organisms.
→ Carbon dioxide (CO2) consists of one carbon atom bound to
two oxygen atoms. Each oxygen atom is bound to the carbon atom
by a double covalent bond. Carbon dioxide is produced when food
molecules, such as glucose, are metabolized within the cells of the (a) Glucose and fructose are
body. Once CO2 is produced, it is eliminated from the cell as a monosaccharides that combine
metabolic by-product, transferred to the lungs by the blood, and to form the disaccharide
exhaled during respiration. If CO2 is allowed to accumulate within sucrose.
cells, it becomes toxic. (b) Glycogen is a polysaccharide
formed by combining many
WATER glucose molecules.
→ Water stabilizes body temperature. (c) Transmission electron
→ Water protects the body. micrograph of stored glycogen
→ Water is required for many chemical reactions. in a human cell. Glycogen
cluster together into particles
called granules.
 Polysaccharides. long chains
ORGANIC MOLECULES of monosaccharides. Glycogen
→ Carbon’s ability to form covalent bonds with other atoms - main storage form of glucose
makes possible the formation of the large, diverse, complicated in humans. Glucose is quickly
molecules necessary for life. broken down by cells to make
PURPOSE OF ORGANIC MOLECULES ATP. Glycogen serves as a
(1) as energy molecules for synthesis of ATP, ready supply of more glucose
(2) as structural components of the cell, and for ATP production. Starch

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stores energy for plants in the

same way as glucose stores
energy for animals. Starch -
Fortunately, when humans
ingest starch, our cells can
break it down and use the
glucose to make ATP.
However, humans cannot digest
cellulose and it is eliminated in
the feces, where it provides
bulk. Clinically, the presence of PROTEINS (1) Regulation of body processes
cellulose (fiber) in our diet is (2) Acting as a transportation
important for regularity of system
bowel movements and has been (3) Providing protection
reported to help reduce (4) Helping muscles contract
cholesterol and control blood (5) Providing structure and energy
sugar levels.
LIPIDS  Insoluble in water NUCLEIC  large molecules composed of carbon,
 composed mainly of carbon, hydrogen, ACIDS: DNA hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and
and oxygen AND RNA phosphorus
• provide protection and Deoxyribonucleic acid - genetic
insulation material of cells. DNA contains genes,
• help regulate many which determine the structure of proteins.
physiological processes Ribonucleic acid - which is
• form membranes structurally related to DNA and important
• are major energy storage in protein synthesis.
molecules, which can be
broken down and used as an
energy source
Major Classes of Lipids
• Fats, which are mostly
triglycerides
• Phospholipids
• Eicosanoids
• Steroids
• Fats are important energy-
storage molecules; they also
pad and insulate the body.
• Triglycerides - most common
type of fat molecules and have
three fatty acids bound to a
glycerol molecule.
• Phospholipids - composed of
a polar region containing
phosphate and a nonpolar
region consisting of two fatty
acid chains
• Eicosanoids - are a group of
important chemicals derived
from fatty acids. Eicosanoids
are made in most cells and are
important regulatory
molecules. Among their
numerous effects is their role
in the response of tissues to
injuries.
• Steroids - derived from
cholesterol include bile salts
(lipid digestion), estrogen,
progesterone, and testosterone
(reproductive hormones). In
addition, cholesterol is an
important component of cell
membranes.