Voltage regulation in a power inverter using a quasi-sliding control

technique
Nicolás Toro-García a, Yeison Alberto Garcés-Gómez b & Fredy Edimer Hoyos-Velasco c
a, b
Facultad de Ingeniería y Arquitectura, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Manizales, Colombia. [email protected], [email protected]
c
Escuela de Física, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Medellín, Colombia. [email protected]

Received: October 07th, 2014. Received in revised form: February 12th, 2015. Accepted: July 02nd, 2015.

Abstract
This paper shows the behavior of a three-phase power converter with resistive load using a quasi-sliding and a chaos control techniques
for output voltage regulation. Controller is designed using Zero Average Dynamic (ZAD) and Fixed Point Inducting Control (FPIC)
techniques. Designs have been tested in a Rapid Control Prototyping (RCP) system based on Digital Signal Processing (DSP) for dSPACE
platform. Bifurcation diagrams show the robustness of the system. Chaos detection is a signal processing method in the time domain, and
has power quality phenomena detection applications. Results show that the phase voltage in the load has sinusoidal performance when it
is controlled with these techniques. When delay effects are considered, experimental and numerical results match in both of stable and
transition to chaos zones.

Keywords: Power measurement, Power quality, Power electronics, Complexity theory, Chaos, Power Inverter.

Regulación de tensión en un inversor de potencia usando técnica de

control cuasi deslizante
Resumen
Este documento presenta el desempeño de un inversor de potencia con carga resistiva usando una técnica de control cuasi deslizante y una
técnica de control de caos para la regulación de la tensión de salida. El controlador se diseño usando técnicas de Dinámica de Promedio
Cero (ZAD) y Punto Fijo de Control de Inducción (FPIC). Los diseños han sido probados en un sistema de Prototipado Rápido de Control
(RCP) basado en un Procesador Digital de Señales (DSP) para la plataforma dSPACE. Los diagramas de bifurcaciones muestran la solides
del sistema. La detección de caos se realiza por un método de procesamiento de señales en el dominio del tiempo, y tiene aplicaciones en
detección de fenómenos de calidad de la potencia. Los resultados muestran que la tensión de fase de la carga tiene desempeño sinusoidal
cuando se controla con las técnicas mencionadas. Cuando se consideran los efectos de retraso, los resultados simulados y experimentales
coinciden en ambos casos en zonas estables y de transición a caos.

Palabras clave: Medida de potencia, Calidad de la Potencia, Electrónica de Potencia, Teoría Compleja, Caos, Inversor de Potencia.

1. Introduction evolution to other operation regimes, among others.

Control action required for three-phase loads is
The study of variable structure systems uses bifurcation implemented usually by power electronic circuits based on
theory in order to determine the conditions in parameter switches. For this reason, controlled commuted system with
values which generate stability changes, periodicity and three-phase-load (Resistive) becomes a variable structure
chaotic dynamics in the system, and which allow us to define system defined by non-smooth differential equations in
safe and stable operation zones. Knowledge of these which a complete theoretical framework does not exist yet
operation ranges let us avoid the presence of non-desired allows its study [1] since its theoretical and numerical
phenomena such as auto-sustained oscillations, chaos, and analysis represents an extremely difficult problem [3]. In this

© The author; licensee Universidad Nacional de Colombia.

DYNA 82 (192), pp. 52-59. August, 2015 Medellín. ISSN 0012-7353 Printed, ISSN 2346-2183 Online
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15446/dyna.v82n192.48569
 Toro-García et al / DYNA 82 (192), pp. 52-59. August, 2015.

sense, non-smooth transitions occur when a cycle interacts This paper is organized as follows. Section 2 describes
with a boundary of discontinuity in the phase space in a non- the proposed system. Section 3 describes the mathematical
generic way, causing periodic additions or sudden chaos model of the system. Section 4 describes the control
transitions [4]. One of the most relevant aspects in the techniques. Section 5 presents the obtained results, and
bifurcation analysis of non-smooth systems is the absence of finally, section 6 presents the conclusion.
the double periodic sequences that are observed in smooth
systems [3]. Due to characteristic behavior of non-smooth 2. Proposed system
systems, in many cases, it is not possible to apply analysis
techniques for smooth systems without modifications or Fig. 1 shows the block diagram of the system under study.
adequate adjustments [1]. This system is divided into two major subgroups, hardware and
Converters use power electronics for efficient software. Hardware includes electrical circuits and electronic
transformation and rational use of electricity from the devices, and software includes signals acquisition and
generation sources to its industrial and commercial use. It has implementation of control techniques. The software is
been estimated that 90% of electrical energy is processed implemented in a dSPACE platform.
through power converters before the final use [5]. Power Hardware is composed of a Three–phase power converter
converters must provide a certain level of output voltage, with resistive load, which is rated to 1500W, 600 V DC and
either in task regulation or tracking, and they must be able to v
reject changes in load and primary supply voltage levels. A 20 A DC. For the measure of variables, c (capacitor
complete and detailed analysis of the operation and voltage), a series resistance was used and for the
configuration of different power converters can be found in i
measurement of L (inductor currents) HX10P/SP2 current
[6, 7]. One of the most desirable qualities in these devices is sensors were used. Converter switches were driven by PWM
efficiency in the performance by using switching devices outputs of the controller card; these signals are coupled via
generating the desired output with low power consumption.
fast optocouplers (6N137).
In general, the deterioration of power quality is due to
Software is developed using the control and development
non-stationary disturbances (voltage sags, voltage swells,
impulses, among others) and also due to stationary card dSPACE DS1104, where ZAD and FPIC control
disturbances (harmonic distortion, unbalance and flicker) [8- techniques are implemented. The sampling rate for all variables
11]. In addition, the chaotic dynamics in the system under is set to 4 kHz. The state variables vc and i L are stored at 12
study generate non-periodic solution currents that are bits; the duty cycle (d) is handled at 10 bits. Parameters of buck
reflected on the source side, affecting other sensitive loads
converter ( C , L , rS , rL ) and ZAD-FPIC–controller ( K S , N , FS, R
connected to the point of common coupling.
) are entered to the control block by the user, as constant
Controller designed in this work combines Zero Average
Dynamics (ZAD) and Fixed Point Inducting Controller parameters. K S is the bifurcation parameter. For each sample the
(FPIC) strategies, which have been reported in [18]. Design controller calculates in real time the duty cycle and the
corresponds to a three-phase low power inverter (1500 W) equivalent PWM signal to control the gate.
with a three phase resistive load using a dSPACE platform
for the control. Numerical and experimental bifurcations are 3. Mathematical model
obtained for the ZAD-FPIC-controller [22-24], by changing
the parameter values. Obtained numerical and experimental Fig. 2 shows a basic diagram of the system. Buck power
bifurcation diagrams match. Development and application of converter is used to feed the resistive load. Eq. (1) is obtained
the FPIC control technique are presented in [14,15,17,18]. for the system model.
This technique allows the stabilization of unstable orbits in a
simple way.

Figure 1. Block diagram of the proposed system

Source: The authors. Figure 2. Electrical circuit for the 3-phase buck converter
Source: The authors.

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of time. The first step in the analysis of multi-topological

circuit is to write down the state equations, which describes
the individual switched circuits. For converters operating in
the continuous conduction mode, two switched circuits can
be identified. When the switch is ON, it is described by Eq.
(3); when the switch is OFF, it is described by Eq. (4).

(3)
(1)

With

S4  1  S1
S5  1  S2 (4)
S6  1  S3

And
State variables are the capacitor voltage ( vc ) and the
Si {0,1} inductor current ( i L ). These equations can be expressed in a
for i  16 compact form as x  Ax  Bu with x1  vc and x2  i L . E
Denotes the converter power supply and depending on the
This equation can be expressed in a compact form as: control pulse voltage E or E is injected to the system
through a PWM signal.
x  Ax  BU (2) By considering continuous conduction mode (CCM) and
according to centered PWM (Fig. 4), the control signal is
where the state variables are: defined as follows:

vc  x1 , i L  x2 , vc  x3 , i L  x4 , vc  x5 , and i L  x6 1 if kT  t  kT  dT / 2
a a b b c c
 (5)
u   1 if kT  dT / 2  t  kT  T  dT / 2
A is a block diagonal matrix, so that the system consists 
 1 if kT  T  dT / 2  t  kT  T
of three uncoupled subsystems that may be treated
independently. Fig. 3 shows the equivalent circuit per phase. Solution of the system (3) for kT  t   kT  dT / 2  is given by:

x(t)  eA(tkT ) x(kT )  A1[I  eA(tkT ) ]B

Solution of the system (4) for

 kT  dT / 2   t   kT  T  dT / 2  is given by:

Figure 3. Electrical circuit for the buck converter (equivalent per phase)
Source: The authors.

3.1. Derivation of the discrete time iterative map of the

converter

The inherent piecewise switched operation converters

implies a multi-topological mode in which one particular Figure 4. Centered PWM
circuit topology describes the system for a particular interval Source: The authors.

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x(t)  eA(t(kT dT /2)) x(kT  dT / 2)  A1[I  eA(t(kT dT /2)) ]B

where

x(kT  dT / 2)  eA(dT /2) x(kT )  A1[I  eA(dT /2) ]B

The solution of the system (3) for

 kT  T  dT / 2   t   kT  T  is given by:
x(t)  eA(t(kT T dT /2)) x(kT  T  dT / 2)  A1[I  eA(t(kT T dT /2)) ]B

where Figure 5. Surface to compute the duty cycle

Source: The authors.

x(kT  T  dT / 2)  eA(T dT ) x(kT  dT / 2)  A1[I  eA(T dT ) ]B

s  (( x1  xref )  ks ( xref )) |xx( kT ),u1
x1  
General solution of the system for kT  t   kT  T  is
given by: s  (( x1  xref )  ks ( xref )) |xx( kT ),u1
x1  
s1  ((x1  xref )  ks ( x1  xref )) |xx( kT ),u1
x((k 1)T)  eAT x(kT )  [2eA(dT /2)  2eA(T dT /2)  eAT  I ]A1 B
(6) dk
s2  s1  s1
2 (8)
where k represents the kth iteration, T is the sampling s3  s1  (T  dk )s2
period and d is the duty cycle dk
Eq. (6) is the discrete-time state equation for the buck t1  kT 
converter. In much of the literature, the terms iterative map, 2
iterative function and Poincaré map have been used dk
t 2  kT  (T  )
synonymically with discrete-time state equation. 2
t 3  (k  1)T
4. Control strategies

The control strategies presented in this section are The dk satisfying zero average requirements is:
developed for the per phase equivalent circuit. So for the
three phase system the control must be applied for each phase 2s1 (x(kT ))  Ts (x(kT )) (9)
Dk 
independently, taking into account that the reference voltage s (x(kT ))  s (x(kT ))
will be phase shifted according to the corresponding circuit
phase. From (3), (4) and (8) we obtain:

4.1. Derivation of the discrete time iterative map of the s1 (kT )  (1 aks )x1 (kT )  bks x2 (kT )  x1ref  ksx1ref
converter s (kT )  (a  a2 ks  bcks )x1 (kT )  (b  abks  bdks )x2 (kT )  bks
E
 x1ref  ks 
x1ref
L
As reported in [19-[21], one of the possibilities for E
s (kT )  (a  a2 ks  bcks )x1 (kT )  (b  abks  bdks )x2 (kT )  bks  x1ref  ks 
x1ref
L
computing the duty cycle is to define a surface and to force it
to be zero in each iteration. The surface per phase is defined (10)
as a piecewise-linear function as (Fig. 5) given by:
with a   1 , b  1 , c   1 , d   (rs  rL )
 s1  (t  kT )s if kT  t  t1 RC C L L

 s  (t  kT  dk )s if t1  t  t 2
The duty cycle is given by (11).
spwl (t)   2 2

(7)
 d  1 if Dk  T
 s3  (t  kT  T  k )s if t 2  (k  1)T 
(11)
 2 dk   Dk / T if 0  Dk  T
 0 if Dk  0


where the variables are described in (8) with We have experimentally measured and noticed that there is a
ks  Ks* LC a positive constant. period of delay in the control action. In this case, the control
action is taken from the data acquired in the past sampling time,
and then we compute the duty cycle as:

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2s1 (x(k 1)T )  Ts (x(k  1)T )

dk  (12)
s (x(k 1)T )  s (x(k 1)T )

To apply this technique we need to measure the states at

the beginning of each sampling time. To do this, we carry out
a synchronization between the measured signals and the start
of the PWM. This synchronization is performed using a
trigger signal obtained from the PWM, which gives the
command to the ADC converter for reading vC and i L . On
the other hand, we need to know the values of the parameters
L , C , rS , rL . In this case, we suppose that these parameters Figure 6. Periodic Solution for the three–phase converter with resistive
will be constant and measurable. The load R may be load
unknown and in this case must be estimated. Source: The authors.
Taking into account the strategies FPIC and ZAD [22,
23], the new duty cycle is calculated as follow:

dk (k)  N  d*
dkFPIC  (13)
N 1

Where
dk (k ) is calculated as (12) and d* is the duty cycle
(x1 (kT )  x1ref )
calculated in steady state . From (9) we have:

rs  rL L
T T[(1 )x  (  (r  r )C) x1ref  LCx1ref ] Figure 7. Chaotic Solution for the Three–phase converter with resistive
d  Dk |x1 (kT )x1ref  
* R 1ref R s L (14) load
2 2E
Source: The authors.

5. Numerical and experimental results Figs. 6 and 7 show the experimental behavior for the
Three–phase power converter, using the same parameters and
In this section numerical and experimental results are controller, but with different initial conditions. Reference
shown using K S and N as bifurcation parameters, in addition Voltages for phases a, b, c (upper signals); phase voltages (
the system behavior under frequency and voltage amplitude va , vb , vc ) and phase currents ( i a , i b ) (middle signals) are
variations are illustrated graphically. Parameter values used shown in these Figures.
in simulations and experiments are listed in Table 1; initially In Fig. 6 the system exhibits a periodic solution and in
the reference voltage has a peak of 32V and 40Hz of Fig.7 a chaotic solution. This fact shows the coexistence of
frequency. For the simulation in SIMULINK model the fixed attractors or solutions in the system. When the solution is
step size (fundamental sample time) in the configuration periodic, the controlled voltage follows the voltage reference
parameter was setting in 1 /  4Fs . by the control action unlike the chaotic solution, where the
output voltage is lower than the reference and it has an
Table 1 irregular fashion, in this regime the phase currents have a
Units for Magnetic Properties higher peak. Sometimes the system toggles between two
Parameter Value solutions while it is running, this happens when the solution
rS : Internal resistance of the source 4Ω is near to the border of two regions of attraction.
Results obtained in simulation and experiments for
E : Input voltage 40 V
periodic solutions are shown in Fig. 8. The simulation was
L : Inductance 1.6 mH
executed taking into account a 3T (0,75ms) delay in the duty
rL : Internal resistance of the inductor 0.9 Ω cycle application. Under this condition simulation and
C : Capacitance 368 uF experimental results match. Controlled voltage vC follows
reference voltage for all phases with a maximum error of 2V.
N : FPIC control parameter 7
Fig. 9 shows the bifurcation diagrams for the output error
Fc : Switching frequency 4 kHz
and duty cycle of controlled system with KS and N like
Fs: Sampling frequency 4 kHz
bifurcation parameters, obtained via model simulation using
1T _ p : 1 Delay time 0.25 ms Simulink of Matlab. For K S  1,5 with N  2 and N  1, 5 with
K S : Control parameter 5 K S  3 the system presents a qualitative behavior change.
Source: The authors. Before K S  1,5 and N  1, 5 the system is in chaotic regime

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Figure 11. Vc voltage, ia current and duty cycle experimental bifurcation

diagrams with f like bifurcation parameter of three phasic converter with
resistive load
Source: The authors.
Figure 8. Experimental and simulation results for Three-phase converter
with resistive load
Source: The authors.
Fig. 11 shows the bifurcation diagrams for the i a current,
va voltage and duty cycle of controlled system with f
(frequency of voltage reference) like bifurcation parameter,
obtained experimentally. For f  27Hz the system presents
a qualitative behavior change. After f  27Hz the system is
in chaotic regime before its stable regime. For constructing
these diagrams, the experiment was run for 2 seconds for
each value of f and samples were acquired every 50
milliseconds. The phenomenon shown in Fig. 11 is caused by
Figure 9. Error in voltage, with Ks and N like bifurcation parameters, and
error in duty cycle for phase a resulting from the model simulation using saturation of the inductor core in the LC filter; due to the fact
Simulink of Matlab of Three– phase converter with resistive load that the core saturation and magnetic hysteresis not were
Source: The authors. simulated these phenomena are not present in simulations.
Fig. 12(a) shows the bifurcation diagram of duty cycle
and Fig. 12(b) shows the bifurcation diagram of va for the
and after it is in stable regime. For constructing these Poincare map (6), both of which are numerical. Bifurcation
diagrams, the simulation was running for 3 periods of diagrams were constructed taking the last 30 samples, each
reference voltage and the last 15 samples of output error are one for every period of reference voltage for phase a from the
taken with initial conditions equal to zero; also a delay in duty model (6) simulation using Matlab, while the system was
cycle application of 3T. running during 35 periods. The simulation was executed
In the following the results of experiments are shown for taking into account a single period (1T) of delay in the duty
buck power converter behavior when the voltage reference cycle application. In these Figures various regimes of
and voltage level vary. operation can be appreciated: periodic windows, Chaos and
Fig.10 shows the bifurcation diagrams for the output error periodic solutions.
and duty cycle of the controlled system with K S and N as Fig. 13 shows the bifurcation diagram when 3T of delay
bifurcation parameters, obtained experimentally. For K S = 3 is considered. Bifurcation diagrams are quite different for
different delay.
the system presents a qualitative behavior change. Before Before analysis shows the effects of the delay time in the
K S = 3 the system is in chaotic regime and after it is in stable signal control applied to the power converter. Many complex
regime. For constructing these diagrams, the experiment was phenomena arise as shown in Figs. 13(e) and 13(f) some of
run for 2 seconds for each value of K S and samples were these are not smooth bifurcations, double period bifurcations,
chaos and 1-periodic orbits.
acquired every 50 milliseconds.

Figure 10. va voltage, ia current and duty cycle experimental bifurcation

diagrams with KS like bifurcation parameter of three phasic converter with Figure 12. Bifurcation Diagram with Ks like bifurcation parameters, taking
resistive load one sample each period of the reference voltage for phase a during 30
Source: The authors. periods considering a T delay
Source: The authors.

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system, simulations and experiments were performed. The

stability of the closed loop system was analyzed using
bifurcation diagrams; stability and transitions to chaos were
observed. It was demonstrated in an experimental way, that
the delay effects have high importance in the ZAD strategy.
Simulations and experiments match when delay effects were
included and improve the quality of the waves with ZAD
control. Thus, in the chaos zone, a power quality
deterioration by non-periodical current and voltage
waveforms was observed, but, when the control is performed
the non-periodicity is eliminated.

Acknowledgments

This work was supported in part by the Universidad

Nacional de Colombia, Manizales Branch, the Universidad
Autonoma de Manizales and the Instituto Tecnológico de
Antioquia.
The authors would like to thank the DIMA (Dirección de
Investigaciones de la Sede Manizales) for their support
throughout the projects “HERMES-19210 (Prototipo de
controlador unificado de calidad de la energía con funciones
de generación distribuida) y HERMES-19190 (Diseño y
construcción de controladores de cargas y generadores para
Figure 13. Bifurcation Diagram with Ks like bifurcation parameters, el laboratorio de energías renovables).”
Taking a sample each 30 periods of the reference voltage for phase a
considering a 3T delay, for the Poincare map 4.6 [
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 Toro-García et al / DYNA 82 (192), pp. 52-59. August, 2015.

[13]. Angulo, F., Olivar, G. and Taborda, J.A., Continuation of periodic Y.A. Garces-Gomez, was born in Manzanares-
orbits in a ZAD-strategy controlled buck converter, Chaos. Solitons Caldas, Colombia, in 1983. He received the BSc.
and Fractals., 38, pp. 348-363, 2008. DOI: Engineering degree in 2009 from the Universidad
10.1016/j.chaos.2007.04.023 Nacional de Colombia, Manizales, in Electronic
[14]. Angulo, F., Fossas, E. and Olivar, G., Transition from periodicity to Engineering. Between 2009 and 2011 had a
chaos in a PWM controlled buck converter with ZAD strategy, Int. “Colciencias” scholarship for postgraduate studies
Journal of Bifurcations and Chaos., 15, pp. 3245-3264, 2005. DOI: in engineering - industrial automation at the
10.1142/S0218127405014015 Universidad Nacional de Colombia. He is currently
[15]. Angulo., F., Análisis de la dinámica de convertidores electrónicos de working for a PhD degree in Engineering at the
potencia usando PWM basado en promediado cero de la dinámica del Universidad Nacional de Colombia. His research
error (ZAD), Tesis, Universidad Politécnica de Cataluña, Cataluña., interests include power definitions under nonsinusoidal conditions, power
2004. quality analysis, and power electronic applications.
[16]. Taborda, J., Análisis de bifurcaciones en sistemas de segundo orden
usando pwm y promediado cero de la dinámica del error, Tesis, F.E. Hoyos-Velasco, received the BSc. degree in
Universidad Nacional de Colombia - Sede Manizales., Colombia, Electrical Engineering, the MSc. degree in
2006. automatics, and the PhD. degree in automatics from
[17]. Angulo, F., Burgos J.E. and Olivar, G, Chaos stabilization with TDAS the Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Manizales,
and FPIC in a buck converter controlled by lateral PWM and ZAD, Colombia, in 2006, 2009, and 2012, respectively.
In Proceedings: Mediterranean Conference on Control and He is currently professor in the School of Physics,
Automation., July 2007. Universidad Nacional de Colombia Sede Medellín.
[18]. Angulo, F., Olivar, G., Taborda, J. and Hoyos, F., Nonsmooth His research interests include nonlinear control,
dynamics and FPIC chaos control in a DC-DC ZAD-strategy power nonlinear dynamics of nonsmooth systems, and
converter, EUROMECH Nonlinear Dynamics Conference., Saint applications to dc–dc converters. He is a member of
Petersburg, RUSSIA, July 2008. the Scientific and Industrial Instrumentation Research Group, at the
[19]. Angulo, F., Olivar, G. and Taborda, J., Continuation of periodic orbits Universidad Nacional de Colombia.
in a zad-strategy con- trolled buck converter, Chaos. Solitons and
Fractals, 38, pp. 348-363, 2008. DOI: 10.1016/j.chaos.2007.04.023
[20]. Angulo, F., Análisis de la dinámica de convertidores electrónicos de
potencia usando PWM basado en promediado cero de la dinámica del
error (ZAD), PhD. Tesis, Universidad Politécnica de Cataluña,
Cataluña, España, 2004.
[21]. Taborda, J., Análisis de bifurcaciones en sistemas de segundo orden
usando PWM y promediado cero de la dinámica del error, MSc. Tesis,
Universidad Nacional de Colombia - Sede Manizales, Colombia,
Mayo 2006.
[22]. Hoyos, F.E., Toro, N. and Angulo, F., Rapid control prototyping of a
permanent magnet DC motor using non-linear sliding control ZAD
and FPIC, 3rd IEEE Latin American Symposium on Circuits and
Systems (LASCAS 2012), Playa del Carmen, Mexico, de Febrero 29
a Marzo 2 de 2012.
[23]. Hoyos, F.E., Rincón, A., Taborda, J.A., Toro, N. and Angulo, F.,
Adaptive quasi-sliding mode control for permanent magnet DC
motor, Mathematical Problems in Engineering, Article ID 693685, 12
P, 2013. DOI:10.1155/2013/693685. Área Curricular de Ingeniería
[24]. F.E. Hoyos, D. Burbano, F. Angulo, G. Olivar, J. Taborda, and N. Eléctrica e Ingeniería de Control
Toro, Effects of quantization, delay and internal resistances in
digitally ZAD-controlled buck converter. International Journal of
Bifurcation and Chaos. 22 (10), 9 P, 2012. DOI:
10.1142/S0218127412502458. Oferta de Posgrados

N. Toro-García, received the BSc. degree in

Electrical Engineering and the PhD. degree in Maestría en Ingeniería - Ingeniería Eléctrica
Automatics from Universidad Nacional de
Colombia, Manizales, in 1983 and 2012
respectively; the MSc. degree in Production
Mayor información:
Automatic Systems from Universidad Tecnológica
de Pereira, Colombia, in 2000. He is currently an E-mail: [email protected]
associate professor in the Department of Electrical Teléfono: (57-4) 425 52 64
Engineering, Electronics and Computer Science, at
the Universidad Nacional de Colombia, sede de
Manizales. His research interests include nonlinear dynamics of nonsmooth
systems, and applications for switched inverters.

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