Part II

Introduction to Underground Rock Mechanics 2 February 2005

 Strength of rock joints

Introduction to Underground Rock Mechanics 2 February 2005

 Blocky rockmass:
What stops the outer blocks from
falling?

• Joint surface profile

• Lack of thick soft infill
• In some cases, short trace lengths
(or discontinuous joints)
• Dry conditions
• Tensile strength of rock blocks

Most of the above factors relate to the

Joint Shear Strength

BUT IS THIS FACE STABLE??

Introduction to Underground Rock Mechanics 2 February 2005
 Shear Strength
• The principles of shear strength …..
• We rarely require the shear strength of intact rock to be tested, though
it is possible. On the scale of excavations, either small-scale structures
dominate the shear behaviour, or we can estimate the shear strength.
• Shear strength of structures (joints etc) is commonly determined for
open pit slope design, but is of less common use in underground
excavation design, with the exception of rock wedge stability analysis.
However, many of the empirical rockmass classification methods used
for design include estimation of joint shear strength.
• When necessary, field estimates are usually sufficient:
– Barton’s shear strength criterion
• Laboratory testing is available: Example Shear Test rig

Introduction to Underground Rock Mechanics 2 February 2005

 Principles of Shear Strength

Note that Cohesion is simply the

shear strength at zero normal stress.

From Hoek, 2000, Rock Engineering Notes

Introduction to Underground Rock Mechanics 2 February 2005

 Barton’s Shear Strength Criterion
Barton and co-workers (various dates, 1973-1990) developed relationship for
natural rock joints between shear strength (τ) and joint surface roughness:

JRC is estimated in field using profiles:

JCS can be estimated in the field using a Schmidt Hammer:

Introduction to Underground Rock Mechanics 2 February 2005

 Joint Roughness Profiles, and field
estimation of JRC

Introduction to Underground Rock Mechanics 2 February 2005

 JCS Estimation

From Hoek, 2000, Rock

Engineering Notes

Introduction to Underground Rock Mechanics 2 February 2005

 Example Shear Testing Equipment

[From Hoek, 2000, Rock Engineering Notes]

Introduction to Underground Rock Mechanics 2 February 2005

Introduction to Underground Rock Mechanics 2 February 2005
 Slake Durability

Introduction to Underground Rock Mechanics 2 February 2005

 Slake Durability
• Can be an important parameter in rocks prone to slaking, or
deterioration on exposure to air and moisture, and wetting / drying
cycles.
• Kimberlite, the host for many famous diamond deposits, is especially
well known for it’s slaking potential, as are certain clays …

Introduction to Underground Rock Mechanics 2 February 2005

 Slake Durability
• Testing for slake durability is done using either the ISRM Standard, or
by a simple field test (after Stacey and Page, 1986) – this entails visual
observation of the condition oven dried samples immersed in tap water
for 24 hrs. Refer the following Table:

Introduction to Underground Rock Mechanics 2 February 2005

 Rock Stress

Introduction to Underground Rock Mechanics 2 February 2005

 Rock Stress Principles
Rock stress arises basically from two sources: (i) the weight of overlying
rocks, and (ii) the tectonic history of the rockmass. Stresses from the latter
are often “locked” into the rockmass. We refer to this as the pre-mining (or
virgin) stress field, and it is NOT simply a function of the depth below
surface.
Many mines operate in regions with high horizontal stresses, or high σH:σv
ratios. Examples are found in Western Australia, Scandinavia, Canada.
Basic terminology:
σ1, σ2, σ3 are Principal Stresses
σH is the maximum horizontal stress, σh is the minimum horizontal stress
Cartesian stresses are referred to as σxx σyy σzz and the shear components
are referred to as σxy etc

Introduction to Underground Rock Mechanics 2 February 2005

 Principles Contd.
The vertical (depth) stress can be obtained from:
σv = γz
where γ = rock weight of rock (t/m3) , and z = depth below surface (m)
On average, γ = 2.7 t/m3 , and hence the theoretical vertical stress (γz) on a rock
element at 1,000m below surface is 2,700 t/m2 or 27 MPa.

Typically, a first-pass estimate of the pre-mining stress can be made from:

σv = (1.0 to 1.5) * depth stress (γz), and …
σ1 = 1.0 to 1.5 * σv
We can also assume for a first-pass estimate that the ratio σ1:σ3 is 2:1
Note however that these are very crude estimates, and the actual pre-mining
stress can vary significantly from this. If knowledge of the stress field is a key
component of the design process, measurements must be made.

Introduction to Underground Rock Mechanics 2 February 2005

 Stress Gradients
In deep mines it is often desirable to measure the pre-mining stresses at different
depths, to obtain the depth:stress gradient.

Insert figure p 149 brady & brown

From: Brady & Brown, 1985

Introduction to Underground Rock Mechanics 2 February 2005

 Stress Measurement Methods
It is often necessary (or at least advisable) to measure the pre-mining
stress in the rock, as an input to rock engineering design. Where there is a
risk that stress-induced rock failure may occur (eg. weak rocks at depth, or
mining in a region of known rock stress problems) it is critical.
Various techniques are in use. Some are two-dimensional, some three-
dimensional. Each have their pros and cons, but generally the three-
dimensional overcoring methods produce the most valuable and robust
data. They are however also among the most expensive (€20,000 ea)
Hydraulic fracturing also yields useful results under some circumstances.
Selection of the most appropriate measurement technique, and most
definitely undertaking the measurements themselves, is a task for
specialists. Ask a consultant or instrumentation specialist for advice.

Introduction to Underground Rock Mechanics 2 February 2005

 The Hollow-Inclusion (HI) Stress Cell

(i) Drill 150mm diameter hole to near target depth

(ii) Drill concentric EX hole about 600mm, inspect core for the best site for HI cell

(iii) Install HI cell, allow appropriate glue-curing time for the temperature range

(iv) Overcore HI cell, monitoring the strain gauges throughout the overcoring process

(v) Break off core, retrieve HI cell with rock annulus.

Introduction to Underground Rock Mechanics 2 February 2005

 World Stress Map Project:
See http://www.world-stress-map.org/

The WSM is a group within the

International Association of
Seismology and Physics of the Earth's
Interior (IASPEI).

Introduction to Underground Rock Mechanics 2 February 2005

 A Word on Core Discing
Core discing is a relatively common phenomenon in high stress
environments.
Discing occurs as a result of stress relief at the core bit face, as the coring
stress-relieves the highly stressed rock. Many workers have studied the
phenomenon in detail, but it is difficult to deduce the pre-mining stress field
from the discing. Discs can often be poorly formed (“incipient”).

The surface profile of the

discs can also vary, from
flat to arcuate or curved,
and this is indicative of
different ratios of
secondary stresses normal
to the core axis.
In general practice, we
Photo from Hoek, 2000, Rock Engineering Notes should at least log the
Introduction to Underground Rock Mechanics 2 February 2005
occurrence of discs.
 Mining Induced Stress

Introduction to Underground Rock Mechanics 2 February 2005

 Mining Induced Stress
When we create a hole in the rockmass, the stress that used to pass
through that rockmass no longer can, and it is re-distributed to the
surrounding rockmass.
A simple analogy is the “rock in the river” …

In this analogy, we equate

faster flow with higher
Slower
(compressive) stress, and
flow slower flow with lower
(compressive or tensile) stress.
Faster
flow

Introduction to Underground Rock Mechanics 2 February 2005

 Estimation of Re-Distributed Stress
Diagrams are available for estimating the stresses around simple 2D openings (eg.
Hoek and Brown, 1980), but today these are superceded by readily available ‘user
friendly’ 2D and 3D stress analysis software.
Typically, as a first-pass
estimate, the maximum
compressive (tangential)
stress around a circular
opening will be 2.5-3.0
times the pre-mining
stress.
But this should always be
confirmed before
undertaking detailed
designs.
Stress re-distribution around excavations are normally complex, especially for
complex shapes, and depends on the ratio between stress components, orientation and
geometry of the excavation, local geology, and whether any rock failure has occurred.

Introduction to Underground Rock Mechanics 2 February 2005

Remember: σ1 shows areas of high and low stress (or even tension), but σ3 shows areas of
high and low confinement.
Introduction to Underground Rock Mechanics 2 February 2005
 Rock Failure

Introduction to Underground Rock Mechanics 2 February 2005

Intro to UG Rock Mechanics > Modes of Failure ....

Structurally
Controlled Rock Strength vs.
Failure Rock Stress

MECHANISMS OF
Discontinuities in rockmasses ROCK FAILURE Compressive failure
Shear strength of discontinuities
Tensile failure
Shear failure
Dynamic failure

Shear failure of
rock masses or
structures
Introduction to Underground Rock Mechanics 2 February 2005
 Stress-induced spalling (‘breakout’)
in a specially excavated horizontal
tunnel at a research mine in Canada.
Essentially, the stresses wrapping
around the tunnel exceed the intact
rock strength, and stress ‘spalling’
results.

Ref: Martin and Simmons, 1992

Introduction to Underground Rock Mechanics 2 February 2005

 Severe rockburst damage in a tunnel in a South African gold mine. A rockburst is a
violent dynamic failure of (usually very competent) rock, due to stored strain
energy, in a high stress environment.
Ref: Ortlepp, W D, Rock fracture and Rockbursts – An illustrative study, SAIMM, 1997
Introduction to Underground Rock Mechanics 2 February 2005
 Stress-induced buckling
of fissile shales in a
European base metal
mine.

Introduction to Underground Rock Mechanics 2 February 2005

 Structurally controlled rockfall in an underground mine in Australia –
inappropriate support system for the given conditions and excavation dimensions

Introduction to Underground Rock Mechanics 2 February 2005

 Mechanisms of rock
failure – a simple
classification

Ref: Hoek, Kaiser, and Bawden,

1995

Introduction to Underground Rock Mechanics 2 February 2005

 Stability Evaluation Framework
1. Is stress-induced failure likely? Requires judgement. Example: 5m-wide drift
in competent massive granite at 100m depth – not likely. If it is likely,
judgement may be required on whether the mine may generate mining-
induced seismicity. This is a very specialised area.
2. Are major structures a significant consideration? If so, characterise them, and
define the likely impacts on stability. Consider also the possible impacts of
groundwater inflows(which weaken structures).
3. Test for the instability of large rock blocks in the excavations.
4. Is rockmass failure likely? Characterise the rockmass, to test for rockmass
instability. Rockmass Classification is recommended in nearly all cases.
5. Optimise the excavation w.r.t. location (site investigation), orientation (w.r.t
stresses and structures), shape (to avoid unfavourable geometries w.r.t.
stresses and structures), and size (need to define the maximum stable
dimensions, w/wo rock support).
6. Consider impacts of eternal factors, eg. groundwater inflows, or seismic forces
[Modified from Stacey & Page, 1986]
Introduction to Underground Rock Mechanics 2 February 2005
 Rock Failure – Assessment Guideline
• Massive Brittle Rock – Analytical:
– Extensional strain (which maps the propensity to generate new fractures
under high compressive stresses in excavation walls). Developed by
Stacey, 1985.
ε3 = 1/E [σ3 – υ (σ1 + σ2) ]
where ε3 = extensional strain, E = Young’s Modulus, υ is Poisson’s Ratio,
and σ1 etc are principal stresses
Stresses are obtained from stress distributions from stress analysis
software, or guiding diagrams (eg. Hoek & Brown, 1980). E and υ are
obtained from intact rock strength testing.
There is a critical value of ε3 which corresponds to the inflection point on
a graph of lateral versus axial strain during instrumented uniaxial
compressive strength testing. This ε3c corresponds to the point at which
brittle fracturing commences.
Where the calculated ε3 is negative and exceeds ε3c failure can be
assumed.
Introduction to Underground Rock Mechanics 2 February 2005
 Rock Failure – Assessment Guideline
• Massive Brittle Rock – Empirical (after Stacey & Page, 1986):

σ1 / σ c Conditions
< 0.2 No particular problems
Spalling from surface parallel to σ1.
0.2 – 0.4
Heavier support required.
0.4 – 0.5 Heavy support required. Major spalling.
Very hazardous, and difficult to keep
0.5 – 0.67
open. Support heavy and costly.
Impractical or extremely difficult to
> 0.67
maintain open.

σ1 is the major principal stress, and σc is the UCS from laboratory testing

Introduction to Underground Rock Mechanics 2 February 2005

 Rock Failure – Assessment Guideline
• On-set of brittle fracturing (Martin & Simmons, 1992, URL Canada):
σ1 – σ3 = 0.3 * UCS
If (σ1 – σ3) is > 0.5*UCS can expect extensive stress-induced fracturing.

• Rock Mass Failure – The Hoek-Brown Failure Criterion

For details, and factor ‘D’, refer to:

Hoek, E, Carranza-Torres, C, Corkum, B,
2002. The Hoek Brown Failure Criterion –
2002 Edition. www.rocscinece.com

Introduction to Underground Rock Mechanics 2 February 2005

 RocLab Demo
www.rocscience.com

Introduction to Underground Rock Mechanics 2 February 2005

 Design Tasks

Introduction to Underground Rock Mechanics 2 February 2005

Intro to UG Rock Mechanics > Design Tasks >....

Structurally
Controlled Special
Instability Conditions

Major
Rock Infrastructure
Support (crushers, pump
Design stations, etc)
DESIGN
TASKS
Excavation Mining
Design - Method
Tunneling Selection

Excavation Shafts
Design -
Stoping
Pillar Design Extraction
Sequencing
 Effects of Scale in Rock Engineering

Introduction to Underground Rock Mechanics 2 February 2005 Figure from Hutchinson & Diederich’s, 1996
 The Knack ….

Introduction to Underground Rock Mechanics 2 February 2005

 Part III

Introduction to Underground Rock Mechanics 2 February 2005