Unit III Integrator

Integrator
Integrator
• A circuit that performs the integration of input signal (input voltage) is called an
integrator.
• In an integrator, the output voltage is proportional to the integral of the input

voltage.
What is the function of an integrator?
• The function of an integrator is to provide an output voltage which is

proportional to the integral of the input voltage.
Circuit details
• The figure shows the basic circuit diagram

of an integrator using an op-amp.
• Input voltage Vin is connected to the

inverting input terminal through the
resistor R1. The non-inverting terminal is
grounded.
• Capacitor Cf is connected between the

output terminal and the inverting terminal.
Figure: Basic op-amp integrator i.e., the capacitor is used as the feedback
component.
Derivation of expression for the output voltage
• The node B is grounded. So,
VB = 0
I2 • Op-amp is ideal. So, voltage gain is
infinite. Because of the infinite
I1 voltage gain, the potential at point A
is the same as that at point B.
• Since VB=0, we have

Figure: Op-amp integrator
• Thus inverting terminal is at virtual

ground.
Consider the resistor R1
• I1 is the current flowing through R1. The
current I1 is given by
I2
I1
• Since VA= 0, I1 can be written as

Consider the capacitor Cf • In general, the charge on a capacitor is
given by the expression
QCV
• Current in a capacitor is the rate of
I2 change of charge. The current is
I1
where VC is the voltage across the capacitor.

• In this circuit, I2 is the current flowing
through Cf. The current I2 is given by

• Since VA= 0, I2 can be written as
• Input current of an ideal op-amp is zero.
So, the current flowing through R1 is equal
to the current flowing through Cf.
I2 i.e., I1= I2
I1
• Equating the two equations, we get

• Rearranging this equation, we get
VO(0) is the initial output voltage
• Integrating both sides of this equation • Assume that VO(0) = 0

with respect to time, we get
• Then the output voltage is given by
Important observations
Observation-1: 𝟏
• The equation [1] shows that the output voltage is − times the
𝑹𝟏𝑪𝒇
integral of the input voltage.
• The above equation can be rewritten as
• The op-amp integrator produces an output voltage which is

proportional to the integral of the input voltage.
• R1Cf is called time constant of the integrator.
Observation-2:
• The minus sign (–) indicates a 180 phase shift between the input and
the output signals. This is so because the input signal is connected to
the inverting input terminal of the operational amplifier.
Integrator: Input & output waveforms
Input signal Output signal

Input signal Output signal
Step
Ramp
Triangular
Square wave wave
Sine wave Cosine

wave
Figure: Input & output waveforms of integrator

Input: Step
Output: Ramp
Input : Sine wave
Output: Cosine wave

Frequency response of an Basic integrator
• We know that the reactance of the
capacitor Cf is given by
• The input is applied to the inverting

input terminal. The gain of the
inverting amplifier (ideal integrator) is
given by

• Subsisting for XC here, we get
• This expression shows that at very low frequency, the gain of the op-amp is
very high. At DC level (f=0), the gain will become infinite. But, Practically, the
gain of the op-amp cannot be infinite. The gain is limited by the open-loop
gain of the op-amp. [Qualitatively, this can be explained in the following way. At
DC level, the capacitance acts as an open circuit. So, there is no feedback from output
to input. Thus, the op-amp works in open loop configuration]. The open loop
gain of the op-amp is in the range of 𝟏𝟎𝟓 to 𝟏𝟎𝟕.
• As the frequency increases, the gain decreases (drops). The frequency response
of a basic (ideal) integrator is shown in the figure given below.
Gain decreases
as frequency increases
At f = f0,
the gain becomes 0dB
f0
Frequency (f)
Figure: Frequency response of ideal integrator

• At zero frequency (at DC), the gain of the integrator is equal to the open loop
gain of the op-amp. The open loop gain of the op-amp is in the range of 𝟏𝟎5 to
𝟏𝟎7. In decibel, we can say that it is 100dB.
• As the frequency increases, the gain decreases.

• Let f = f0 is the frequency at which
the gain of the op-amp becomes
0dB.
Limitation of Simple (Basic) Integrator
• There are limitations of the simple

integrator. These limitations are given
below.
1. Practical op-amp has input bias current and offset voltage. The input bias current and
the offset voltage at the input of the integrator will be integrated just like any other
input signal. The output voltage, in this condition, will not reflect the true purpose
of the circuit, which is to integrate a desired input signal.
2. For low frequency signals this circuit is very unstable. As you can see, if the input
signal has a low frequency the capacitor looks like an open-circuit that disconnects the
feedback path from the circuit. In this situation the circuit behaves like an op- amp in
open-loop. Thus, the output voltage will be in saturation for any input signal.
Practical Integrator using op-amp
• The practical integrator is shown in the figure.
• The limitations of basic integrator can be

overcome by introducing two elements in
the basic circuit. (1) A resistor Rf in the
feedback path. (2) A a resistor Rcomp in the
non-inverting input.
• The resistor RF in parallel with the capacitor

Cf minimizes the saturation of the output
voltage at low frequency .
• The resistance Rcomp minimizes the error due

to the bias current.
Figure: Practical integrator using Op-amp
• At DC or at low frequency, the capacitor
Cf will act as an open circuit. At DC or
low frequency, the gain is given by
• The frequency response of the

practical integrator (red line) and the
ideal integrator (black line) are given
shown in the figure shown below.
Figure: Practical integrator using Op-amp
Gain decreases
Basicasintegrator
frequencyresponse
increases
Practical integrator
response (integrator
At f = f0,
response when
the gain RF is 0dB
becomes
added)
fL f0 Frequency (f)
Cut-off frequency
Figure: Frequency response of basic and practical integrators

• At low frequency, the is gain is
• The 3-dB frequency or the cut-off frequency of the integrator is fL. The cut-off
frequency (fL) is given by the expression
• If we increase the frequency beyond the cut-off frequency, we will see the
reduction in the gain.
• At one particular frequency, the gain of the integrator becomes 1 (0dB) . Let
us denote that frequency as f0. The frequency f0 is given by
• If the frequency of the input signal is less than fL, then the integrator will work
as an amplifier.
• For proper integration of the input signal, the input signal frequency should be
between fL and f0. In other words, the integrating range is between fL & f0.
NOTE
• The frequency response of the practical integrator is very similar to that of a low-
pass filter.
Applications of Integrator
 Integrating circuits (integrators) are used
a) in analogue-to-digital converters
b) in wave shaping applications
c) In ramp generators
END

Unit III Integrator

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Integrator

• In an integrator, the output voltage is proportional to the integral of the input

What is the function of an integrator?

• The function of an integrator is to provide an output voltage which is

• The figure shows the basic circuit diagram

• Input voltage Vin is connected to the

• Capacitor Cf is connected between the

• Since VB=0, we have

• Thus inverting terminal is at virtual

Figure: Op-amp integrator

where VC is the voltage across the capacitor.

Figure: Op-amp integrator

• Equating the two equations, we get

Figure: Op-amp integrator

VO(0) is the initial output voltage

• Integrating both sides of this equation • Assume that VO(0) = 0

• The op-amp integrator produces an output voltage which is

Input signal Output signal

Figure: Op-amp integrator

Sine wave Cosine

Figure: Input & output waveforms of integrator

Output: Cosine wave

• The input is applied to the inverting

Figure: Op-amp integrator

Figure: Frequency response of ideal integrator

• As the frequency increases, the gain decreases.

• There are limitations of the simple

• The practical integrator is shown in the figure.

• The limitations of basic integrator can be

• The resistor RF in parallel with the capacitor

• The resistance Rcomp minimizes the error due

• The frequency response of the

Figure: Frequency response of basic and practical integrators

 Integrating circuits (integrators) are used

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