PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT 07-06-24

— summer class (advance lessons)

Psychological Testing - the process of

measuring psychological-related variables GOALS OF P.A
by means of devices or procedures
designed to obtain a sample of behavior. Objective - to answer a referral question,
solve a problem, or arrive at a decision
e.g interview as it has survey pa rin
through the use of tools of evaluation
‣ P.T is only part of psychological - The question of a mother,
counselor, etc why the child was
acting that
GOALS OF P.T
Process - assessment is typically
Objective - to obtain some gauge, usually individualized. It typically focuses on how
numerical in nature, with regard to an an individual processes rather than
ability or attribute simply the results of that processing
- e.g TOP exam. The tester is Role of Evaluator - the assessor is key to
testing the ability of the student the process of selecting tests and/or
in the TOP subject other tools of evaluation as well as in
Process - may be individual/group in drawing conclusions from the entire
nature. After test administration, the evaluation
tester will typically add up “the number of - The assessor is important, so
correct answers or the number of certain they cannot asked someone to
types of responses… with little if any be their substitute compared to
regard for the how or mechanics of such the tester as it’s focused on
content” individualized
- Score is important rather how Skill of Evaluator - assessment requires
the child did the exam an educated selection of tools of
Role of Evaluator - the tester is not key to evaluation, skill in evaluation, and
the process; practically speaking, one thoughtful organization and integration of
tester may be substituted for another data
tester w/out appreciably affecting the - More complex
evaluation Outcome - assessment entails a logical
Skill of Evaluator - testing typically problem-solving approach that brings to
requires technician-like skills in terms of bear many sources of data designed to
administering and scoring a test as well shed light on a referral question
as in interpreting a test result
1. Can this child function in a
- As long you have the required
general education environment?
skills, then you passed to be a
2. Is this defendant competent to
tester
stand trial?
Outcome - testing yields a test score or
3. How well can this employee be
series of test scores
expected to perform if promoted
- Usually the raw scores
to an executive position?
assessment
THE PROCESS OF ASSESSMENT
Psychological Assessment - the 1. In general, the process of assessment
gathering and integration of psychology- begins with a referral for assessment from a
related data for the purpose of making a source such as a teacher, a school
psychological evaluation that is psychologist, a counselor, a judge, a
accomplished through the use of tools clinician, or a corporate human HR
such as tests, interviews, case studies, Specialist
behavioral observation, specially 2. The assessor may meet with the
designed apparatuses and assessee or others before the formal
measurement procedures. assessment in order to clarify aspects of the
reason for referral
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3. The assessor prepares for the - SCORING → is the process of assigning such
assignment by selecting tools of evaluative codes or statements to performance
assessment to be used. on tests, tasks, interviews, or other behavior
4. Subsequent to the selection of the samples. There are many different types of
instruments or procedures to be employed, scores. Some scores result from the simple
the formal assessment will begin summing responses (such as the summing of
5. After the assessment, the assessor writes correct/incorrect or agree/disagree responses),
a report of the findings that is designed to and some scores are derived from more
answer the referral question. More feedback elaborated procedures
session w/ the assessee and/or related - TEST ADMINISTRATOR → the person
interested third parties may also be giving the test
scheduled ADMINISTRATION PROCEDURES
- Individual Test → one one person
VARIATIONS OF P.A
at a time. The same way that
Collaborative Psychological Assessment - psychotherapists see only one
the assessor and assessee may work as person at a time
“partners” from initial contact through - Group Test → can be administered
final feedback to more than one person by a single
Therapeutic Psychological Assessment -
examiner
therapeutic self-discovery encouraged
throughout the assessment process TYPES OF TEST
(therapeutic has no evaluation)
Ability Test → contains items that can
Dynamic Assessment - refers to an
interactive approach to psychological be scored in terms of speed,
assessment that usually follows a model accuracy, or both. On an ability
of: test, the faster or the more
1. Evaluation accurate your responses, the better
2. Intervention of some sort
your scores on a particular scores
3. Evaluation
on a particular characteristic
to see if something worked (D.A)
(have right or wrong answers)
TOOLS OF P.A The ff. ability tests:
1. TEST → a measurement device or technique Achievement Test → refers ro previous
used to quantify behavior or aid in the learning. measures how an individual has
understanding and prediction of behavior. learned over time and what the individual
- ITEM → is a specific stimulus to which a has learned by analyzing his present
person responds overtly; this response can be performance
scored or evaluated Aptitude Test → the potential for
overt - visible. Something that can be learning or acquiring a specific
observed skill. It is an exam used to
covert - cannot be observed such as determine an individual’s skill or propensity
emotions/feelings to succeed in a given activity
- FORMAT → this pertains to the form, plan, Intelligence Test → refers to a person’s
structure, arrangement, and layout of test items general potential to solve problems, adapt to
as well as to related considerations such as time changing circumstances, think abstractly, &
limits. Format is also used to refer to the form in profit from experience. This test
which a test is administered: computerized, compromises mental, verbal, and
pencil-and-paper, or some other form. performance tasks of graded difficulty that
CAPA or Computer Assisted Psychological have been standardized by use on a
Assessment representative sample of the population.
CAT or Computer Adaptive Testing
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Personality Test → related to overt and 4. CASE HISTORY → Includes records,

covert dispositions of the individual. For transcripts, and other accounts. In
example, the tendency of a person to show written, pictorial, or other form
a particular behavior response in a given
that preserve archival information,
situation. (no right or wrong answers)
official and informal accounts that
The ff. personality tests:
can be used to an assessee.
Structured Personality Tests → is
objective. provides a statement, usually of 5. BEHAVIORAL OBSERVATION →
the “self-report” variety, and requires the monitoring the actions or oneself
subject to choose between two or more by visual or electronic means while
alternative responses such as ‘True’ or recording quantitative and/or
‘False’. qualitative information regarding
Projective Personality Tests → is
those actions.
unstructured. In a projective personality test,
either the stimulus (test materials) or the 6. ROLE PLAY TEST → improvised or
required response — or both — are partially improvised part in a
ambiguous. simulated situation. Wherein the
PSYCHOLOGICAL TEST assessees act as if they were in a
Is a set of items that are designed to particular situation. Then, they
measure characteristics of human beings can be evaluated through their
that pertain to behavior (overt or covert
behaviors, abilities, expressed
behavior).
thoughts, and other variables.
PSYCHOMETRIC SOUNDNESS
7. COMPUTER AS TOOLS → can serve
Tests differ with respect to their
psychometric soundness or technical as test administrators (online or
quality. Synonymous with the antiquated offline).
term psychometry, psychometrics may be EXTENDED SCORING REPORT - includes
defined as the science of psychological statistical analyses of the testtaker’s
measurement. performance
One speaks of the psychometric soundness INTERPRETIVE REPORT - numerical or
of a test when referring to how consistently narrative interpretive statements in the
and how accurately a psychological test report. Some contain relatively little
measures what it purports to measure. interpretation and simply call attention to
Assessment professionals also speak of the certain high, low, or unusual scores that
psychometric utility of a particular test or need to be focused on.
assessment method. CONSULTATIVE REPORT - is usually written
in language appropriate for communication
2. INTERVIEW → a method of gathering
between assessment professionals, may
information through direct provide expert opinion concerning analysis
communication involving reciprocal of the data
exchange INTEGRATIVE REPORT - to integrate data
One-on-one interview from sources other than the test itself onto
Panel Interview the interpretive report. It will employ
Group Interview previously collected data like medication or
observation data into the test report.
3. PORTFOLIO → as samples of one’s week 2:
ability and accomplishment. It can
INTERVIEWING TECHNIQUES
be used as a tool of evaluation.
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Interview - through the gathering of data, the Hostile Statement → directs anger
information is then used to describe the toward the interviewee
individual, accumulate data, make future
Reassuring Statement → Attempts to
predictions; and can be evaluated in terms
of its qualities such as reliability and validity. comfort or support the interviewee
→ All interviews involve mutual EFFECTIVE RESPONSES
interaction whereby the participants are → keep the interaction flowing and
interdependent—that is, they influence each maintain face-to-face contact.
other → it can be effective through the
→ interview participants also process of using an open-ended
affect each other’s mood. question. A question that is
The phenomenon called social facilitation,
opposed to closed-ended. On the
we tend to act like the models around us.
Therefore, if the interviewer is feeling other hand, using closed-ended
anxious, tense, the interviewee then will violates the principle of keeping
respond in kind, and vice versa. the interaction flowing.
→ using closed-ended is ineffective
Although parties influence each other, the
good interviewer remains in control and sets as the interviewee only recalls to
the tone. answer the specific question
compared to open-ended where they
PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE INTERVIEWING
can produce something spontaneous.
PROPER ATTITUDES
week 3:
Interpersonal Influence → which a person
can influence another is related to LEGAL & ETHICAL
Interpersonal Attraction → which people CONSIDERATIONS
share a feeling of understanding, Code of Ethics:
mutual respect, similarity, and the PAP or the Psychological Association of
the Philippines
like.
APA or the American Psychological
Attitudes related to good interviewing skills Association (worldwide code of ethics)
include warmth, genuineness, acceptance,
understanding, openness, honesty, and Concerns of the Public
fairness. 1. Some people are not convinced that
testing is sufficient or useful
RESPONSES TO AVOID 2. Others are even fearful about tests
Judgemental / Evaluative Statements → it because they think it might be used against
inhibit others’ ease in revealing them
important information 3. RA 10029 or the The Psychology Law
Probing Statements → it demands more CONCERNS OF THE PROFESSION
information than the interviewee Test User Qualifications – APA Committee
wishes to provide voluntarily. In in Ethical Standards
order to avoid this, the question LEVEL A → proficiency test /
“Why?” should be a better phrase achievement
into something that’s not too LEVEL B → aptitude test, adjustment
specific but rather would make the inventories (needs bg in
interviewee think more. For Psychology)
example, “tell me more about what
happened”, or “how did you happen
to yell at him?” and so on.
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LEVEL C → projective tests, Right to be Informed to Test Findings - test

individual mental tests takers have the right to be informed in a
language they can understand. They are
(substantial understanding in
also entitled to know what
Psychology) recommendations are being made as a
In the Philippines (RA 10029) consequence of the test data. If the test
- Psychometrician → test results, findings, or recommendations made
administration & scoring of on the basis of test data are voided for any
reason (such as irregularities in the test
standardized test
administration), test takers have a right to
- Psychologist → tests know that as well.
administration, scoring, Right to Privacy and Confidentiality
interpretation of standardized test • Privacy Right - recognizes the freedom of
and projective test the individual to pick and choose for
themselves the time, circumstances, and
Testing People with Disabilities
particularly the extent to which they wish to
Difficulties analogous to those concerning
share or withhold from others their attitudes,
test takers from linguistic and cultural
beliefs, behavior, and opinions.
minorities are present when testing people
- Competent client can direct the
with disabling conditions. These difficulties
psychologist to disclose information to
include:
some third party like the attorney or an
1. Transforming the test into a form that can insurance carrier)
be taken by the test taker. - In some rare instances, the
2. Transforming the responses of the test psychologist may be ethically (if not legally)
taker, so that they are scorable compelled to disclose information if that
3. And meaningfully interpreting the test information will prevent harm either to the
data client or to some endangered third party.
Computerized Test Administration, Scoring • Confidentiality - concerns matters of
and Interpretation communication outside the courtroom,
- Access to administration, scoring, and privilege protects clients from discourse in
interpretation software (pirate copy) judicial proceedings.
- Comparability of pencil-and-paper and - Involves safekeeping of test data. If
computerized versions of tests data were stored in a cabinet, then they
- unprofessional, unregulated “psychological should be made of steel and are locked. If
testing” online stored in a computer, electronic safeguards
THE RIGHTS OF TEST TAKERS must be taken to ensure only authorized
access.
Right to Informed Consent - parent or a Right to Least Stigmatizing Label
legal representative. Consent must be in Right to Withdraw
written rather than oral form. The written
form should specify: OTHER TEST TAKER RIGHTS IN
1. General purpose of testing PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING
2. Specific reason it is being undertaken in Fundamental Rights
the present case The test taker has the right to be:
3. General type of instruments to be 1. Assessed by a psychologist who is
administered trained and qualified in the use of the test or
test administered
2. Treated in a manner that is fair, impartial,
and courteous.
Before Testing
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The test taker has a right to be informed: Third Parties - other than the testing
1. Who will cover the cost of the service and, professional and the test taker are involved,
if it is the test taker, what the cost will be? the test taker should request clarification
2. The purpose of the testing about the limits of confidentiality in relation
3. The type and format of test/s that will be to the test results and the rights and
used responsibilities of the parties involved.
4. The validity of the test/s in light of the Examples of third party involved:
purpose for which they are being used Test taker Third party
5. When testing will take place
6. How long the session will take place and A child under the age 18 Parents, legal guardian
if there will be breaks during the session
7. What to bring to the testing session A person who lacks Legal guardian
capacity to make decisions
8. How to prepare for the testing session
9. What to expect in the assessment A student undertaking for School principal. teacher/s
process education/funding
10. When test results will be available purposes
11. How and to whom the results will be
A person undertaking The organization that is
communicated and in what form testing for occupational requiring the testing (e.g. a
12. If a written report will be provided and/or recruitment recruitment agency)
13. How test data and any relevant records purposes

will be stored, and the duration of storage

A person undertaking Court, lawyers
14. Information on any changes to the testing for legal purposes
standard testing process to meet specific
needs of the test taker (e.g., disability, A person undertaking WorkCover, motor
testing for insurance accident, life insurance
language) and how this might impact on the purposes
test results
15. The consequences of taking or not Understanding specific test procedures and
taking a test test restrictions
16. The opportunity to provide informed In order for psychological tests to be
consent to undertake testing or decline to effective, some tests require that they are
do so. administered under specific conditions
including:
During Testing 1. Not providing the name and full details of
The test taker has a right to: a test prior to administration
1. Be assessed in a manner that ensures 2. Administering test questions or activities
fairness in a particular sequence
2. Take the test in an environment that is 3. For numerical reasoning tests, the use of
free from distractions calculations may or may not allowed
3. Be provided with clear instructions 4. Not having anyone else in the room
regarding the types of responses expected Psychologists must conform to the specific
After Testing requirements for each test in order for that
The test taker has a right to: test to provide reliable information.
1. Be provided with feedback on the test
Test takers have a right to seek information
results as agreed upon prior to testing
about test content and test procedures with
2. Have the opportunity to ask questions
the understanding that psychologists may
about the results
or be able to provide details of some
3. Receive any report/s as agreed upon prior
aspects of the psychological test being used
to testing
in order for the test to continue to be an
effective assessment tool.
THE PARTIES IN ASSESSMENT
Test Developer - and publishers create tests
or other methods of assessment
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Test User - psychological tests and 4. Protection of confidentiality of personal

assessment methodologies are used by a information, as culturally defined and
wide range of professionals, including relevant for individuals, families, groups, and
clinicians, counselors, school psychologists, communities
human resources, personnel, consumer 5. Fairness and justice in the treatment of
psychologists, experimental psychologists, persons and people
social psychologists. Principle #2: Competent caring for the well-
Test Taker - anyone who is the subject of an being of persons and people
assessment or an evaluation can be a test - involves working for their benefit and
taker or an assessee above all, doing no harm. It includes
Society At Large - exerts its influence as a maximizing benefits and minimizing
party to the assessment enterprise in many potential harm, and offsetting or correcting
ways. As society evolves and as the need to harm.
measure different psychological variables - It requires the application of knowledge
emerges, test developers respond by and skills that are appropriate for the nature
devising new test of a situation as well as the social and
Other Parties cultural context.
WHAT TYPE OF SETTINGS ARE - Also requires the ability to establish
ASSESSMENTS CONDUCTED? interpersonal relationship that enhance
- Educational Settings potential benefits and reduce potential harm
- Clinical Settings - Adequate self-knowledge is also important
- Counseling Settings for how one’s values, experiences, culture,
- Geriatric Settings and social context might influence one’s
- Business and Military Settings actions and interpretations.
- Governmental & Organizational Credentials They accept the ff. related values:
- Academic Research Settings 1. Active concern for the well-being of
CODE OF ETHICS FOR PHILIPPINE individuals, families, groups, & communities
PSYCHOLOGISTS 2. Taking care to do no harm to individuals,
Principle #1: Respect for the dignity of families, groups, & communities
persons and people 3. Respect for the ability of individuals,
families, groups, and communities to make
- is the most fundamental and universally
decisions for themselves and to care for
found ethical principle across geographical
themselves and each other.
and cultural boundaries, and across
professional disciplines Principle #3: Integrity
- it recognizes the inherent worth of all - Is vital to the advancement of scientific
human beings, regardless of perceived or knowledge and to the maintenance of public
real differences in social status, ethnic confidence in the discipline of psychology.
origin, gender, capacities, etc. - It is based in honesty, and on truthful, open
- inherent worth means all human beings are and accurate communications
worthy of equal moral consideration - It recognizes, monitors, and manages
They accept the ff. related values: potential biases, and multiple relationships,
1. Respect for the customs and beliefs of & other conflicts of interest that could result
cultures, to be limited only when a custom in harm and exploitation of persons or
or a belief seriously contravenes the peoples.
principle of respect for the dignity of - Complete openness and disclosure of
persons or people or causes serious harm information must be balanced with other
to their well-being ethical considerations, including the need to
2. Free and informed consent, as culturally protect the safety or confidentiality of
defined and relevant for individuals, families, persons and peoples, and the need to
groups, and communities respect cultural expectations
3. Privacy for individuals, families, groups,
and communities
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- Regardless of such differences, self- - Expert witness’ report on annulment cases

interest does not interfere with acting in the - Evaluate the mental health of people
best interests of persons and peoples charged with crime
Principle #4: Professional and scientific - Investigating malingering cases in court
responsibilities to society - Making child custody decisions
Psychology functions as a discipline within Clinical Institutions
the context of human society. As a science - Diagnosis and treatment planning (e.g.,
and a profession, it has responsibilities to determining overall personality functioning
society. and need for therapy; presence/absence of
These responsibilities include: knowledge organically-based-brain disorder; describe
about human behavior & to persons’ intellectual and emotional states)
understanding of themselves & others & note: the most common use of
using such knowledge to improve the psychological tests is to make decisions
condition of individuals, families, groups, about persons.
communities, and society. They also include 5 USES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS
conducting its affairs within society in
1. Classification - it encompasses a variety
accordance with the highest ethical
of procedures that share a common
standards, and encouraging the
purpose, which is to assign a person to one
development of social structures and
category rather than another. The
policies that benefit all persons and
assignment to categories is not an end in
peoples.
itself, but the basis for differential treatment
They accept the ff. related values: of some kind
1. The discipline’s responsibility to
FORMS OF CLASSIFICATIONS:
adequately train its members in their ethical
responsibilities and required competencies • Placement → refers to sorting of
2. The discipline’s responsibility to develop persons into different programs
its ethical awareness and sensitivity, and to appropriate to their needs/skills
be as self-correcting as possible e.g., a university mathematics placement exam is given
to students to determine if they should enroll in calculus,
in algebra, or in a remedial course.
• Certification → it determines whether
week 4:
a person has at least a minimum
USES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS proficiency in some
Psychological tests are used in the following discipline/activity. Passing a
settings: certification exam confers
Educational Institutions privileges to the persons. And it
- Basis for admission to an academic
has a pass or fail quality.
institution e.g., right to practice medicine after passing the medical
- A measuring rod - to routinely assess board exam; right to drive a car
student accomplishment
• Screening → refers to quick and
- Identify development problems or
exceptionalities for which the child may simple tests/procedures to identify
need special assistance persons who might have special
- Assist students educational or vocational characteristics or needs.
planning e.g., identifying children with exceptional thinking and the
top 10% will be singled out for a more comprehensive
Business or Industry testing
- Selection or job applicants
• Selection → it also has a pass or
- Classification of individuals to positions
best suited for them fail quality and also confers
- Basis for promotion privileges to the persons.
- Counseling workers e.g., opportunity to attend a university; opportunity to
gain employment in a company.
Courts
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2. Diagnosis & Treatment Planning - SCALES OF MEASUREMENT

Psychological tests often play this Measurement - is the application of rules for
important role. Diagnosis conveys assigning numbers to objects. The rules are
information about strengths, weaknesses, the specific procedures used to transform
etiology and best choices for treatment. qualities of attributes into numbers.
e.g., IQ tests are absolutely essential in diagnosing MR;
personality tests are necessary in diagnosing the nature PROPERTIES OF SCALE
and extent of emotional disturbance.
• Magnitude - is the property of “moreness”.
3. Self-Knowledge - Psychological tests
A scale has the property of magnitude if we
also supply a potent source of self-
can say that a particular instance of the
knowledge. In some cases, the feedback a
attribute represents more, less, or equal
person receives from psychological tests is
amounts of the given quantity than does
so self-affirming that it can change the
another instance.
entire course of the person’s life
• A scale has the property of equal intervals
4. Program Evaluation - Another use of if the difference between two points at any
psychological tests is the systematic place on the scale has the same meaning as
evaluation of educational and social the difference between two other points that
programs (they are designed to provide differ by the same number of scale units
services which improve social conditions • An absolute 0 is obtained when nothing of
and community life) the property being measured exists. For
5. Research - Psychological tests also play a example, if you are measuring heart rate and
major role in both the applied and observe that your patient has a rate of 0 and
theoretical branches of behavioral research. has died, then you would conclude that there
week 4:
is no heart rate at all.
NORMS & BASIC STATISTICS FOR TYPES OF SCALES
1. Nominal Scale - it doesn’t have the
TESTING property of magnitude, equal intervals, or an
=

Test - are devices used to translate absolute 0. Nominal scales are really not a
observations into numbers scale at all; their only purpose is to name or
label.
e.g., “What is your gender? Male or female?”, “What is
your hair color? Brown, black, blonde, gray, or other?”
Why do we need statistics? 2. Ordinal Scale - a scale with the property
1. To describe (Descriptive Statistics) of magnitude but not equal intervals or an
2. To provide references (Inferential absolute 0. This scale allows you to rank
Statistics) individuals or objects but not to say
1. DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS - Consists anything about the meaning of the
methods used to provide a concise differences between the ranks
description of a collection of quantitative e.g.,
How do you feel today?
information ○ 1 - Very Unhappy
- mean, median, mode is under D.S ○ 2 - Unhappy
- Numbers provide convenient summaries ● 3 - Okay
○ 4 - Happy
and allow us to evaluate some observations ○ 5 - Very Happy
relative to others. 3. Interval Scale - when a scale has the
2. INFERENTIAL STATISTICS - Are methods properties of magnitude and equal intervals
used to make inferences from observations but not absolute 0, we refer to it as an
of a small group of people known as sample interval scale
to a larger group of individuals known as 4. Ratio Scale - A scale that has all three
population properties (magnitude, equal intervals, and
• Exploratory Data Analysis - detective an absolute 0)
work of gathering and displaying cues
• Confirmatory Data Analysis - cues are
evaluated against rigid statistical rules
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Nomina Ordinal Interval Ratio

l 1. PEARSON PRODUCT CORRELATION - it is
Categorie
s
⬤ ⬤ ⬤ ⬤ the most commonly used because most
Rank ⬤ ⬤ ⬤ often we want to find the correlation
Order
Equal
between two continuous variables.
⬤ ⬤
Spacing Continuous variables such as height, weight,
True Zero ⬤ and intelligence can take on any values over
a range of values
week 5: 2. SPEARMAN RHO - spearman’s rho is a
CORRELATION & REGRESSION method of a correlation for finding the
association between two sets of ranks. The
In correlational analysis, we ask whether
rho coefficient (r) is easy to calculate and is
two variables covary. In other words, does Y
often used when the individuals in a sample
get larger as X gets better? For example,
can be ranked on two variables. But their
does the patient feel dizzier when the doctor
actual scores are not known or have a
increases the dose of a drug? Do people get
normal distribution
more diseases when they are under more
3. BISERIAL COEFFICIENT - biserial
stress?
correlation expresses the relationship
covary - if one variable increases, the other between a continuous variables and an
variable will also increase. They influence each artificial dichotomous variable
other. This shows that two variables are 4. POINT BISERIAL COEFFICIENT - biserial
correlated. correlation expresses the relationship
between a continuous variable and a true
Correlation - correlational analysis is dichotomous variable
designed primarily to examine linear 5. PHI COEFFICIENT - when both variables
relationships between variables are dichotomous and at least one of the
A correlation coefficient is a mathematical dichotomies is “true”, then the association
index that describes the direction and between them can be estimated using the
magnitude of a relationship phi coefficient
6. TETRACHORIC CORRELATION - if both
Positive Correlation - High scores on Y are
dichotomous variables are artificial, we
associated with high scores on X, and low
might use a special correlation coefficient
scores on Y corresponds to low scores on X
known as tetrachoric correlation
Negative Correlation - Higher scores on Y
are associated with lower scores on X; and
lower scores on Y are associated with
higher scores on X
No Correlation - There is no linear
relationship between the two variables
THE CORRELATION-CAUSATION
PROBLEMS
Just because two variables are correlated
does not necessarily imply that one has
caused the other.
For example, a correlation between
Regression - Simple regression is used to
aggressive behavior and the number of
examine the relationship between one
hours spent viewing television does not
dependent and one independent variable.
mean that excessive viewing of television
After performing an analysis, the regression
causes aggression. This relationship could
statistics can be used to predict the
mean that an aggressive child might prefer
dependent variable when the independent
to watch a lot of television.
variable is known
MEASURING CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS
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A correlation alone does not prove causality,

inconsistencies of what is presumed
although it might lead to other research that
other variable in the to be the true value
is designed to establish the causal
measurement of the
relationships between variables.
process measurement
week 7:
RELIABILITY SOURCES OF ERROR VARIANCE - include
test construction, administration, scoring,
In everyday conversation, reliability is a synonym for and/or interpretation.
dependability or consistency.
Test Construction → One source of
In the language of psychometrics, reliability variance during this is item
refers to consistency in measurement. And sampling or content sampling, terms that
whereas in everyday conversation reliability refer to variation among items within a test
always connotes something positive, in the as well as to variation among items between
psychometric sense, it really only refers to tests
something that is consistent—not Test Administration → Sources of
necessarily consistently good or bad, but error variance that occur during
simply consistent. test administration may influence the test
RELIABILITY COEFFICIENT - is an index of taker's attention or motivation. The test
reliability, a proportion that indicates the taker’s reactions to those influences are the
ratio between the true score variance on a source of one kind of error variance. (Test
test and the total variance environment, test taker variables, examiner-
CLASSICAL TEST THEORY - a score on an related variables).
ability test is presumed to reflect not only Test Scoring & Administration →
the test taker's true score on the ability test scorers and scoring systems are potential
being measured but also error. If we use X sources of error variance. A test may
to represent an observed score, T to employ objective-type items amenable to
represent a true score, and E to represent computer scoring of well-documented
error, then the fact that an observed score reliability. Yet even then, the possibility of a
equals the true score plus error may be technical glitch contaminating the data is
expressed as follows: X = T + E (X is your possible.
score/result tapos yung T yung true score, E is RELIABILITY ESTIMATES
error variance. also if mataas ang EV, mababa ang
reliability niya. While if EV is low, it is then reliable) Test-Retest Reliability Estimate - is an
estimate of reliability obtained by correlating
A statistic useful in describing sources of pairs of scores from the same people on
test score variability is the variance (the two different administrations of the same
standard deviation squared). Variance from test. The longer the time that passes, the
true differences is true variance, and greater the likelihood that the reliability
variance from irrelevant, random sources is coefficient will be lower. When the interval
error variance. between testing is greater than six months,
MEASUREMENT ERROR - all of the factors the estimate of test-retest reliability is often
associated with the process of measuring referred to as the coefficient of stability.
some variable, other than the variable being Parallel / Alternate Forms Reliability
measured. Estimates - the degree of the relationship
between various forms of a test can be
RANDOM ERROR - SYSTEMATIC evaluated by means of an alternate-forms or
is a source of error ERROR - refers to a parallel-forms coefficient of reliability, which
in measuring a source of error in is often termed the coefficient of
targeted variable measuring a equivalence
caused by variable that is Internal Consistency:
unpredictable typically constant
fluctuations and or proportionate to
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Split-Half Reliability - An estimate of Reliability is a mandatory attribute in all

split-half reliability is obtained by correlating tests we use. However, we need more of it in
two pairs of scores obtained from some tests, and we will admittedly allow for
equivalent halves of a single test less of it in others. If a test score carries
administered once. with it life-or-death implications, then we
Step 1: Divide the test into equivalent halves need to hold that test to some high
Step 2: Calculate a Pearson r between standards—including relatively high
scores on the two halves of the test standards with regard to coefficients of
Step 3: Adjust the half-test reliability using reliability. If a test score is routinely used in
the Spearman-Brown formula combination with many other test scores
Inter-Item Consistency - Refers to the and typically accounts for only a small part
degree of correlation among all the items on of the decision process, that test will not be
a scale. A measure of inter-item consistency held to the highest standards of reliability.
is calculated from a single administration of THE NATURE OF THE TEST
a single form of a test. An index of inter-item
consistency, in turn, is useful in assessing Homogeneity of the Test - recall that a test
the homogeneity of the test. is said to be homogeneous in items if it is
functionally uniform throughout. Tests
Tests are said to be homogeneous if they contain designed to measure one factor, such as
items that measure a single trait. A heterogeneous or one ability or one trait, are expected to be
non-homogeneous test is composed of items that
measure more than one trait.
homogeneous in items. For such tests, it is
reasonable to expect a high degree of
Kuder-Richardson Formula (KR-20) - is the internal consistency. By contrast, if the test
statistic of choice for determining the inter- is heterogeneous in items, an estimate of
item consistency of dichotomous items, internal consistency might be low relative to
primarily those items that can be scored a more appropriate estimate of test-retest.
right or wrong.
week 8:
The KR-21 formula may be used if there
is reason to assume that all the test items VALIDITY
have approximately the same degree of Validity - as applied to a test, is a judgment
difficulty. or estimate of how well a test measures
Coefficient Alpha - in contrast to KR-20, what it purports to measure in a particular
which is approximately used only on tests context. More specifically, it is a judgment
with dichotomous items, coefficient alpha is based on evidence about the
appropriate for use on tests containing non- appropriateness of inferences drawn from
dichotomous items. test scores.
Average Proportional Distance (APD) - a
It can be defined as the agreement between
measure used to evaluate the internal
a test score or measure and the quality it is
consistency of a test that focus on the
believed to measure. Validity is sometimes
degree of difference that exists between
defined as the answer to the question, “Does
item scores
the test measure what it is supposed to
Inter-Scorer Reliability - variously referred
measure?”
to as scorer reliability, judge reliability,
observer reliability, and inter-rater reliability, Inherent in a judgment of an instrument’s
inter scorer reliability is the degree of validity is a judgment of how useful it is for a
agreement or consistency between two or particular purpose with a particular
more scorers (or judges or raters) with population of people. As a shorthand,
regard to a particular measure. The assessors may refer to a particular test as a
correlation coefficient is referred to as a “valid test”. However, what is really meant is
coefficient of inter-scorer reliability that the test has been shown to be valid for
a particular use with a particular population
USING & INTERPRETING A COEFFICIENT
of test takers at a particular time.
OF RELIABILITY
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No test or measurement technique is 3. CRITERION VALIDITY - evidence tells us

“universally valid” for all time, for all uses, just how well a test corresponds with a
with all types of test taker populations. particular criterion. Such evidence is
Validation - the process of gathering and provided by high correlations between a test
evaluating evidence about validity. Both the and a well-defined criterion measure. A
test developer and the user may play a role criterion is the standard against which the
in the validation of a test for a specific test is compared.
purpose. It is the test developer’s Concurrent Validity - is an index of the
responsibility to supply validity evidence in degree to which a test score is related to
the test manual. some criterion measure obtained at the
Validation Studies - with their own groups or same time (concurrently).
test takers, it is sometimes to appropriate Predictive Validity - is an index of the
for test takers to conduct this degree to which a test score predicts some
Local Validation - studies may yield insights criterion measure (predictor variable and
criterion).
regarding a particular population of test
• Validity Coefficient - the relationship
takers as compared to the norming sample
between a test and a criterion is usually
described in a test manual.
expressed as a correlation called a validity
- studies are absolutely necessary when the
coefficient. This coefficient tells the extent
test user plans to alter in some way the
to which the test is valid for making
format, instructions, language, or content of
statements about the criterion
the test.
Criterion-related validity - evidence
ASPECTS OF VALIDITY obtained in one situation may not be
1. FACE VALIDITY - is the mere appearance generalized to other similar situations
that a measure has validity. We often say a Generalizability - refers to the evidence
test has face validity if the items seem to be that the findings obtained in one situation
reasonably related to the perceived purpose can be generalized—that is, applied to other
of the test. situations. This is an issue of empirical
2. CONTENT VALIDITY - content-related study rather than judgment.
evidence for validity of a test or measure • Expectancy Data - using a score
considers the adequacy of representation of obtained on some test/s or measure/s,
the conceptual domain the test is designed expectancy tables illustrate that likelihood
to cover. (Kaplan) that the test taker will score within some
- Content validity describes a judgment of interval of scores on a criterion measure—an
how adequately a test samples behavior interval that may be seen as “passing”,
representative of the universe behavior that “acceptable” and so on. An expectancy table
the test was designed to sample (Cohen). shows the percentage of people within
specified test-score intervals who
In looking for content validity evidence, we
subsequently were placed in various
attempt to determine whether a test has
categories of the criterion (for example,
been constructed adequately. For example,
placed in “passed” category or “failed”
we ask whether the items are a fair sample
category).
of the total potential content. Establishing
Incremental Validity - the degree to
content validity evidence for a test requires
which an additional predictor explains
good logic, intuitive skills, and perseverance.
something about the criterion measure that
The content of the items must be carefully
is not explained by predictors already in use
evaluated.
> BASE RATE - is the extent to which a
NEW CONCEPTS RELEVANT TO C.V:
particular trait, behavior, characteristic, or
Construct Underrepresentation -
attribute exists in the population (expressed
describes the failure to capture important
as a proportion).
components of a construct.
Construct-irrelevant Variance - occurs
when scores are influenced by factors
irrelevant to the construct
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> HIT RATE - the proportion of people a Discriminant Validity - to demonstrate

test accurately identifies as possessing or evidence for validity, a test should have low
exhibiting a particular trait, behavior, correlations with measures of unrelated
characteristic, or attribute. constructs, or evidence for what the test
> MISS RATE - the proportion of people does not measure
the test fails to identify as having, or not RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY
having, a particular characteristic or RELATIONSHIP
attribute. Here, a miss amounts to an
inaccurate prediction. Attempting to define the validity of a test will
> false positive - is a miss be futile if the test is not reliable. Because
wherein the test predicted that the test taker validity coefficients are not usually expected
did possess the particular characteristic or to be exceptionally high, a modest
attribute being measured when in fact the correlation between the true scores on two
test taker did not traits may be missed if the test for each of
> false negative - wherein the the traits is not highly reliable.
test predicted that the test taker did not Sometimes we cannot demonstrate that a
possess the particular characteristic or reliable test has a meaning.
attribute being measured when the test In other words, we can have reliability
taker actually did. without validity. However, it is logically
4. CONSTRUCT VALIDITY - is established imposed to demonstrate that an unreliable
through a series of activities in which a test is valid.
researcher simultaneously defines some
construct and develops the instrumentation week 9:
to measure it. This process is required when VALIDITY, BIAS, & FAIRNESS
“no criterion or universe of content is In the eyes of many laypeople, questions
accepted as entirely adequate to define the concerning the validity of a test are
quality to be measured”. intimately tied to questions concerning the
• Construct Validity - is a judgment fair use of tests and the issues of bias and
about the appropriateness of inferences fairness. Let us hasten to point out that
drawn from test scores regarding individual validity, fairness in test use, and test bias are
standings on a variable called a construct. A three separate issues. It is possible, for
construct is an informed, scientific idea instance, for a valid test to be used fairly or
developed or hypothesized to describe or unfairly.
explain behavior.
• Intelligence - is a construct that may TEST BIAS - for the general public, the term
be invoked to describe why a student bias as applied to psychological and
performs well in school Anxiety is a educational tests may conjure up many
construct that may be invoked to describe meanings having to do with prejudice and
why a psychiatric patient paces the floor. preferential treatment. For
Other examples of constructs are job psychometricians, bias is a factor inherent
satisfaction, personality, bigotry, clerical in a test that systematically prevents
aptitude, depression, motivation, self- accurate, impartial measurement.
esteem, emotional adjustment, potential Rating Errors: (1) Primacy error, (2)
dangerousness, executive potential, recency error, (3) halo effect, (4) horn effect,
creativity. (5) leniency error, (6) strictness error, (7)
Convergent Validity - when a measure central tendency error, and (8) contrast
correlates well with other tests believed to effect.
measure the same construct, convergent TEST FAIRNESS - test fairness tends to be
evidence for validity is obtained. rooted more in thorny issues involving
values. In psychometric context, it is the
extent to which a test is used in an impartial,
just, and equitable way.
 PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT 07-06-24
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Fairness as applied to tests is a difficult and

SOUNDNESS - we disadvantages,
complicated subject. However, it is possible
refer to the losses or expenses
to discuss some rather common
reliability & validity in both economic
misunderstandings regarding what are
of a test. A test is and non-economic
sometimes perceived as unfair or even
said to be terms. As used
biased tests.
psychometrically with respect to test
> Some tests, for instance, have been
sound for a utility decisions, the
labeled “unfairly” because they discriminate
particular purpose term costs can be
among groups of people
if reliability and interpreted in the
> Another misunderstanding of what
validity coefficient traditional,
constitutes an unfair or biased test is that it
are acceptably high economic sense.
is unfair to administer to a particular
That is, relating to
population a standardized test that did not
expenditures
include members of that population in the
associated with
standardization sample.
testing or not
> A final source of misunderstanding is the
testing. If testing is
complex problem of remedying situations
to be conducted,
where bias or unfair test usage has been
then it may be
found to occur.
necessary to
week 9: allocate funds to
UTILITY purchase
In everyday language, we use the term utility
to refer to the usefulness of some thing or Benefits - refers to profits, gains or
some process. But in the psychometric advantages. As we did in discussing costs
context, utility (also referred to as test associated with testing (and not testing), we
utility) means much the same thing. It refers can view benefits in both economic and non-
to how useful a test is. More specifically, it economic terms.
refers to the practical value of using a test In industrial settings, a partial list of such
to aid in decision making. non-economic benefits—many carrying with
We may define utility in the context of them economic benefits as well—would
testing and assessment as the usefulness include:
or practical value of testing to improve > an increase in the quality of workers’
efficiency. Note that in this definition performance
“testing” refers to anything from a single > an increase in the quantity of workers’
test to a large-scale testing program that performance
employs a battery of tests. > a decrease in the time needed to train
workers
Utility is also used to refer to the usefulness
> a reduction in workers turnover
or practical value of a training program or
intervention. We may speak, for example, of
the utility of adding a particular component
to an existing corporate training program or
clinical intervention.
Judgments concerning the utility if a test
are made on the basis of test reliability and
validity data as well as other data.
Factors that affect a test’s utility - a number
of considerations are involved in making a
judgment about the utility of a test.

PSYCHOMETRIC Cost - it refers to