Semester IV, Paper II

Unit I: Interference of Light

1.1. Introduction:
What is light?

Light is form of energy. It is transferred from the source of light to the eye, either by the motion
of material particles or by means of wave disturbance travelling through the medium.In the late
1600s, important questions were raised, asking if light is made up of particles, or is it waves?

Sir Isaac Newton, held the theory that light was made up of tiny particles. In 1678, Dutch
physicist, Christiaan Huygens, believed that light was made up of waves vibrating up and down
perpendicular to the direction of the light travels, and therefore formulated a way of visualizing
wave propagation. This became known as 'Huygens' Principle'. Huygens theory was the
successful theory of light wave motion in three dimensions. Newton's theory came first, but the
theory of Huygens, better described early experiments.

1.2. Wavefront:
We drop a small stone on a calm pool of water, waves spread out from the point of impact. Each
point on the surface starts oscillate with same amplitude and same phase. According to wave
theory, a point source of light when placed in an isotropic medium emits light waves in all
directions. These waves spread out uniformly in the form of ever increasing concentric spheres
with a velocity of 3 x 108 m/sec. The disturbance will reach simultaneously to all particles lying
on the surface of a sphere with the point source as the center. Such a locus of points, which
oscillate in phase is called a wavefront.
Definition:

Wave front is defined as a continuous locus of all the neighbouring points vibrating in the same
phase i.e. having same phase at a given instant of time.
Properties of wave front:

The shape of wavefront depends on the shape of the source of disturbance.

1. A wavefront is always normal to the light rays.
2. A wavefront does not propagate in the backward direction.
The line along which energy is propagated is called a ray. It is perpendicular to wavefront at any
point.
 Source

Figure 1.1 Wavefront propagating from a point source

1.3. Type of wavefront:

It is generally of three types:
1) Spherical wavefront, 2) Plane Wavefront and 3) Cylindrical Wavefront as shown in fig. 1.2.
1) Spherical wavefront:
A wavefront in the form of spherical surfaces is
called spherical wavefront.It is obtained from a
point source of light up to a finite distance.
2) Plane Wavefront:
A wavefront in the form of plane surface is called
plane wavefront. It is obtained by keeping
pointsource at a focus of a convex lens or at a
large distance from the point source. Figure 1.2

3) Cylindrical Wavefront:
The wavefront in the form of cylindrical surface is a cylindrical wavefront. It is obtained from an
extended light source.

1.4. Huygens Principle:

According to Huygens, a source of light sends out waves in all
directions, through a hypothetical medium called ether. It gives
geometrical method to obtain the new position of the wavefront
after some time.
According to Huygens Principle

(a) Each point on a wave front behaves as a secondary source

of light and sending secondary wavelets in all possible
directions with the velocity of light so long as they move Figure 1.3
in the same medium.
(b) The new secondary wavelets are travel in forward direction only.
(c) The envelop (tangent) to all the wavelets gives the new wavefront at any subsequent time as
shown in fig. 1.3
1.5. ThePrinciple of Superposition:
This principle states that when two or more light waves travel in the same direction they
superimpose upon each other and the resultant displacement at any point is given by the
algebraic sum of two individual waves.
Consider two wave trains, the displacement of a particle at a certain point at any instant are y1
and y2 respectively. When two waves are superimposing on each other,then resultant
displacement of the particle (R) is
1) When displacement y1 and y2 are in same direction, is given by
R=y1 + y2
2) When displacement y1 and y2 are in oppositedirection, is given by
R=y1 - y2

1.6. Interference of light:

When two light waves superimpose, the resultant amplitude (or intensity) at certain point will be
zero and certain point will be maximum. This phenomenon of enhancement or cancellation
(modification) in the distribution of light intensity in the region of superposition is called
Interference of light.
In interference pattern,bright and dark fringes or bands are observed.
1.6.1 Constructive Interference:

When two waves reach a given point in phase in the medium then resultant amplitude is
maximum. This is called as constructive interference. In constructive interference, a bright fringe
is obtained on the screen.
Condition for constructive interference:
For constructive interference, path difference between two waves is n λ
i.e. path difference = nλ
or path difference = 0,λ, 2 λ, 3 λ, 4 λ, …
where λ = wavelength of light, and n = 0,1, 2, 3,…..
1.6.2 Destructive Interference:

When two waves reach a given point out of phase in the medium then resultant amplitude is
minimum. This is called as destructive interference. In constructive interference, a dark fringe is
obtained on the screen.
Condition for destructive interference:
For constructive interference, path difference between two waves isgiven by,
λ λ
path difference = Odd number x = (2n+1) x
 λ 3λ 5λ
or path difference = , , ,…
where λ= wavelength of light, and n = 0,1, 2, 3,…..
1.7. Conditionfor interference of light:
Following condition must be satisfied in all the experimental arrangements to produce stable
interference pattern.
1. The two sources should be coherent, i.e. they should vibrate in the same phase or there
should be constant phase difference between them.
2. The two waves should have same wavelength (or frequency) and period.
3. The amplitude of the interfering waves should be equal or nearly equal.
4. The separation between the two sources should be small.
Coherent sources – The two sources of light, whose frequencies (or wavelength λ) are same and
the phase difference between the waves emitted by which remains constant with respect to time
are defined as coherent sources.
Non coherent sources – Two sources of light, whose frequencies are not same and phase
difference between the waves emitted by which does not remain constant with respect to time,
are defined as non-coherent sources.
The light emitted by two independent sources (candles, bulbs etc.) is non-coherent and
interference phenomenon cannot be produced by such two sources.
1.8. Classification of Interference:
The phenomenon of interference usually produced by two ways:
1. Division of Wavefront
2. Division of amplitude
1. Division of Wavefront:
a. The incident wave front is divided in two parts by utilizing the phenomenon of
reflection, refraction or diffraction. These two parts of same wavefront travel some
different optical paths and reunites to produce interference band.
b. In these devices; a point source or a line source is employed.
Ex. Fresnel’s Biprism, Lloyd’s mirror
2. Division of amplitude:
a. The amplitude of the incoming beam is divided in two parts either by parallel
reflection or refraction. These divided parts reunite after traversing different paths
and produce interference.
b. In these devices; broad light source is employed.
Ex. Newton’s rings, Michelson interferometer.
1.9. Fresnel’sBiprism:
Fresnel used a Biprism to show the phenomenon of interference of light to determine the
wavelength of the given light source.
Construction and working:
A biprism is essentially a combination of two acuteglassangledprismplaced base to base. The
refracting angle of each prism being the same. In actual practice prism is prepared from the
single optical glass plate by suitable grinding and polishing.
The action of biprism is shown in fig.1.4.Interference is observed by the division of wave front.
Monochromatic light through a narrow slit S falls on biprism, which divides it into two
components. One of these component is refracted from upper portion of bi-prism and appears to
come from S1 where the other one refracted through lower portion and appears to come from S2.
Thus S1 and S2 act as two virtual coherent sources formed from the original source. Light waves
arising from S1and S2 interfere in the shaded region and interference fringes are formed which

Figure 1.4 Fresnel Biprism

can be observed on the screen.
Experimental arrangement
In the experimental arrangement, the adjustable illustrated slit, biprism and eyepiece are arranged
at the same height on the optical bench in the same straight line.The slit is made narrow and
adjusted parallel to the edge of the biprism. This is necessary in order to obtain sharp and wide
fringes. Behind the region EF, faint and widely spaced bands are obtained which are duo to
diffraction.
Theory: Determination of wavelength of light
The wavelength λ of light can be determined by following formula.
βd
λ=
D
Where β = fringe width i.e. spacing between successive maxima or minima.
d = distance between to virtual sources.
D= distance between the slit and eyepiece where the fringes are observed.
To determine the wavelength of light the following measurement are made:
(i) Measurement of fringe width: To get β, fringes are first observed in the field of view of the
microscope. Now we set the cross wire one by one on different bright fringes and note down the
micrometer screw reading in each case.
ܑ ‫܉ ܜ ܛ‬ ‫܉ ܗ‬
β=
‫ܗ ܍܉܋ ܖܜ‬ ‫܉ ܜܑ܍‬ ‫܉‬

(ii) Measurement of D: This distance between source and eyepiece is directly measured on the
optical bench scale.

(ii
Figure 1.5 Determination of 'd' in Fresnel Biprism experiment
i) Determination of d: To determine d, a lens with focal length less than one-fourthof the
distancebetween the slit and the eye pieceis mounted between the biprisum and eyepiece as
shown in fig. 1.5.

The lens is adjusted in two positions L1 and L2 till sharp images are obtained in the field of view
of the eyepiece. The distanced d1 and d2 between the real images in two cases are measured. Now
d is calculated as follows:

d1 u d2 v
Magnification M1 = = …(1) Magnification M 2 = = …(2)
d v d u
Multiply eq (1) by eq (2), we get
n n

d1d2
=1
d2  d = d1 d 2

Thus the wavelength λ can be determined by measuring the values of β, D and d.

1.10. Phase Change on Reflection- Stokes’ treatment:

According to stokes,
1. When alight wave is reflected at the surface of an optically denser medium, it suffers a phase
change of π i.e. path difference λ/2.
2. When reflection takes place at the surface of a rarer medium, no change of phase or path.
Let us consider a ray of light OA of amplitude‘a’ be incident at a point on the boundary M1M2 of
two media 1 and 2 as shown in fig. 1.6 (a). Medium 2 is optically denser than medium 1.

Figure 1.6 (a) Figure 1.6 (b)

The wave is partly reflected along OB and partly transmitted along OC.Let r be the
reflectioncoefficients i.e. fraction of reflected light, amplitude of reflected wave OB = ar,t be
transmission coefficient i.e. fraction of amplitude refracted or transmitted and amplitude of
transmitted wave OC = at.
Now suppose directions of reflected and transmitted wave are reversed as shown in fig. 1.6 (b).
On reversing OB, we get a reflected wave OA of amplitude (ar r) = ar2 …(1)
And transmitted wave OD of amplitude (ar t) = art …(2)
Similarly reversing OC, we get a partly reflected wave OD and partly transmitted wave.
Let r’ and t’ be the fraction of amplitude reflected and transmitted when ray is travelling from
denser to rarer medium.
Amplitude of reflected wave OD (at x r’) = atr’ …(3)
Amplitude of transmitted wave OA (at x t’) = att’ …(4)
As there is no wave originally along OD, hence OD should be zero i.e.
a rt + atr’ = 0… from eqn (2) &eqn (3) …(5)
AlongOA, there should be a wave of amplitude a, i.e.
a r2 + att’ = a … from eqn (1) &eqn (4) …(6)
Fromeqn (5), we haver’ = -r
The negative sign indicates a phase change of π either at reflection from rarer to denser medium
or reflection from denser to rarer medium.
1.11. Interference in Thin Films:
Thin film interference is studied by Newton, Young and Hooke. A transparent material of the
order of wavelength of visible light (4000 Å to 7500 Å) of any solid, liquid or gas is called as
thin film.
Whena very thin film of transparentmaterial is exposed to light from an external
source,beautifulcolours areobserved. It is matter of common experience that a soap bubble or oil
is spread on the surface of water and exposed it to the sunlight the colours are seen.
When the light is incident on the thin film, the amplitude of the light wave gets divided in to
reflected and transmitted parts. Therefore, interference in thin film is only because of division of
amplitude.
1.11.1 Interference in thin film due to reflected light:
Consider a thin film of thinness t and refractive index µ, bounded by two plain surfaces XY and
X’Y’as shown in fig.1.7.

Figure 1.7

A ray of light AB incident on the surface XY at an angle i is partly reflected along BC and partly
refracted into the film along BD, making an angle of refraction r.EG is drawn perpendicular to
BC from E.
The refracted ray BD is again partially reflected from the lower surface X’Y’ of the film along
EF in the air. It is clear from the fig. that internally reflected ray EF travel more distance
(BD+DE) in the film of refractive index µ than the directlyreflected ray BC in air.Therefore,
optical path difference between BC and EF is,
Optical path difference = (BD + DE) in medium – BG in air
Optical path difference = µ (BD + DE) in air – BG in air …(1)
Now, we have to find the value of BD, DE and BG
In BDH, cos r =

BD = and BD = DE
cos
 BD + DE = …(2)
cos
In BEG, sin i =
‫ܪ ܪ‬
BG = ‫ܪ‬ ‫ܪ‬ sin i
BH
In BDH, tan r =
t
BH = HE =t tan r
BG = (t tan r + t tan r) sin i
BG = 2t tan r sin i
sin sin
BG = 2t sin ix
cos sin
sin sin
BG = 2t
cos
µ …(µ =sin ) … (3)
Substituting the value of eqn (2) and eqn (3) in eqn (1), we get:
sin
Optical path difference = µ – 2t µ
cos cos
µ
Optical path difference = (1-sin2r)
cos
Optical path difference = 2 µt cos r
The directly reflected wave BC is reflected from the surface of a denser medium 2; hence it
undergoes a phase change of π or additional path λ/2.

Corrected path difference = 2  t cos r 
2
Taking negative sign for convenience
λ
Corrected path difference = 2 µt cos r
Case I: Condition for constrictive interface:
The film appears bright if path difference = nλ
λ
2 µt cos r = nλ Where, n = 0,1,2,3,…
λ
2µt cos r = (2n + 1) … (4)
If this condition is fulfilled, the film will appear bright in the reflected light.
Case II: Condition for destructive interface:
λ
The film appears dark if path difference = (2n - 1)
λ λ
2 µt cos r = (2n - 1) Where, n = 0,1,2,3,…
2µt cos r = nλ … (5)
If this condition is fulfilled, the film will appear dark in the reflected light.

1.11.2Interference in thin film due to transmitted light:

 Consider a thin film of uniform thickness. The incident ray at B is partially reflected
and refracted. The refracted ray BD is then reflected partially at D and E as shown in fig.1.8.The
two refracted rays DF and GH can now interface with each other.

Figure 1.8. Interference in thin film due to transmitted light

It is clear that the reflected ray GH travels more distance (DE + EG) in the film of refractive
index µ than the refracted ray DF (DM) in air, therefore the optical path difference between DF
and GH is :
Optical path difference = (DE + EG) in medium – DM in air
Optical path difference = µ (DE + EG) in air – DM in air …(1)
Now, we have to find the value of DE, EG and DM.
t
In DEN, cos r =
DE
t
DE = and DE = EG
cos r
t
DE + EG = …(2)
cos r
DM DM
In DGM, sin i = =
DG DN NG

DM = DN NG sin i
DN
In DEN, tan r =
t
DN = NG =t tan r
DN = (t tan r + t tan r) sin i
DN = 2t tan r sin i
sin r sin r
DN = 2t sin ix
cos r sin r
 䁞 䁞
DN = 2t
香
µ …(µ = 䁞
) … (3)

Substituting the value of eqn (2) and eqn (3) in eqn (1), we get:
t sin r
Optical path difference = µ cos r – 2tµ cos r
µt
Optical path difference = (1-sin2r)
cos r
Optical path difference = 2 µt cos r
Hear it should be remember that, There is no phase change on reflection at E because it takes
place at the surface of a denser medium.
Case I: Condition for constrictive interface:
The film appears bright if path difference = nλ
2 µt cos r =nλ Where, n = 0,1,2,3,… … (4)
Case II: Condition for destructive interface:
λ
The film appears dark if path difference = (2n +1)
λ
2 µt cos r = (2n + 1) Where, n = 0,1,2,3,… … (5)

1.12. Complimentary nature of Reflected and transmitted interference

pattern in thin film:
1. Condition for bright and dark fringes in reflected system:
λ
2µt cos r = (2n + 1) … (1)
2µt cos r = nλ … (2)
2. Condition for bright and dark fringes in transmitted system:
2µt cos r =nλ … (3)
λ
2µt cos r = (2n + 1) … (4)
It is clear from the relation (1), (2), (3), and (4) that if the thin film appear bright in reflected
light, it appear darkin transmitted light for the same condition and vice versa is also true. This is
called complimentary nature of reflected and transmitted interference pattern in thin film.
1.13. Classification of Fringes in thin film:
When a thin film of uniform thickness is illustrated by broad or extended monochromatic source
of light, number of circular bright and dark fringes may be observed. The basic formula for the
path difference between interfering rays from a thin film of thickness ‘t’ and refractive index µ
is ,
Path difference = 2µt cos r
So it is clear that the path difference may change either due to variation in thickness (t) of the
film or due to variation of angle of inclination(r).
1.14. Fizeau’s fringes (fringes of equal thickness):
If a film whose thickness (t) is variesfrom point to point then the path difference is also varies.
i.e. ‘t’ varies but angle of inclination (r) is kept constant at every point. Then we observed fringes
of equal thickness and are known as Fizeau’s fringes. These fringes are localized in the film
itself. Interference in wedge shape film and Newton’s ring is an example of the fringes of equal
thickness.
1.14.1 Wedge shaped film:
Consider two plain surface OA and OB inclined at an angle
θ and enclosing a wedge shaped film. The thickness of the
air film is increasing from O to A as shown in figure.If a
parallel beam of monochromatic light is allowed to fall on
the upper surface and the surface is viewed by reflected light,
then alternate dark and bright fringes becomes visible.
Figure 1.9 (a): Wedge shaped film.
Expression for spacing between two consecutive bright bands (fringe width):
Let us suppose that nth and (n+1)th bright band formed at P
and Q respectively, as shown in fig.1.9 (b).
Fornthbright band at P, we have:
λ
2µt cos r = (2n + 1) … (1)
But, for air, µ = 1 and if angle of incidence is small then r is
small
cos r = 1
λ
2t = (2n + 1) … (2)
Let t = thickness of the air film at P. Figure 1.9 (b)
OP = x1 and t = x1 tan θ
λ
Hence eq (2) becomes, 2 x1 tan θ = (2n + 1)
n
… (3)

Similarly for (n+1)th bright band at Q, we have

OQ = x2 and t = x1 tan θ
For (n+1)thbright band at Q, we have,
λ
2 x2 tan θ = [2(n + 1)+ 1]
λ
2x2 tan θ = [2n 3] … (4)
Subtracting eqn (3) from eqn (4), then
λ
2 x2tan θ = [2n 3 ]
λ
2x1tan θ = (2n + 1)
2(x2 x1) tan θ= λ
But, the separation between two successive dark or bright bands is called as bandwidth or fringe
width
λ
β = (x2 x1) = tan θ
θ is very small tan θ θ
λ
Band width or fringe width, β=
θ
Thus, the fringe width is proportional to λ and inversely proportional to θ.

1.15. Haidinger’s Fringes (Fringes of equal inclination):.

If a monochromatic beam of light is incident on a uniform thickness thin filmthen the number of
circular bright and dark fringes may be observed.
The path difference changes only due to small
change in angle of inclination (r).
Then concentricbright and dark rings are observed.
But these are differentfrom Newton’s ring. Theses
fringes are called as Haidinger’s Fringes or
Fringes of equal inclination because the change in
optical path are due to only change in the
direction of incidence i.e. change in r.
Such fringes may be observed with the help of
Michelson interferometer.
Figure 1.10Haidinger’s Fringes
1.16. Necessity of an Extended (Broad) source:
1. When point source is used then the coherent rays reflected from different parts of the film at
different angle. Therefore only a small portion of the film can be seen through eye and as a result
the whole interference pattern cannot be seen as shown in fig.1.11.(a).
2. When a broad source is used rays of light are incident at different angles and reflected parallel
beam reach the eye and whole beam and complete pattern is visible as shown in fig.1.20.(b).
Thus, an extended source of light is necessary for the observation of the general colour of light.

Figure 1.11(a). Narrow source of light is used Figure 1.11(b). Narrow source of light is used

Solved problems
Ex. 1. A bi-prism is placed at a distance of 5 cm in front of narrow slit illuminated sodium
light of wavelength 5890 Å and the distance between the virtual sources is found to be 0.05
cm. Find the width of the fringes observed in an eyepiece placed at a distance 75 cm from
the bi-prism.
Solution:
Given, λ = 5890 Å= 5890 x 10-10 m
d= 0.05 cm = 0.05 x 10-2 m
D= 75 cm+ 5 cm =80 cm
= 80 x 10-3 m
λd 5890 x 10 10 x 80 x 10
Fringe width β =
D
= 0.05 x 10
= 9424 x 10-7 m
Ex. 2. In the bi-prim experiment the eye-piece was placed at a distance of 120 cm from the
source. The distance between two virtual sources was found to be 0.075 cm. Find the
wavelength of the source of the light if the eyepiece has found to be moved through a
distance of 1.888 cm for twenty fringes to cross the field of view.
Solution:
Given,
Number of fringes = n= 20
l= displacement = 1.888 cm = 1.888 x 10-2 m
1.888 10
Fringe width β =
䁞
= 0
Distance between two virtual source = d = 0.075 cm= 0.075 10 m
Distance between source and screen = D= 120 cm = 120 10 m
Wavelengthof light = λ = ?
βd 1.888 10 0.0Ͳ5 10
We know, wavelength of lightλ =
D
= 0
x 1 0 10
λ = 5400 x 10 10 m
λ = 5400 Å
Ex. 3. A parallel beam of light of wavelength 5890 A.U. is incident on a thin glass plate of
refractive index 1.5 to that angle of refraction into the glass plate is 60o. Calculate smallest
thickness of t glass plate which will appear dark.
Solution:
Given, µ=1.5
λ = 5890 x 10 10 m
Angle of refraction r= 60o
t=?
for a thin film which appear dark due to reflected light, we have
2µt cos r = nλ
But for smallest thickness, we take n = 1,
 10
2 x 1.5 x t cos 60= 5890 x 10
5890 x 10 10
t=
x 1.5 x t cos 60
t = 3.926 x 10 Ͳm
Ex. 4. A soap film of refractive index 1.3 and thickness 1.5 x cm is illuminated by
white light at an angle 60 reflected by it and found dark band corresponding to wavelength
o

of 5000 A. U. calculate the order of interaction of the dark band.

Solution:
Given, µ = 1.3
t = 1.5 x 10-6 m
λ = 5000 x 10 10
m
i = 60o
n=?
for dark band, we have
2µt cos r = nλ
µt cos r
n=
λ
sin i
i = 60o, µ =
sin r
sin 60 0.866
sin r = =
µ 1.3
= 0.666
r = 41.759 and cos r= cos (41.759) = 0.746
x 1.3 x 1.5 x 10 6 x 0.Ͳ46
n=
5000 x 10 10
n = 5.818 ≈ 6
Ex. 5. When wedgeshaped air film is viewedby monochromatic source of light incident
normally, the interference fringes 4 mm apart are observed. If the air spaced is filled with
water (µ= 1.33), how far apart will the fringes be observed?
Solution:
Given,
β = 4 mm = 4 x 10-3 m
λ
We know, fringe width β = µθ
For air µ = 1,
λ
4 x 10-3 m =
θ
If the air spaced is filled with water,
For water µ = 1.33
 λ 1 4 x 10 3
β= x =
θ µ 1.33

β =3 x 10-3 m = 3 mm

Long Question

1. Explain the phenomenon of interference in thin film and obtain the condition for maxima
and minima for interference in thin film, due to reflected rays of light.
2. What do you mean by interference by (i) division by wavefront and (ii) division of
amplitude?State and explain the condition for constructive and destructiveinterference in
a thin film by reflected light. Explain the need of broad source.
3. What are fringe of equal inclination? Discuss the formation and localization of the fringes.
Show that reflected and transmitted systems of fringes are complimentary in nature.
4. What is interference oflight? How will you determinethe wavelength of light using
Fresnel’s biprism?

Short Question

1. Define interference of light write the condition for constructive and destructive
interference of light
2. State the principle of superposition of light wave.
3. Explain the interference of light in thin film observed due to transmitted rays of light.
4. Explain the interference of light in thin film observed in reflected light.
5. Derive the expression for width of fringe obtained in wedge shaped film.
6. Explain the complementary nature of reflected and transmitted interference pattern in thin
film.
7. State the principle of superposition and define the interference of light.
8. State the condition for obtaining steady interference pattern.
9. Explain the formation of Haidinger’s Fringes in thin film.
10. How are the fringes of equal inclination obtained?