Lecture 13

1 Homomorphism
• Def:
Let hG, +i and hG0 , ×i be two groups. A map f : G → G0 is said to be a homomorphism if
f (a + b) = f (a) × f (b), ∀ a, b ∈ G.

Note: Here the mapping f need not be one-one but the group multiplication is preserved by
the images in G0 under the mapping f .

• Eg:1
∀x ∈ G, f (x) = e0 . This is a homomorphism from G into G0 .

• Eg:2
G = hZ, +i, G0 = hZn , ⊕i

f : G → G0 is defined as f (nk + r) = r 0 ≤ r < n

Let x1 = nk1 + r1 , x2 = nk2 + r2

f (x1 ) = r1 , f (x2 ) = r2

f (x1 + x2 ) = f (n(k1 + k2 ) + (r1 + r2 )) = r1 ⊕ r2 = f (x1 ) ⊕ f (x2 )

• Eg: 3
G = S3 = {e, σ, σ 2 , τ, στ, σ 2 τ }, G0 = {e, τ }

f (σ i τ j ) = τ j , i = 0, 1, 2. j = 0, 1

f (e) = f (σ) = f (σ 2 ) = e, f (τ ) = f (στ ) = f (σ 2 τ ) = τ

f (τ · στ ) = f (σ 2 ) = e

f (τ ) · f (στ ) = τ · τ = e

f (σ · στ ) = f (σ 2 τ ) = τ
 f (σ) · f (στ ) = e · τ = τ

Verify that this mapping

yields a homomorphism.
• Eg 4:
G is the same as above, G0 = {e, σ, σ 2 }.

f (σ i τ j ) = σ i . Then

f (τ · στ ) = f (σ 2 τ 2 ) = f (σ 2 ) = σ 2

f (τ )f (στ ) = eσ = σ

∴ f (τ · στ ) 6= f (τ )f (στ ).

This is not a homomorphism.

• In a homomorphism φ : G → G0

φ(e) = e0 and φ(x−1 ) = (φ(x))−1

• Def: Kernel

Let f : G → G0 be a homomorphism. The set of elements in G that are mapped to e0 ∈ G0

is called the kernel Kf of the homomorphism f , i.e,

Kf = {a ∈ G|f (a) = e0 }
• Eg:
Consider f : G → G0 where G = hZ, +i and G0 = hZn , ⊕i:

f (nk + r) = r, 0 ≤ r < n
we have seen that this is a homomorphism.

The kernel of this homomorphism is

Kf = nZ = {.... − 2n, −n, 0, n, 2n, ......}

We can see that Kf is a subgroup of G.

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 • If the mapping f : G → G0 is an isomorphism then Kf = {e}.

• Lemma 10:

If f : G → G0 is a homomorphism, then the kernel Kf is a normal subgroup of G.

Proof:
Let a, b ∈ Kf .
Then f (a) = f (b) = e0 .

f (ab) = f (a)f (b) = e0 e0 = e0 ⇒ ab ∈ Kf

f (a−1 ) = (f (a))−1 = e0 ⇒ a−1 ∈ Kf
=⇒ Kf is a subgroup of G.

Now to prove it is normal.

Let h ∈ Kf and a ∈ G.

f (aha−1 ) = f (a)f (h)f (a−1 ) = f (a)e0 (f (a))−1 = e0

=⇒ aha−1 ∈ Kf ⇒ Kf is a normal subgroup of G.

• We had seen that the mapping f : S3 → Z2 was a homomorphism.

The kernel Kf = {e, σ, σ 2 }

is a normal subgroup of S3 .
• The mapping f : S3 → Z3 was not a homomorphism.

The kernel Kf = {e, τ } is not a normal subgroup of S3 .

Consider the homomorphism f : G → G0 .

Let Kf be the kernel.

If x, y ∈ G such that f (x) = f (y) = h0 in G0 then

f (xy −1 ) = f (x)f (y −1 ) = h0 h0−1 = e0

=⇒ xy −1 ∈ Kf ⇒ x ∈ Kf y
=⇒ x and y ∈ the same coset of Kf in G.

If x and y ∈ the same coset of Kf in G then

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 y = hx for some h ∈ Kf .

=⇒ f (y) = f (hx) = f (h)f (x) = e0 f (x) = f (x).

So every element of a coset of Kf is mapped to the same element in G.

• The homomorphism f : G → G0 partitions the set G into the cosets of Kf in G.

• Since Kf is a normal subgroup we can form the factor group G/Kf .
• We construct a mapping from ψ : G/Kf → G0 as follows

ψ(Kf a) = f (a)

• Is this mapping well defined ?

• If Kf a = Kf b then a and b belong to the same coset.

⇒ f (a) = f (b).
So this mapping is well defined.

• We show that ψ : G/Kf → G0 is an isomorphism.

• ψ(Kf aKf b) = ψ(Kf (ab))

= f (ab) = f (a)f (b)

= ψ(Kf a)ψ(Kf b)
• Now if ψ(Kf a) = ψ(Kf b) then

f (a) = f (b) ⇒ f (ab−1 ) = f (a)(f (b))−1 = e0

⇒ ab−1 ∈ Kf ⇒ a ∈ Kf b
⇒ a and b are in the same coset of Kf . i.e,

Kf a = Kf b.

So ψ : G/Kf → G0 is an isomorphism.
• The following proposition says this

• Proposition 9:
Let f : G → G0 be a homomorphism with kernel Kf . Then G/Kf is isomorphic to G0 .

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 • This theorem tells us precisely how many different homomorphism we can draw on G.

This depends upon the number of different normal subgroups we can have in G.

For each of these normal subgroups, N , we have a homomorphism from G onto G/N .

Any homomorphism that we draw from G to some other group G0 has to be identical to one
of the homomorphism from G → G/N for some normal subgroup N of G.

Proposition 9 can be generalized in a way for which we define a subgroup in G as follows:

Lemma:
Let φ : G → G0 be a homomorphism with kernel K. Let H 0 be a subgroup of G0 . Define
H = {x ∈ G|φ(x) ∈ H 0 }. Then H is a subgroup of G and K ⊂ H. If H 0 is normal in G0 then H
is normal in G. There is a one-one mapping from the set of subgroups of G0 onto the subgroups of
G containing K.

The homomorphism theorem, proposition 9 can be now generailized by this one-one corre-
spondence between the normal subgroups of G and G.

Theorem:
Let φ : G → G0 be a homomorphism. with kernel K. Let N 0 be a normal subgroup of G0 . Let
N = {x ∈ G|φ(x) ∈ N 0 }. Then

G/N ∼
= G0 /N 0
∼ G/K
=
N/K

Proof
Define ψ : G/N → G0 /N 0 as ψ(aN ) = φ(a)N 0 .
This is a homomorphism. Also ψ(aN ) = N 0 =⇒ φ(a) ∈ N 0 =⇒ a ∈ N .
∴ aN = N . So the kernel of the homomorphism is the identity element in G/N . So ψ : G/N →
G0 /N 0 is an isomorphism.

For the other part define f : G/K → G0 /N 0 as f (aK) = φ(a)N 0 .

This is a homomorphism. Let us find the kernel of this homomorphism.
Let f (aK) = N 0 . Then φ(a) ∈ N 0 =⇒ a ∈ N .
∴ aK ∈ N/K =⇒ kernelf = N/K.
∴ by the first homomorphism theorem

G/K ∼ 0 0 ∼
= G /N = G/N
N/K