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James F. Shackelford’s Introduction to Materials Science for Engineers presents comprehensive and
in-depth coverage of the fundamental principles of materials science and engineering. Starting with
Introduction to Materials
chapters on applied physics and chemistry to cover the foundations of materials science, the text
Science for Engineers

then discusses a wide variety of materials—traditional as well as modern—and their applications
in engineering. This edition contains extensive discussions on new materials that are playing a key
role in the economy of the twenty-first century, materials like “high tech” ceramics for advanced
structural applications, advanced composites for aerospace applications, fullerene carbons,
graphene, engineered biomaterials, and biological materials.
Introduction to Materials
Key Features
• End-of-chapter conceptual problems encourage students to check their understanding of
basic concepts.
Science for Engineers

• Updated discussions on the role of materials used in smartphones, tablets, and optical fibers and
an emphasis on the role of sustainability enhance engagement with contemporary developments in
the field.
• Computer-generated crystal structure illustrations give students the most accurate and
visually realistic images available. Ninth Edition
• A “Powers of Ten” feature emphasizes the fact that the behavior of materials in engineering
designs can be understood by looking at mechanisms that occur at various finer scales. James F. Shackelford
EDITION
NINTH
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materials.
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NINTH EDITION
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Introduction to
MATERIALS SCIENCE
FOR ENGINEERS
James F. Shackelford
University of California, Davis
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Contents
Preface 9 3.4 Polymeric Structures 93

3.5 Semiconductor Structures 94
About the Author 16 3.6 Lattice Positions, Directions, and Planes 98
3.7 X-Ray Diffraction 110
1 Materials for Engineering 17
4 rystal Defects and Noncrystalline
C
1.1 The Material World 17
Structure—Imperfection 120
1.2 Materials Science and Engineering 19
1.3 Six Materials That Changed Your World 19 4.1 The Solid Solution—Chemical Imperfection 121
STEEL BRIDGES—INTRODUCING METALS 19 4.2 Point Defects—Zero-Dimensional
TRANSPARENT OXIDES—INTRODUCING CERAMICS 21 Imperfections 126
SMARTPHONES AND TABLETS—INTRODUCING GLASSES 25
4.3 Linear Defects, or Dislocations—One-Dimensional
NYLON PARACHUTES—INTRODUCING POLYMERS 26
Imperfections 128
KEVLAR®-REINFORCED TIRES—INTRODUCING
COMPOSITES 29 4.4 Planar Defects—Two-Dimensional
SILICON CHIPS—INTRODUCING SEMICONDUCTORS 30 Imperfections 130
1.4 Processing and Selecting Materials 32 4.5 Noncrystalline Solids—Three-Dimensional
Imperfections 134
1.5 Looking at Materials by Powers of Ten 33
5 Diffusion 143
PART I The Fundamentals 5.1 Thermally Activated Processes 144
5.2 Thermal Production of Point Defects 147
2 Atomic Bonding 39
5.3 Point Defects and Solid-State Diffusion 149
2.1 Atomic Structure 40 5.4 Steady-State Diffusion 159
2.2 The Ionic Bond 46 5.5 Alternate Diffusion Paths 163
COORDINATION NUMBER 51
2.3 The Covalent Bond 57 6 Mechanical Behavior 168
2.4 The Metallic Bond 62
6.1 Stress Versus Strain 169
2.5 The Secondary, or van der Waals, Bond 65
METALS 169
2.6 Materials—The Bonding Classification 68
CERAMICS AND GLASSES 181
POLYMERS 185
3 Crystalline Structure—Perfection 75 6.2 Elastic Deformation 189
6.3 Plastic Deformation 191
3.1 Seven Systems and Fourteen Lattices 76
6.4 Hardness 198
3.2 Metal Structures 80
6.5 Creep and Stress Relaxation 201
3.3 Ceramic Structures 84
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6 Contents
6.6 Viscoelastic Deformation 208 RECOVERY 350

INORGANIC GLASSES 210 RECRYSTALLIZATION 351
ORGANIC POLYMERS 212 GRAIN GROWTH 351
ELASTOMERS 215 10.6 The Kinetics of Phase Transformations
for Nonmetals 354
7 Thermal Behavior 226
7.1 Heat Capacity 227 PART II aterials and Their

M
7.2 Thermal Expansion 229 Applications
7.3 Thermal Conductivity 233
7.4 Thermal Shock 238 11 Structural Materials—Metals,
Ceramics, and Glasses 367
8 Failure Analysis and Prevention 244
11.1 Metals 368
8.1 Impact Energy 245 FERROUS ALLOYS 368
8.2 Fracture Toughness 251 NONFERROUS ALLOYS 374
8.3 Fatigue 255 11.2 Ceramics and Glasses 378
8.4 Nondestructive Testing 264 CERAMICS—CRYSTALLINE MATERIALS 378
8.5 Failure Analysis and Prevention 267 GLASSES—NONCRYSTALLINE MATERIALS 380
GLASS-CERAMICS 382
11.3 Processing the Structural Materials 384
9 P
hase Diagrams—Equilibrium
PROCESSING OF METALS 384
Microstructural Development 275
PROCESSING OF CERAMICS AND GLASSES 392
9.1 The Phase Rule 276

9.2 The Phase Diagram 280 12 Structural Materials—Polymers
COMPLETE SOLID SOLUTION 280 and Composites 402
EUTECTIC DIAGRAM WITH NO SOLID SOLUTION 284
EUTECTIC DIAGRAM WITH LIMITED SOLID SOLUTION 286 12.1 Polymers 403
EUTECTOID DIAGRAM 288 POLYMERIZATION 403
PERITECTIC DIAGRAM 292 STRUCTURAL FEATURES OF POLYMERS 408
GENERAL BINARY DIAGRAMS 294 THERMOPLASTIC POLYMERS 412
9.3 The Lever Rule 300 THERMOSETTING POLYMERS 414
ADDITIVES 415
9.4 Microstructural Development During Slow
Cooling 304 12.2 Composites 417
FIBER-REINFORCED COMPOSITES 418
AGGREGATE COMPOSITES 424
10 Kinetics—Heat Treatment 322
PROPERTY AVERAGING 425
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF COMPOSITES 431
10.1 Time—The Third Dimension 323
12.3 Processing the Structural Materials 437
10.2 The TTT Diagram 328
PROCESSING OF POLYMERS 437
DIFFUSIONAL TRANSFORMATIONS 329
PROCESSING OF COMPOSITES 440
DIFFUSIONLESS (MARTENSITIC) TRANSFORMATIONS 331
HEAT TREATMENT OF STEEL 335
10.3 Hardenability 342 13 Electronic Materials 449
10.4 Precipitation Hardening 346
13.1 Charge Carriers and Conduction 451
10.5 Annealing 349
13.2 Energy Levels and Energy Bands 455
COLD WORK 349
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Contents 7
13.3 Conductors 461 GLASS FOR SMART PHONE AND TABLET TOUCH
SCREENS 592
THERMOCOUPLES 464
AMORPHOUS METAL FOR ELECTRIC-POWER
SUPERCONDUCTORS 465
DISTRIBUTION 594
13.4 Insulators 473 15.4 Materials and Our Environment 595
FERROELECTRICS 474
ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION OF MATERIALS 595
PIEZOELECTRICS 477
ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF DESIGN 611
13.5 Semiconductors 481 RECYCLING AND REUSE 615
INTRINSIC, ELEMENTAL SEMICONDUCTORS 482
EXTRINSIC, ELEMENTAL SEMICONDUCTORS 487 APPENDIX 1
COMPOUND SEMICONDUCTORS 498
Physical and Chemical Data
PROCESSING OF SEMICONDUCTORS 502
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES 505
for the Elements A-1
13.6 Composites 515 APPENDIX 2
13.7 Electrical Classification of Materials 515 Atomic and Ionic Radii of the Elements A-4
14 Optical and Magnetic Materials 524 APPENDIX 3
Constants and Conversion Factors
14.1 Optical Materials 525 and the Periodic Table of Elements A-7
OPTICAL PROPERTIES 528
OPTICAL SYSTEMS AND DEVICES 538 APPENDIX 4
14.2 Magnetic Materials 547 Properties of the Structural Materials A-9
FERROMAGNETISM 550
FERRIMAGNETISM 557 APPENDIX 5
METALLIC MAGNETS 560 Properties of the Electronic, Optical,
CERAMIC MAGNETS 566
and Magnetic Materials A-18
15 Materials in Engineering Design 578 APPENDIX 6
Glossary A-23
15.1 Material Properties—Engineering Design
Parameters 579 Answers to Practice Problems (PP)
15.2 Selection of Structural Materials—Case and Odd-Numbered Problems AN-1
Studies 584
MATERIALS FOR HIP- AND KNEE-JOINT REPLACEMENT 584 Index I-1
METAL SUBSTITUTION WITH COMPOSITES 588
15.3 Selection of Electronic, Optical, and Magnetic
Materials—Case Studies 589
LIGHT-EMITTING DIODE 589
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A01_SHAC0996_09_GE_FM.indd 8 10/10/2022 19:36

Preface
T his book is designed for a first course in engineering materials. The field that
covers this area of the engineering profession has come to be known as “materi-
als science and engineering.” To me, this label serves two important functions.
First, it is an accurate description of the balance between scientific principles
and practical engineering that is required in selecting the proper materials
for modern technology. Second, it gives us a guide to organizing this book.
After a short introductory chapter, “science” serves as a label for Part I on
“The Fundamentals.” Chapters 2 through 10 cover various topics in applied
physics and chemistry. These are the foundation for understanding the prin-
ciples of “materials science.” I assume that some students take this course at
the freshman or sophomore level and may not yet have taken their required
coursework in chemistry and physics. As a result, Part I is intended to be self-
contained. A previous course in chemistry or physics is certainly helpful, but
should not be necessary. If an entire class has finished freshman chemistry,
Chapter 2 (atomic bonding) could be left as optional reading, but it is impor-
tant not to overlook the role of bonding in defining the fundamental types
of engineering materials. The remaining chapters in Part I are less optional,
as they describe the key topics of materials science. Chapter 3 outlines the
ideal, crystalline structures of important materials. Chapter 4 introduces the
structural imperfections found in real, engineering materials. These structural
defects are the bases of solid-state diffusion (Chapter 5) and plastic deforma-
tion in metals (Chapter 6). Chapter 6 also includes a broad range of mechani-
cal behavior for various engineering materials. Similarly, Chapter 7 covers the
thermal behavior of these materials. Subjecting materials to various mechani-
cal and thermal processes can lead to their failure, the subject of Chapter 8.
In addition, the systematic analysis of material failures can lead to the pre-
vention of future catastrophes. Chapters 9 and 10 are especially important in
providing a bridge between “materials science” and “materials engineering.”
Phase diagrams (Chapter 9) are an effective tool for describing the equilib-
rium microstructures of practical engineering materials. Instructors will note
that this topic is introduced in a descriptive and empirical way. Since some stu-
dents in this course may not have taken a course in thermodynamics, I avoid
the use of the free-energy property. Kinetics (Chapter 10) is the foundation of
the heat treatment of engineering materials.
The words “materials engineering” give us a label for Part II of the book
that deals with “Materials and Their Applications.” First, we discuss the five cat-
egories of structural materials: metals, ceramics, and glasses (Chapter 11) and
A01_SHAC0996_09_GE_FM.indd 9 10/10/2022 19:36

10 Preface
polymers and composites (Chapter 12). In both chapters, we give examples of

each type of structural material and describe their processing, the techniques
used to produce the materials. In Chapter 13, we discuss electronic materials and
discover a sixth category of materials, semiconductors, based on an electrical
rather than bonding classification system. Metals are generally good electrical
conductors, while ceramics, glasses, and polymers are generally good insulators,
and semiconductors are intermediate. The exceptional discovery of supercon-
ductivity in certain ceramic materials at relatively high temperatures augments
the long-standing use of superconductivity in certain metals at very low tem-
peratures. Chapter 14 covers optical behavior that determines the application of
many materials, from traditional glass windows to some of the latest advances in
telecommunications. A wide variety of materials is also discussed in Chapter 14.
Traditional metallic and ceramic magnets are being supplemented by supercon-
ducting metals and ceramics, which can provide some intriguing design appli-
cations based on their magnetic behavior. Finally, in Chapter 15 (Materials in
Engineering Design), we see that our previous discussions of properties have
left us with “design parameters.” Herein lies a final bridge between the princi-
ples of materials science and the use of those materials in modern engineering
designs. We also must note that chemical degradation, radiation damage, wear,
recycling, and reuse must be considered in making a final judgment on a materi-
als application.
I hope that students and instructors alike will find what I have attempted to
produce: a clear and readable textbook organized around the title of this impor-
tant branch of engineering. It is also worth noting that materials play a central
role across the broad spectrum of contemporary science and technology. In the
report Science: The End of the Frontier? from the American Association for the
Advancement of Science, 10 of the 26 technologies identified at the forefront of
economic growth are various types of advanced materials.
In the presentation of this book, I have attempted to be generous with
examples and practice problems within each chapter, and I have tried to be even
more generous with the end-of-chapter homework problems (with the level of
difficulty for the homework problems clearly noted). Problems dealing with the
role of materials in the engineering design process are noted with the use of a
design icon . One of the most enjoyable parts of writing the book was the prep-
aration of biographical footnotes for those cases in which a person’s name has
become intimately associated with a basic concept in materials science and engi-
neering. I suspect that most readers will share my fascination with these great
contributors to science and engineering from the distant and not-so-distant past.
In addition to a substantial set of useful data, the Appendices provide convenient
location of materials properties and key term definitions.
The various editions of this book have been produced during a period of
fundamental change in the field of materials science and engineering. This change
was exemplified by the change of name in the Fall of 1986 for the “American
Society for Metals” to “ASM International”—a society for materials, as opposed
to metals only. An adequate introduction to materials science can no longer be a
traditional treatment of physical metallurgy with supplementary introductions to
nonmetallic materials. The first edition was based on a balanced treatment of the
full spectrum of engineering materials.
A01_SHAC0996_09_GE_FM.indd 10 10/10/2022 19:36

Preface 11
Subsequent editions have reinforced that balanced approach with the

timely addition of new materials that are playing key roles in the economy
of the twenty-first century: lightweight metal alloys, “high tech” ceramics for
advanced structural applications, engineering polymers for metal substitu-
tion, advanced composites for aerospace applications, increasingly miniaturized
semiconductor devices, high-temperature ceramic superconductors, fullerene
carbons, g raphene, engineered biomaterials, and biological materials. Since the
debut of the first edition, we have also seen breakthroughs in materials char-
acterization, such as the evolution of the high-resolution transmission electron
microscope (HRTEM), and in materials processing, such as additive manufac-
turing (AM). “Feature boxes” have been introduced in recent editions. These
one- or two-page case studies labeled “The Material World” are located in
each chapter to provide a focus on some fascinating topics in the world of both
engineered and natural materials. Another feature from recent editions is to
emphasize the concept of “Powers of Ten.” In Chapter 1, we point out that an
underlying principle of materials science is that understanding the behavior of
materials in engineering designs (on the human scale) is obtained by looking
at mechanisms that occur at various fine scales, such as the atomic-scale diffu-
sion of carbon atoms involved in the heat treatment of steel. There is a full ten
orders of magnitude difference between the size of typical engineered prod-
ucts and the size of typical atoms. Much of modern engineering practice has
depended on engineering designs based on micrometer-scale structures, such
as the transistors in an integrated circuit. Increasingly, engineers are designing
systems involving the nanometer-scale. At various times throughout the text, a
Powers of Ten icon will be used to highlight discussions that demonstrate this
structure-property relationship.
New to This Edition

As with previous editions, an effort has been made to add the most important
advances in engineering materials, as well as respond to recommendations of
previous users for additional content coverage. The results are:
• The addition of Learning Objectives to each chapter to give students clearer

goals for the knowledge to be acquired.
• The inclusion of end-of-chapter conceptual problems throughout the text.
• The inclusion of all end-of-chapter problems in the MasteringTM platform.
• The upgrade of images to full color where appropriate to provide a more
vibrant presentation of visual information throughout the book.
• Updated discussions of the role of engineering materials in smartphones and
tablets, increasingly ubiquitous parts of our everyday lives.
• Enhanced discussion of the nature of optical fibers in telecommunication.
• The refreshing and updating of all discussions of contemporary materials in
modern engineering design, including an emphasis on the role of sustainability.
A01_SHAC0996_09_GE_FM.indd 11 10/10/2022 19:36

12 Preface
Resources for Instructors

All instructor resources are available for download at www.pearsonglobaleditions
.com. If you are in need of a login and password for this site, please contact your
local Pearson representative.
Instructor’s Solutions Manual

Available to adopters of this textbook, it contains fully worked-out solutions to
the practice and homework problems only. The Solutions Manual is available in
PDF format.
PowerPoint Slides
A complete set of all the figures and tables from the textbook are available in
PowerPoint® format.
Mastering Engineering
This online tutorial and assessment program allows you to integrate dynamic
homework with automated grading of the calculation parts of problems and
personalized feedback. MasteringTM Engineering allows you to easily track
the performance of your entire class on an assignment-by-assignment basis,
or the detailed work of an individual student. For more information visit
www.mlm.pearson.com/global/.
Related Massively Open Online Course (MOOC)

A MOOC based on this book and entitled “MATERIALS SCIENCE: Ten
Things Every Engineer Should Know” is available as open access on coursera.org.
In the course, the author delivers ten short lectures on topics of practical
significance to both students of engineering and practicing professionals.
Acknowledgments
Finally, I want to acknowledge a number of people who have been immensely
helpful in making this book possible. My family has been more than the usual
“patient and understanding.” They are a constant reminder of the rich life beyond
the material plane. Peter Gordon (first edition), David Johnstone (second and
third editions), Bill Stenquist (fourth and fifth editions), Dorothy Marrero (sixth
edition), and Holly Stark (seventh, eighth, and ninth editions) are much appreci
ated in their roles as editors. Erin Ault, Manager of Content Strategy, has been
indispensible in shepherding this edition to completion. Lilian Davila at the
University of California, Merced skillfully produced the computer-generated
crystal structure images. A special appreciation is due to my colleagues at the
University of California, Davis and to the many reviewers of all editions, espe-
cially D. J. Montgomery, John M. Roberts, D. R. Rossington, R. D. Daniels,
R. A. Johnson, D. H. Morris, J. P. Mathers, Richard Fleming, Ralph Graff, Ian W.
Hall, John J. Kramer, Enayat Mahajerin, Carolyn W. Meyers, Ernest F. Nippes,
Richard L. Porter, Eric C. Skaar, E. G. Schwartz, William N. Weins, M. Robert
A01_SHAC0996_09_GE_FM.indd 12 10/10/2022 19:36

Preface 13
Baren, John Botsis, D. L. Douglass, Robert W. Hendricks, J. J. Hren, Sam Hruska,

I. W. Hull, David B. Knoor, Harold Koelling, John McLaughlin, Alvin H. Meyer,
M. Natarajan, Jay Samuel, John R. Schlup, Theodore D. Taylor, Ronald Kander,
Alan Lawley, Joanna McKittrick, Kathleen R. Rohr, James F. Fitz-Gerald. Valery
Bliznyuk, David Bahr, K. Srinagesh, Stacy Gleixner, Raj Vaidyanathan. Jeffrey
Fergus, Christoph Steinbruchel, Wayne Elban, Giovanni Zangari, Guanshui Xu,
Atin Sinha, Yu-Lin Shen, Qiuming Wei, Blair London, and James Chelikowsky.
James F. Shackelford
Davis, California
Acknowledgments for the Global Edition

Pearson would like to acknowledge and thank the following for their work on
the Global Edition:
Contributor
K. S. Vijay Sekar, Sri Sivasubramaniya Nadar College of Engineering
Reviewers
Durul Huda, Swinburne University of Technology
Tanay Karademir, Istanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi
Murat Saribay, Istanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi
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14 Preface
Combine this...
A01_SHAC0996_09_GE_FM.indd 14 10/10/2022 19:36

Preface 15
With the Power of Mastering Engineering for

Introduction to Materials Science for Engineers
MasteringTM is the teaching and learning platform that empowers every student.
By combining trusted authors’ content with digital tools developed to engage students and
emulate the office hours experience, Mastering personalizes learning and improves results for
each student.
Empower each learner

Each student learns at a different pace. Personalized learning, including optional hints and
wrong-answer feedback, pinpoints the precise areas where each student needs practice, giving
all students the support they need — when and where they need it — to be successful.
Learn more at www.mlm.pearson.com/global/
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16 Preface
About the Author

James F. Shackelford has BS and MS degrees in Ceramic Engineering from the
University of Washington and a Ph.D. in Materials Science and Engineering from
the University of California, Berkeley. Following a postdoctoral fellowship at
McMaster University in Canada, he joined the University of California, Davis,
where he is currently Distinguished Professor Emeritus in the Department of
Materials Science and Engineering. For many years, he served as the Associate
Dean for Undergraduate Studies in the College of Engineering and later as the
Director of the University Honors Program that serves students from a wide
spectrum of majors. Dr. Shackelford also served as Associate Director for Educa-
tion for the National Science Foundation (NSF)-funded Center for B iophotonics
Science and Technology (CBST) and as Faculty Assistant to the Director of the
McClellan Nuclear Research Center (MNRC) of UC Davis. He teaches and
conducts research in the structural characterization and processing of materials,
focusing on glasses and biomaterials. His current focus in teaching is doing so
through online technologies. A member of the American Ceramic Society and
ASM International, he was named a Fellow of the American Ceramic Society
in 1992, was named a Fellow of ASM International in 2011, and received the
Outstanding Educator Award of the American Ceramic Society in 1996 and the
Albert Easton White Distinguished Teacher Award from ASM International in
2019. In 2003, he received a Distinguished Teaching Award from the Academic
Senate of the University of California, Davis. In 2012, he received the Outstand-
ing Teaching Award of the College of Engineering at UC Davis, and, in 2014,
received an Outstanding Service Award from UC Davis Extension. In 2016, Pro-
fessor Shackelford received the Inaugural Award for Outstanding Contributions
to Materials Education at the North American Materials Education Symposium
(NAMES) held at the University of California, Berkeley. He has published over
150 archived papers and books including Introduction to Materials Science for
Engineers now in its 9th Edition and which has been translated into Chinese,
German, Italian, Japanese, Korean, Portuguese, and Spanish.
A01_SHAC0996_09_GE_FM.indd 16 10/10/2022 19:36

CHAPTER 1
Materials for Engineering
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you should be
able to:
1. Explain how materials have played
a central role in the development of
human cultures throughout history.
2. Distinguish between the terms materials
science and materials engineering.
3. Identify six categories of engineering
materials, five types of structural
The future of transportation
materials, and semiconductors as one
will include new advances in example of electronic materials.
materials such as this glass road
sign allowing instantaneous 4. (a) Describe how the atomic- and microscopic-scale structure
route changes and updates. of materials help us understand the properties of those
(Courtesy of Corning Glass
Works.)
materials that are used in engineering applications.
(b) Recall the materials tetrahedron that includes the terms
structure and properties as well as their relationship with the
processing of materials and their ultimate performance in an
engineering design.
5. List the wide range of dimensional scales involved in materials
science and engineering:
(a) The atomic scale: 1 : 10−10 meter
(b) The nanoscale: 1 : 10−9 meter
(c) The microscale: 1 : 10−6 meter
(d) The milliscale: 1 : 10−3 meter
(e) The human scale: 1 meter
1.1 The Material World

We live in a world of material possessions that largely define our social rela-
tionships and economic quality of life. The material possessions of our earliest
ancestors were probably their tools and weapons. In fact, the most popular way
of naming the era of early human civilization is in terms of the materials from
which these tools and weapons were made. The Stone Age has been traced as far
back as 2.5 million years ago when human ancestors, or hominids, chipped stones
17
M01_SHAC0996_09_GE_C01.indd 17 10/10/2022 19:40

18 CHAPTER 1 Materials for Engineering
to form weapons for hunting (Figure 1.1). The Bronze Age roughly spanned the
period from 2000 b.c. to 1000 b.c. and represents the foundation of metallurgy,
in which alloys of copper and tin were discovered to produce superior tools and
weapons. (An alloy is a metal composed of more than one element.)
Contemporary archaeologists note that an earlier but less well known
“Copper Age” existed between roughly 4000 b.c. and 3000 b.c. in Europe, in
which relatively pure copper was used before tin became available. The limited
utility of those copper products provided an early lesson in the importance of
proper alloy additions. The Iron Age defines the period from 1000 b.c. to 1 b.c.
By 500 b.c., iron alloys had largely replaced bronze for tool and weapon making
in Europe.
Although archaeologists do not refer to a “pottery age,” the presence of
domestic vessels made from baked clay has provided some of the best descrip-
tions of human cultures for thousands of years. Similarly, glass artifacts have
been traced back to 4000 b.c. in Mesopotamia.
Modern culture in the second half of the 20th century is sometimes referred
to as “plastic,” a not entirely complimentary reference to the lightweight and
economical polymeric materials from which so many products are made. Some
observers have suggested instead that this same time frame should be labeled the
“silicon age,” given the pervasive impact of modern electronics largely based on
silicon technology.
FIGURE 1.1 Stone age tools. (Georg Hergenhan / 123RF.)
M01_SHAC0996_09_GE_C01.indd 18 10/10/2022 19:40

SECTION 1.3 Six Materials That Changed Your World 19
1.2 Materials Science and Engineering

Since the 1960s, the term that has come to label the general branch of engineering
concerned with materials is materials science and engineering. This label is accu-
rate in that this field is a true blend of fundamental scientific studies and practical
engineering. It has grown to include contributions from many traditional fields,
including metallurgy, ceramic engineering, polymer chemistry, condensed matter
physics, and physical chemistry.
The term “materials science and engineering” will serve a special function
in this introductory textbook; it will provide the basis for the text’s organiza-
tion. First, the word science describes the topics covered in Chapters 2 through
10, which deal with the fundamentals of structure, classification, and properties.
Second, the word materials describes Chapters 11 through 13, which deal with
the five types of structural materials (Chapters 11 and 12) and various electronic
materials, especially semiconductors (Chapter 13), along with optical and mag-
netic materials (Chapter 14). Finally, the word engineering describes Chapter 15,
which puts the materials to work with discussions of key aspects of the selection
of the right materials for the right job, along with some caution about the issue of
environmental degradation in those real-world applications.
1.3 Six Materials That Changed Your World

The most obvious question to be addressed by the engineering student entering
an introductory course on materials is, “What materials are available to me?”
Various classification systems are possible for the wide-ranging answer to this
question. In this book, we distinguish six categories that encompass the materi-
als available to practicing engineers: metals, ceramics, glasses, polymers, compos-
ites, and semiconductors. We will introduce each of these categories with a single
example.
STEEL BRIDGES—INTRODUCING METALS

If there is a “typical” material associated in the public’s mind with modern engi-
neering practice, it is structural steel. This versatile construction material has sev-
eral properties that we consider metallic: First, it is strong and can be readily
formed into practical shapes. Second, its extensive, permanent deformability, or
ductility, is an important asset in permitting small amounts of yielding to sud-
den and severe loads. For example, many Californians have been able to observe
moderate earthquake activity that leaves windows of glass, which is relatively
brittle (i.e., lacking in ductility), cracked, while steel-support framing still func-
tions normally. Third, a freshly cut steel surface has a characteristic metallic lus-
ter; and fourth, a steel bar shares a fundamental characteristic with other metals:
It is a good conductor of electrical current.
Among the most familiar uses of structural steel are bridges, and one of the
most famous and beautiful examples is the Golden Gate Bridge connecting San
Francisco, California with Marin County to the north (Figure 1.2). The opening
on May 27, 1937, allowed 200,000 local residents to stroll across the impressive
M01_SHAC0996_09_GE_C01.indd 19 10/10/2022 19:40

FIGURE 1.2 The Golden Gate Bridge north of San Francisco, California, is one of the
most famous and most beautiful examples of a steel bridge. (© LOOK Die Bildagentur
der Fotografen GmbH / Alamy.)
new structure. The following day, a ribbon cutting ceremony inaugurated auto-
mobile traffic that has continued to be an important part of the fabric of life in
the San Francisco Bay area for more than 80 years. For many years, the Golden
Gate held the title of “longest suspension bridge” in the world (2,737 meters).
Although new bridge technologies have provided newer holders of that title, the
Golden Gate is still, in the words of a local historian, a “symphony in steel.”
Steel bridges continue to provide a combination of function and beauty with
the Sundial Bridge in Redding, California being a stunning example (Figure 1.3).
The Redding Bridge is a 66-meter pedestrian walkway designed by the famous
Spanish architect Santiago Calatrava. It connects a walking trail system with the
Turtle Bay Exploration Park. New bridges like this one are not merely serving as
sculptural art projects. The aging infrastructure, including many bridges built as
long as a century ago, also provides a challenge to engineers and the requirement
for both maintenance and replacement of these important structures.
In Chapter 2, the nature of metals will be defined and placed in perspec-
tive relative to the other categories. It is useful to consider the extent of metallic
behavior in the currently known range of chemical elements. Figure 1.4 highlights
the chemical elements in the periodic table that are inherently metallic. This is a
large family indeed. The shaded elements are the bases of the various engineer-
ing alloys, including the irons and steels (from Fe), aluminum alloys (Al), mag-
nesium alloys (Mg), titanium alloys (Ti), nickel alloys (Ni), zinc alloys (Zn), and
copper alloys (Cu) [including the brasses (Cu, Zn)].
M01_SHAC0996_09_GE_C01.indd 20 10/10/2022 19:40

FIGURE 1.3 The Sundial Bridge in Redding, California is a modern masterpiece of bridge
design.
IA 0
1 2
H II A III A IV A V A VI A VII A He
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be B C N O F Ne
11 12 VIII 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg III B IV B V B VI B VII B IB II B Al Si P S Cl Ar
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
87 88 89 104 105 106
Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg
58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lw
FIGURE 1.4 Periodic table of the elements. Those elements that are inherently metallic in
nature are shown in color.
TRANSPARENT OXIDES—INTRODUCING CERAMICS

Aluminum (Al) is a common metal, but aluminum oxide, a compound of alumi-
num and oxygen such as Al2O3, is typical of a fundamentally different family of
engineering materials, ceramics. Aluminum oxide has two principal advantages
M01_SHAC0996_09_GE_C01.indd 21 10/10/2022 19:40

FIGURE 1.5 A variety of alumina ceramic products are available for high-temperature
(refractory) applications. (Courtesy of AdValue Technology.)
over metallic aluminum. First, Al2O3 is chemically stable in a wide variety of

severe environments, whereas metallic aluminum would be oxidized (a term
discussed further in Chapter 15). In fact, a common reaction product in the
chemical degradation of aluminum is the more chemically stable oxide. Second,
the ceramic Al2O3 has a significantly higher melting point (2020°C) than does
the metallic Al (660°C), which makes Al2O3 a popular refractory (i.e., a high-
temperature-resistant material of wide use in industrial furnace construction). A
variety of engineered alumina products are shown in Figure 1.5.
With its superior chemical and temperature-resistant properties, why isn’t
Al2O3 used for applications such as automotive engines in place of metallic alumi-
num? The answer to this question lies in the most limiting property of ceramics—
brittleness. Aluminum and other metals have high ductility, a desirable property
that permits them to undergo relatively severe impact loading without fracture,
whereas aluminum oxide and other ceramics lack this property. Thus, ceramics
are eliminated from many structural applications because they are brittle.
A significant achievement in materials technology is the development
of transparent ceramics, which has made possible new products and substantial
improvements in others (e.g., commercial lighting). To make traditionally opaque
ceramics, such as aluminum oxide (Al2O3), into optically transparent materials
required a fundamental change in manufacturing technology. Commercial ceram-
ics are frequently produced by heating crystalline powders to high temperatures
until a relatively strong and dense product results. Traditional ceramics made in
this way contained a substantial amount of residual porosity (see also the Feature
Box, “Structure Leads to Properties”), corresponding to the open space between
the original powder particles prior to high-temperature processing. A significant
reduction in porosity resulted from a relatively simple invention* that involved
*R. L. Coble, U.S. Patent 3,026,210, March 20, 1962.
M01_SHAC0996_09_GE_C01.indd 22 10/10/2022 19:40

THE MATERIAL WORLD
Structure Leads to Properties
To understand the properties or observable char- and a nearly transparent material with an important
acteristics of engineering materials, it is necessary additional property—excellent resistance to chemi-
to understand their structure. Virtually every major cal attack by high-temperature sodium vapor.
property of the six materials’ categories outlined in The example of translucent ceramics shows a
this chapter will be shown to result directly from typical and important demonstration of how prop-
mechanisms occurring on a small scale (usually erties of engineering materials follow directly from
either the atomic or the microscopic level). structure. Throughout this book, we shall be alert to
The dramatic effect that fine-scale structure the continuous demonstration of this interrelation-
has on large-scale properties is well illustrated by ship for all the materials of importance to engineers.
the development of transparent ceramics, just dis- A contemporary example is given in the images
cussed in the introduction to ceramic materials. The below, a microstructure and the resulting translu-
microscopic-scale residual porosity in a traditional cent disc of hydroxyapatite ceramic developed for
aluminum oxide leads to loss of visible light trans- biomedical applications. By using the Field-Assisted
mission (i.e., a loss in transparency) by providing a Sintering Technique (FAST) as highlighted in the
light-scattering mechanism. Each Al2O3—air inter- Feature Box in Chapter 10, researchers were able to
face at a pore surface is a source of light refraction produce a material with minimal porosity (note the
(change of direction). Only about 0.3% porosity can densely packed nano-scale grain structure in part a)
cause Al2O3 to be translucent (capable of transmit- and the resulting ability to transmit a visual image
ting a diffuse image), and 3% porosity can cause the (part b). The effect of porosity on light transmission is
material to be completely opaque. The elimination discussed further in Chapter 14 (e.g., Figures 14.8 and
of porosity provided by the Lucalox patent (adding 14.9), and the importance of hydroxyapatite in ortho-
0.1 wt % MgO) produced a pore-free microstructure pedic prostheses is discussed further in Chapter 15.
(a) (b)
(Courtesy of T. B. Tran and J. R. Groza, University of California, Davis.)
adding a small amount of impurity (0.1 wt % MgO), which caused the high-tem-
perature densification process for the Al2O3 powder to go to completion. Cylinders
of translucent Al2O3 became the heart of the design of high-temperature (1000°C)
sodium vapor lamps, which provide substantially higher illumination than do con-
ventional lightbulbs (100 lumens/W compared to 15 lumens/W).
M01_SHAC0996_09_GE_C01.indd 23 10/10/2022 19:41

After the invention of transparent aluminum oxide and the result-

ing advancement in lighting technology, ceramic scientists and engineers
have applied a similar approach to a wide range of compositions, includ-
ing the development of ceramics for laser technology, a topic covered
more fully in Chapter 14. A prime example is yttrium-aluminum-oxide
(Y3Al5O12 or YAG), typically with a small amount of neodymium (Nd)
in a solution to provide the lasing property. These Nd:YAG lasers are
used in a wide range of medical and engineering applications, including
manufacturing technologies. It is also important to note that these trans-
parent laser materials are also made by a more traditional technique, viz.
growing large single crystals from a melt as shown in Figure 1.6.
Aluminum oxide is typical of the traditional ceramics, with mag-
nesium oxide (MgO) and silica (SiO2) being other good examples. In
addition, SiO2 is the basis of a large and complex family of silicates,
which includes clays and claylike minerals. Silicon nitride (Si3N4) is an
important nonoxide ceramic used in a variety of structural applications.
The vast majority of commercially important ceramics are chemical
compounds made up of at least one metallic element (see Figure 1.4)
and one of five nonmetallic elements (C, N, O, P, or S). Figure 1.7 illus-
trates the various metals (in light color) and the five key nonmetals (in
dark color) that can be combined to form an enormous range of ceramic
materials. Bear in mind that many commercial ceramics include com-
FIGURE 1.6 An yttrium-aluminum-oxide
pounds and solutions of many more than two elements, just as commer-
(Y3Al5O12 or YAG) crystal grown over
a period of 21 days for use in laser rods. cial metal alloys are composed of many elements.
(James L. Amos / Science Source.)
IA 0
1 2
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be B C N O F Ne
11 12 VIII 13 14 15 16 17 18
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
87 88 89 104 105 106
Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg
58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
FIGURE 1.7 Periodic table with ceramic compounds indicated by a combination of one or
more metallic elements (in light color) with one or more nonmetallic elements (in dark color).
Note that elements silicon (Si) and germanium (Ge) are included with the metals in this
figure but were not included in the periodic table shown in Figure 1.4. They are included here
because, in elemental form, Si and Ge behave as semiconductors (Figure 1.16). Elemental tin
(Sn) can be either a metal or a semiconductor, depending on its crystalline structure.
M01_SHAC0996_09_GE_C01.indd 24 10/10/2022 19:41

SMARTPHONES AND TABLETS—INTRODUCING GLASSES

The metals and ceramics just introduced have a similar structural feature on the
atomic scale: They are crystalline, which means that their constituent atoms are
stacked together in a regular, repeating pattern. A distinction between metallic-
and ceramic-type materials is that, by fairly simple processing techniques, many
ceramics can be made in a noncrystalline form (i.e., their atoms are stacked in
irregular, random patterns), which is illustrated in Figure 1.8. The general term
for noncrystalline solids with compositions comparable to those of crystal-
line ceramics is glass (Figure 1.9). Most common glasses are silicates; ordinary
(a) (b)
FIGURE 1.8 Schematic comparison of the atomic-scale structure of (a) a ceramic

(crystalline) and (b) a glass (noncrystalline). The yellow circles represent a nonmetallic
atom, and the green circles represent a metal atom.
FIGURE 1.9 Some common silicate glasses for engineering applications. These materials
combine the important qualities of transmitting clear visual images and resisting
chemically aggressive environments. (Courtesy of Corning Glass Works.)
M01_SHAC0996_09_GE_C01.indd 25 10/10/2022 19:41

window glass is approximately 72% silica (SiO2) by weight, with the balance of
the material being primarily sodium oxide (Na2O) and calcium oxide (CaO).
Glasses share the property of brittleness with crystalline ceramics. Glasses are
important engineering materials because of other properties, such as their ability
to transmit visible light (as well as ultraviolet and infrared radiation) and chemi-
cal inertness.
In the decade following the introduction of the Apple iPhone in 2007, the
annual sales of smartphones increased from 122 million to 1.5 billion in 2017.
By 2025, there will be an estimated 6 billion mobile subscribers, roughly 70%
of the earth’s population. The introduction of the Apple iPad in 2010 led to the
similarly expanding role of tablet devices in our daily lives. The cover glass in
these increasingly ubiquitous devices is one of the most common state-of-the-
art glass materials used by the general public. As such device users are painfully
aware, a major criterion for the cover glass, beyond the obvious optical transpar-
ency, is resistance to mechanical damage (scratching and breakage). A practical
technique to provide improved mechanical performance is “chemical strengthen-
ing,” as discussed in Section 6.6 in which the chemical substitution of some rela-
tively large potassium ions for the smaller sodium ions in the silicate glass creates
a compressive surface state that effectively resists such damage. Figure 1.10 shows
some contemporary examples.
NYLON PARACHUTES—INTRODUCING POLYMERS

A major impact of modern engineering technology on everyday life has been
made by the class of materials known as polymers. An alternative name for this
(a) (b)
FIGURE 1.10 (a) The smartphone and tablet have joined the laptop computer as integral
parts of our personal and business lives. (© wavebreakmedia / Shutterstock) (b) Damage-
resistant cover glass is a central component of the design of iPhone 11. (Courtesy of
Apple Inc.)
M01_SHAC0996_09_GE_C01.indd 26 10/10/2022 19:41

category is plastics, which describes the extensive formability of many poly-

mers during fabrication. These synthetic, or human-made, materials represent a
special branch of organic chemistry. Examples of inexpensive, functional poly-
mer products are readily available to each of us (Figure 1.11). The “mer” in a
polymer is a single hydrocarbon molecule such as ethylene (C2H4). Polymers
are long-chain molecules composed of many mers bonded together. The most
common commercial polymer is polyethylene -(C2H4)-n where n can range from
approximately 100 to 1,000. Figure 1.12 shows the relatively limited portion of
the periodic table that is associated with commercial polymers. Many important
polymers, including polyethylene, are simply compounds of hydrogen and car-
bon. Others contain oxygen (e.g., acrylics), nitrogen (nylons), fluorine (fluoro-
plastics), and silicon (silicones).
Nylon is an especially familiar example. Polyhexamethylene adipamide, or
nylon, is a member of the family of synthetic polymers known as polyamides
invented in 1935 at the DuPont Company. Nylon was the first commercially suc-
cessful polymer and was initially used as bristles in toothbrushes (1938) followed
by the highly popular use as an alternative to silk stockings (1940). Developed as
a synthetic alternative to silk, nylon became the focus of an intensive effort dur-
ing the early stages of World War II to replace the diminishing supply of Asian
silk for parachutes and other military supplies. At the beginning of World War II,
the fiber industry was dominated by the natural materials cotton and wool. By
the end, synthetic fibers accounted for 25% of the market share. A contemporary
example of a nylon parachute is shown in Figure 1.13. Today, nylon remains a
FIGURE 1.11 Polymers are the basis of a wide range of common consumer products,
often available for recycling. (PBWPIX / Alamy.)
M01_SHAC0996_09_GE_C01.indd 27 10/10/2022 19:41

IA 0
1 2
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be B C N O F Ne
11 12 VIII 13 14 15 16 17 18
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
87 88 89 104 105 106
Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg
58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
FIGURE 1.12 Periodic table with the elements associated with commercial polymers
in color.
FIGURE 1.13 Since its development during World War II, nylon fabric remains the most
popular material of choice for parachute designs. (Courtesy of Stringer/Agence France
Presse/Getty Images.)
M01_SHAC0996_09_GE_C01.indd 28 10/10/2022 19:41

popular fiber material, but it is also widely used in solid form for applications
such as gears and bearings.
As the descriptive title implies, plastics commonly share with metals the
desirable mechanical property of ductility. Unlike brittle ceramics, polymers
are frequently lightweight, low-cost alternatives to metals in structural design
applications. The nature of chemical bonding in polymeric materials will be
explored in Chapter 2. Important bonding-related properties include lower
strength compared with metals and lower melting point and higher chemical
reactivity compared with ceramics and glasses. In spite of their limitations,
polymers are highly versatile and useful materials. Substantial progress has
been made in recent decades in the development of engineering polymers with
sufficiently high strength and stiffness to permit substitution for traditional
structural metals.
KEVLAR®-REINFORCED TIRES—INTRODUCING COMPOSITES

The structural engineering materials we have discussed so far—metals, c eramics/
glasses, and polymers—contain various elements and compounds that can be
classified by their chemical bonding. Metals are associated with metallic bond-
ing, ceramics/glasses with ionic bonding, and polymers with covalent bonding.
Such classifications are described further in Chapter 2. Another important set
of materials is made up of some combinations of individual materials from the
previous categories. This fourth group is composites, and an excellent example is
fiberglass. This composite of glass fibers embedded in a polymer matrix is com-
monplace (Figure 1.14). Characteristic of good composites, fiberglass has the best
FIGURE 1.14 Example of a fiberglass composite composed of microscopic-scale

reinforcing glass fibers in a polymer matrix. (Courtesy of Owens-Corning Fiberglas
Corporation.)
M01_SHAC0996_09_GE_C01.indd 29 10/10/2022 19:41

FIGURE 1.15 Kevlar reinforcement is a popular application in modern high-performance

tires. In this case, an automobile is subjected to aquaplaning at a test track. (© Culture-
images GmbH / Alamy.)
properties of each component, producing a product that is superior to either of

the components separately. The high strength of the small-diameter glass fibers is
combined with the ductility of the polymer matrix to produce a strong m aterial
capable of withstanding the normal loading required of a structural material.
There is no need to illustrate a region of the periodic table as characteristic of
composites, since they involve virtually the entire table except for the noble
gases (column 0), equivalent to an overlay of the periodic table coverage for met-
als, ceramics, and polymers combined.
Kevlar fiber reinforcements provide significant advances over traditional
glass fibers for polymer–matrix composites. Kevlar is a DuPont trade name for
poly p-phenyleneterephthalamide (PPD-T), a para-aramid. Substantial progress
has been made in developing new polymer matrices, such as polyetherether-
ketone (PEEK) and polyphenylene sulfide (PPS). These materials have the
advantages of increased toughness and recyclability. Kevlar-reinforced polymers
are used in pressure vessels, and Kevlar reinforcement is widely used in tires
(Figure 1.15). Kevlar was developed in 1965 and has been used commercially
since the early 1970s. It is especially popular for demanding applications given
that its strength-to-weight ratio is five times that of structural steel. The modern
automobile tire is an especially good example.
SILICON CHIPS—INTRODUCING SEMICONDUCTORS

Although polymers are highly visible engineering materials that have had a major
impact on contemporary society, semiconductors are relatively invisible but have
M01_SHAC0996_09_GE_C01.indd 30 10/10/2022 19:41

had a comparable social impact. Technology has clearly revolutionized society,

but solid-state electronics has revolutionized technology itself. A relatively small
group of elements and compounds has an important electrical property, semicon-
duction, in which they are neither good electrical conductors nor good electri-
cal insulators. Instead, their ability to conduct electricity is intermediate. These
materials are called semiconductors, and in general they do not fit into any of
the structural materials categories based on atomic bonding. As discussed earlier,
metals are inherently good electrical conductors. Ceramics and polymers (non-
metals) are generally poor conductors, but good insulators. An important section
of the periodic table is shown in dark color in Figure 1.16. These three semicon-
ducting elements (Si, Ge, and Sn) from column IV A serve as a kind of boundary
between metallic and nonmetallic elements. Silicon (Si) and germanium (Ge),
widely used elemental semiconductors, are excellent examples of this class of
materials. Precise control of chemical purity allows precise control of electronic
properties. As techniques have been developed to produce variations in chemical
purity over small regions, sophisticated electronic circuitry has been produced
in exceptionally small areas (Figure 1.17). Such microcircuitry is the basis of the
current revolution in technology.
The elements shaded in light color in Figure 1.16 form compounds that are
semiconducting. Examples include gallium arsenide (GaAs), which is used as
a high-temperature rectifier and a laser material, and cadmium sulfide (CdS),
which is used as a relatively low-cost solar cell for conversion of solar energy to
useful electrical energy. The various compounds formed by these elements show
similarities to many of the ceramic compounds.
IA 0
1 2
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be B C N O F Ne
11 12 VIII 13 14 15 16 17 18
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
87 88 89 104 105 106
Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg
58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
FIGURE 1.16 Periodic table with the elemental semiconductors in dark color and
those elements that form semiconducting compounds in light color. The semiconducting
compounds are composed of pairs of elements from columns III and V (e.g., GaAs) or
from columns II and VI (e.g., CdS).
M01_SHAC0996_09_GE_C01.indd 31 10/10/2022 19:41

(a) (b)
FIGURE 1.17 (a) Typical microcircuit containing a complex array of semiconducting

regions. (Michael W. Davidson / Science Source.) (b) State-of-the-art microcircuitry has
gone beyond the micro-scale into the nano-scale, as shown by this cross section of an
“8 nm generation” device. The 8 nm “gates” are at the top of the pointed silicon fins, seen
here in cross-section. (Micrograph courtesy of TechInsights.)
1.4 Processing and Selecting Materials

Our use of materials in modern technology ultimately depends on our ability to
make those materials. In Chapters 11 through 13, we will discuss how each of the
six types of materials is produced. The topic of materials processing serves two
functions. First, it provides a fuller understanding of the nature of each type of
material. Second, and more importantly, it provides an appreciation of the effects
of processing history on properties.
We shall find that processing technology ranges from traditional methods
such as metal casting to the most contemporary techniques of electronic micro-
circuit fabrication (Figure 1.18). In Section 1.3, we answered the question, “What
materials are available to me?” We must next face a new and obvious question:
“Which material do I now select for a particular application?” Materials selection
is the final practical decision in the engineering design process and can deter-
mine that design’s ultimate success or failure. Figure 1.19 illustrates a simple and
popular visual summary of the overall nature of the field of materials science and
engineering—the materials tetrahedron. While the concept of “structure leads to
FIGURE 1.18 The modern integrated circuit

fabrication laboratory represents the state of
the art in materials processing. (Courtesy of the
College of Engineering, University of California,
Davis.)
M01_SHAC0996_09_GE_C01.indd 32 10/10/2022 19:42

SECTION 1.5 Looking at Materials by Powers of Ten 33
Properties
Performance
Processing
Structure
FIGURE 1.19 The materials tetrahedron represents the fundamental relationship between
“structure” and “properties” introduced in the Feature Box in this chapter as well as
how “processing” technologies affect the properties and how the “performance” of an
engineering design ultimately follows from those relationships.
properties,” introduced in the Feature Box in this chapter, is a fundamental con-

cept, “structure” and “properties” are only two of the corners of this tetrahedron.
As just discussed, “processing” technologies can also have a profound effect on
the properties of the material. Finally, “performance” indicates that the appropri-
ate selection of a material contributes to a successful engineering design.
1.5 Looking at Materials by Powers of Ten

In this chapter, we have seen that an underlying principle in materials science and
engineering is that “structure leads to properties,” that is, we explain the behav-
ior of the materials that we use in engineering designs (on the human scale) by
looking at mechanisms that involve the structure of the materials on some fine
scale. This important concept is reminiscent of the delightful short documentary
film Powers of Ten produced by the designers Charles and Ray Eames in 1977
and narrated by the physicist Philip Morrison. That film popularized the concept
that human experience occurs several orders of magnitude below the scale of the
This icon will appear throughout universe and several orders of magnitude above the scale of the atom. For more
the book to highlight discussions details, see: https://www.eamesoffice.com/the-work/powers-of-ten/.
involving the relationship between Throughout the next several chapters, we will see many examples of the
fine-scale structure and material
properties.
relationship of materials properties on the human scale to fine-scale structural
mechanisms. Some mechanisms involve the structure of the materials at the
atomic scale (such as point defects explaining diffusion in Chapter 5), the micro-
scopic scale (such as dislocations explaining plastic deformation in Chapter 6),
or the millimeter scale (such as structural flaws that cause catastrophic failures
as discussed in Chapter 8). For the past two decades, the significance of the
nanoscale has become widely emphasized. For example, the continuing miniatur-
ization of electronic circuits from the microscale to the nanoscale as illustrated in
M01_SHAC0996_09_GE_C01.indd 33 10/10/2022 19:42

Figure 1.17 is making possible faster, smaller, and more portable electronic sys-
tems. So, the appropriate range of “powers of ten” that we discuss in the book is
the human scale: 1 meter

the milliscale: 1 * 10-3 meter
the microscale: 1 * 10-6 meter
the nanoscale: 1 * 10-9 meter
the atomic scale: 1 * 10-10 meter.
The milli-, micro-, and nanoscales follow the SI unit system. The human
scale and atomic scale are practical end points above and below the three SI
scales. It is interesting to note that a typical atomic bond length (about 2 * 10-10
meter) is a full ten orders of magnitude smaller than the height of an average
person (about 2 meters).
Summary
The wide range of materials available to engineers of transparent ceramics has required careful control
can be divided into six categories: metals, ceramics, of a microscopic-scale architecture. Once the prop-
glasses, polymers, composites, and semiconductors. erties of materials are understood, the appropriate
The first four categories can be associated with three material for a given application can be processed and
distinct types of atomic bonding. Composites involve selected. We now move on to the body of the text,
combinations of two or more materials from the previ- with the term materials science and engineering serv-
ous four categories. The first five categories comprise ing to define this branch of engineering. This term
the structural materials. Semiconductors comprise a also provides the key words that describe the various
separate category of electronic materials that is distin- parts of the text: science S the fundamentals covered
guished by its unique, intermediate electrical conduc- in Chapters 2 through 10, materials S the structural
tivity. Understanding the human-scale properties of and electronic, optical, and magnetic materials of
these various materials requires examination of struc- Chapters 11 through 14, and engineering S materials
ture at some fine scale. For example, the development in engineering design as discussed in Chapter 15.
Key Terms
Many technical journals now include a set of key terms with each article. These words serve the practical purpose of infor-
mation retrieval but also provide a convenient summary of important concepts in that publication. In this spirit, a list of key
terms will be given at the end of each chapter. Students can use this list as a convenient guide to the major concepts that they
should be learning from that chapter. A comprehensive glossary provided in Appendix 6 gives definitions of the key terms
from all chapters.
alloy (18) Iron Age (18) polyethylene (27)

brittle (19) Kevlar (30) polymer (26)
Bronze Age (18) materials selection (32) polymer–matrix composite (30)
ceramic (21) metallic (19) processing (32)
composite (29) microcircuitry (31) refractory (22)
crystalline (25) noncrystalline (25) semiconductor (31)
ductility (19) nonmetallic (24) silica (24)
fiberglass (29) nylon (27) silicate (24)
glass (25) plastic (27) Stone Age (17)
M01_SHAC0996_09_GE_C01.indd 34 10/10/2022 19:42

CHAPTER 1 References 35
References
At the end of each chapter, a short list of selected references Callister, W.D. and D.G. Rethwisch, Materials Science and
will be cited to indicate some primary sources of related Engineering—An Introduction, 10th ed., John Wiley &
information for the student who wishes to do outside read- Sons, Inc., Hoboken, NJ, 2018.
ing. For Chapter 1, the references are some of the general Smith, W. and J. Hashimi, Foundations of Materials Science
textbooks in the field of materials science and engineering. and Engineering, 6th ed., McGraw-Hill Higher Education,
Askeland, D.R. and W.J. Wright, The Science and Boston, MA, 2019.
Engineering of Materials, 7th ed., Cengage, Independence,
KY, 2016.
M01_SHAC0996_09_GE_C01.indd 35 10/10/2022 19:42

M01_SHAC0996_09_GE_C01.indd 36 10/10/2022 19:42

PART I
The Fundamentals
CHAPTER 2 Atomic Bonding
CHAPTER 3 Crystalline Structure—Perfection
CHAPTER 4 Crystal Defects and Noncrystalline
Structure—Imperfection
CHAPTER 5 Diffusion
CHAPTER 6 Mechanical Behavior
CHAPTER 7 Thermal Behavior
CHAPTER 8 Failure Analysis and Prevention
CHAPTER 9 Phase Diagrams—Equilibrium
Microstructural Development
CHAPTER 10 Kinetics—Heat Treatment
M02_SHAC0996_09_GE_C02.indd 37 10/10/2022 19:54

W e begin our exploration of the field of
materials science and engineering by focus-
ing on materials science. Chapters 2 through
10 cover a variety of fundamental topics from
physics and chemistry. A student may well have
encountered many of the concepts in Chapter 2
(atomic bonding) in previous courses. Of spe-
cial interest to the field of materials science is
A central principle of materials
science is that the properties
the role of atomic bonding in providing a clas-
of materials that permit their sification scheme for materials. Metallic, ionic, and covalent bonding roughly
engineering applications can be correspond to the categories of structural materials: metals, ceramics/glasses,
understood by examining the and polymers. Semiconductors, an important category of electronic materials,
structure of those materials on generally correspond to covalent bonding. Chapter 3 introduces the crystalline
a small scale. The instrument
shown above is a scanning
structures of many engineered materials and includes an introduction to x-ray
electron microscope that can diffraction, an important tool for determining crystal structure. Chapter 4 identi-
provide higher magnifications fies various imperfections that can occur relative to the crystalline structures of
with a greater depth of field than Chapter 3. In Chapter 5, we see that some of these structural defects play a cen-
possible with traditional optical tral role in solid-state diffusion, and, in Chapter 6, we find that other defects are
microscopes. Shown on the facing
page is a micrograph produced
responsible for some of the mechanical behavior of materials. Chapter 7 intro-
using such an instrument. The duces the thermal behavior of materials, and, in Chapter 8, we see that certain
image shows particles trapped on mechanical and thermal processes (such as machining and welding) can lead to
the fibers of an air filter recovered the failure of materials. In Chapter 9, we are introduced to phase diagrams that
from near the World Trade serve as useful tools for predicting the microscopic-scale structures of materials
Center attack of September 11,
2001. Such analyses were used to
that are produced at a relatively slow rate, maintaining equilibrium along the
determine the nature of particulate way. In Chapter 10 on kinetics, we see the effect of more rapid heat treatments
air pollution in the vicinity of the that lead to additional microstructures. Throughout Part I, we will find that fun-
attack and its potential effect on damental principles from physics and chemistry underlie the practical behavior
human health. (Courtesy of the of engineered materials.
Department of Materials Science
and Engineering University of
California, Davis.)
38
M02_SHAC0996_09_GE_C02.indd 38 10/10/2022 19:54

CHAPTER 2
Atomic Bonding
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you should be
able to:
1. (a) Identify the basic structural
components of an atom and
understand the related terminology,
such as amu, energy levels, and
energy orbitals.
(b) Sketch the bonding force and
bonding energy curves and
understand the relationship
between the two curves.
(c) Explain the relationship between
atomic structure and the periodic
table of the elements.
Computer models of the structures of materials on the atomic scale 2. (a) Describe the nature of the ionic
require accurate knowledge of the bonding between adjacent atoms. bond between a cation and an
In this model of a molecule that plays an important role in organic
photovoltaic materials, atoms are shown as spheres joined by anion, including the calculation of
covalent bonds. (Courtesy of Roland Faller, Adam Moule, and Varuni bonding force and bond length.
Dantanarayana, University of California, Davis.)
(b) Calculate the coordination number
and radius ratio for anions
surrounding cations.
3. Describe the nature of the highly directional covalent bond and
its role in forming polymeric molecules.
4. Describe the nature of the nondirectional electron sharing in
the metallic bond that gives metals their characteristically high
electrical conductivity.
5. Describe the nature of secondary, or van der Waals bonding, and
its distinction from primary bonding.
6. Relate the role of the various types of atomic bonding to the
categories of engineering materials.
C hapter 1 introduced the basic types of materials available to engineers. One

basis of that classification system is found in the nature of atomic bonding in
materials. Atomic bonding falls into two general categories. Primary bonding
39
M02_SHAC0996_09_GE_C02.indd 39 10/10/2022 19:54

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
The researches into the Chancery of Hanover, which Walpole left
to posterity, appear to have been made, and the decree of the
Consistorial Court which condemned Sophia Dorothea has been
copied and published. It is quoted in the ‘Life of the Princess,’
published anonymously in 1845, and it is inserted below for the
benefit of those who like to read history by the light of documents.
It has been said that such a decree could only have been
purchased by rank bribery, which is likely enough; for the courts of
Germany were so utterly corrupt that nothing could equal them in
infamy—except the corruption which prevailed in England.
‘In the matrimonial suit of the illustrious Prince George Louis,
Crown Prince of Hanover, against his consort, the illustrious Princess
Sophia Dorothea, we, constituted president and judges of the
Matrimonial Court of the Electorate and Duchy of Brunswick-
Lunenberg, declare and pronounce judgment, after attempts have
been tried and have failed, to settle the matter amicably, and, in
accordance with the documents and verbal declarations of the
Princess, and other detailed circumstances, we agree that her
continued denial of matrimonial duty and cohabitation is well
founded, and consequently that it is to be considered as an
intentional desertion. In consequence whereof, we consider,
sentence, and declare the ties of matrimony to be entirely dissolved
and annulled. Since, in similar cases of desertion, it has been
permitted to the innocent party to re-marry, which the other is
forbidden, the same judicial power will be exercised in the present
instance in favour of his Serene Highness the Crown Prince.
‘Published in the Consistorial Court at Hanover, December 28th,
1694.
(Signed) ‘Phillip Von Busche.
Francis Eichfeld (Pastor).
Anthony George Hildberg.
Gerhardt Art.
Gustavus Molan.
Bernhard Spilken.
Erythropal.
David Rupertus.
H. L. Hattorf.’
The work from which the above document is extracted furnishes

also the following, as a copy of the letter written by the princess at
the request of the legal conductor of her case, as ‘security from
proceedings in relation to his connexion with her affairs:’—
‘As we have now, after being made acquainted with the
sentence, given it proper consideration, and resolved not to offer any
opposition to it, our solicitor must act accordingly, and is not to act or
proceed any further in this matter. For the rest, we hereby declare
that we are gratefully content with the conduct of our aforesaid
solicitor of the Court, Thies, and that by this we free him from all
responsibility regarding these transactions.
(Signed) ‘Sophia Dorothea.
‘Lauenau, December 31, 1694.’
By this last document it would seem that the Hof-Rath Thies
would have denied the competency of the court had he been
permitted to do so; and that he was so convinced of its illegality as to
require a written prohibition from asserting the same, and
acknowledgment of exemption from all responsibility, before he
would feel satisfied that he had accomplished his duty towards his
illustrious client.
Long before the case was heard, and four months previous to
the publication of the sentence of the Consistorial Court, the two
brothers, the Elector of Hanover and the Duke of Zell, had actually
agreed by an enactment that the unhappy marriage between the
cousins should be dissolved. The enactment provided for the means
whereby this end was to be achieved, and for the disposal of the
princess during the progress of the case. The anonymous author of
the biography of 1845 then proceeds to state that ‘It was therein
specified that her domestics should take a particular oath, and that
the princess should enjoy an annual income of eight thousand
thalers (exclusive of the wages of her household), to be increased
one-half on the death of her father, with a further increase of six
thousand thalers on her attaining the age of forty years. It was
provided that the castle of Ahlden should be her permanent
residence, where she was to remain well guarded. The domain of
Wilhelmsburg, near Hamburg, was, at the death of the Duke of Zell,
to descend to the prince, son of the Princess Sophia Dorothea—the
Crown Prince, however, during his own life retaining the revenues;
but should the grandson die before his father, the property would
then, on payment of a stipulated sum, be inherited by the successor
in the government of the son of the Elector. By a further
arrangement, the mother of the princess was to possess
Wienhausen, with an annual income of twelve thousand thalers,
secured on the estates of Schernebeck, Garze, and Bluettingen; the
castle at Lunenburg to be allowed as her residence from the
commencement of her widowhood.’
Never was so much care taken to secure property on one side,
and the person on the other. The contracting parties appear to have
been afraid lest the prisoner should ever have an opportunity of
appealing against the wrong of which she was made the victim; and
her strait imprisonment was but the effect of that fear. That nothing
might be neglected to make assurance doubly sure, and to deprive
her of any help she might hope hereafter to receive at the hands of a
father, whose heart might possibly be made to feel his own injustice
and his daughter’s sorrows, the Duke of Zell was induced to promise
that he would neither see nor hold communication with the daughter
he had repudiated.
During the so-called trial, at Lauenau, the princess resided in the
chief official residence in that place. At the close of the inquiry she
took a really final leave of her children—George Augustus and
Sophia Dorothea—with bitter tears, which would have been more
bitter still if she had thought that she was never again to look upon
them. She had concluded that she would have liberty to live with her
mother in Zell. She had no idea that her father had already agreed to
his brother the Elector’s desire that she should be shut up in the
castle of Ahlden. She found herself a state prisoner.
The oath to be taken by her appointed household, or rather by
the personal attendants—counts and countesses in waiting and
persons of similar rank—was stringent and illustrative of the
importance attached to the safe-keeping of the prisoner. It was to the
effect ‘that nothing should be wanting to prevent anticipated
intrigues; or for the perfect security of the place fixed as a residence
for the Princess Sophia Dorothea, in order to maintain tranquility,
and to prevent any opportunity occurring to an enemy for
undertaking or imagining anything which might cause a division in
the illustrious family.’
CHAPTER IX.
PRISON AND PALACE.
The prison of the captive Sophia Dorothea—Employment of her time—The

church of Ahlden repaired by her—Cut off from her children—Sympathy of
Ernest Augustus for his daughter-in-law—Her father’s returning affection
for her—Opening prospects of the House of Hanover—Lord Macclesfield’s
embassy to Hanover, and his right-royal reception—Description of the
Electress—Toland’s description of Prince George Louis—Magnificent
present to Lord Macclesfield—The Princess Sophia and the English liturgy
—Death of the Duke of Zell—Visit of Prince George to his captive mother
prevented.
The castle of Ahlden is situated on the small and sluggish stream,

the Aller; and seems to guard, as it once oppressed, the little village
sloping at its feet. This edifice was appointed as the prison-place of
Sophia Dorothea; and from the territory she acquired a title, that of
Duchess of Ahlden. She was mockingly called sovereign lady of a
locality where all were free but herself!
On looking over the list of the household which was formed for
the service, if the phrase be one that may be admitted, of her
captivity, the first thing which strikes us as singular is the presence of
‘three cooks’—a triad of ‘ministers of the mouth’ for one poor
imprisoned lady!
The singularity vanishes when we find that around this encaged
duchess there circled a really extensive household, and there lived a
world of ceremony, of which no one was so much the slave as she
was. Her captivity in its commencement was decked with a certain
sort of splendour, about which she, who was its object, cared by far
the least. There was a military governor of the castle, gentlemen and
ladies in waiting—spies all. Among the honester servants of the
house were a brace of pages and as many valets, a dozen female
domestics, and fourteen footmen, who had to undergo the intense
labour of doing very little in a very lengthened space of time. To
supply the material wants of these, the three cooks, one
confectioner, a baker, and a butler, were provided. There was,
besides, a military force, consisting of infantry and artillery.
Altogether, there must have been work enough for the three cooks.
The forms of a court were long maintained, although only on a
small scale. The duchess held her little levées, and the local
authorities, clergy, and neighbouring nobility and gentry offered her
such respect as could be manifested by paying her visits on certain
appointed days. These visits, however, were always narrowly
watched by the officials, whose office lay in such service and was hid
beneath a show of duty.
The successive governors of the castle were men of note, and
their presence betokened the importance attached to the person and
safe keeping of the captive. During the first three years of her
imprisonment, the post of governor was held by the Hof Grand-
Marshal von Bothmar. He was succeeded by the Count Bergest, who
enjoyed his equivocal dignity of gaoler-governor about a quarter of a
century. During the concluding years of the imprisonment of Sophia,
her seneschal was a relative of one of her judges, Georg von
Busche.
These men behaved to their prisoner with as much courtesy as
they dared to show; nor was her captivity severe in anything but the
actual deprivation of liberty, and of all intercourse with those she best
loved, until after the first few years. The escape of Fräulein
Knesebeck from her place of confinement appears to have given the
husband of Sophia Dorothea an affectionate uneasiness, which he
evidenced by giving orders that his wife’s safe-keeping should be
maintained with greater stringency.
From the day of the issuing of that order, she was never allowed
to walk, even in the garden of the castle, without a guard. She never
rode out, or drove through the neighbouring woods, without a strong
escort. Even parts of the castle were prohibited from being intruded
upon by her; and so much severity was shown in this respect, that
when, on one occasion, a fire broke out in the edifice, to escape from
which she must have traversed a gallery which she was forbidden to
pass, she stood short of the proscribed limit, her jewel-box in her
arms, and herself in almost speechless terror, but refusing to
advance beyond the prohibited line until permission reached her
from the proper authority.
On such a prisoner time must have hung especially heavy. She
had, however, many resources, and every hour, with her, had its
occupation. She was the land-steward of her little ducal estate, and
performed all the duties of that office. She kept a diary of her
thoughts as well as actions; and if this be extant it would be well
worthy of being published. The one which has been put forth as hers
is a poor work of fancy by some writer unknown, set in dramatic
scenes, and altogether to be rejected. Her correspondence, during
the period she was permitted to write, was extensive. Every day she
had interviews with, and gave instructions to, each of her servants,
from the chief of the three cooks downwards. With this, she was
personally active in charity. Finally, she was the Lady Bountiful of the
district, laying out half her income in charitable uses for the good of
her neighbours, and, as Boniface said of the good lady of Lichfield,
‘curing more people in and about the place within ten years, than the
doctors had killed in twenty; and that’s a bold word.’
There was a church in the village, which was in rather ruinous
condition when her captivity commenced; but this she put in
thorough repair, decorated it handsomely, presented it with an organ,
and was refused permission to attend there after it had been
reopened for public service. For her religious consolation a chaplain
had been provided, and she was never trusted, even under guard, to
join with the villagers in common worship in the church of the village
below. In this respect a somewhat royal etiquette was observed. The
chaplain read prayers to the garrison and household in one room, to
which the princess and her ladies listened rather than therewith
joined, placed as they were in an adjacent room, where they could
hear without being seen.
With no relative was she allowed to hold never so brief an
interview; and at last even her mother was not permitted to soften by
her presence for an hour the rigid and ceremonious captivity of her
luckless daughter. Mother and child were allowed to correspond at
stated periods, their letters passing open. The princess herself was
as much cut off from her own children as if these had been dead and
entombed. The little prince and princess were expressly ordered to
utterly forget that they had a mother—her very name on their lips
would have been condemned as a grievous fault. The boy, George
Augustus, was in many points of character similar to his father, and,
accordingly, being commanded to forget his mother, he obstinately
bore her in memory; and when he was told that he would never have
an opportunity afforded him to see her, mentally resolved to make
one for himself.
It is but justice to the old Elector to say that in his advanced
years, when pleasant sins were no longer profitable to him, he gave
them up; and when the youngest of his mistresses had ceased to be
attractive, he began to think such appendages little worth the
hanging on to his Electoral dignity. For, ceasing to love and live with
his ‘favourites,’ he did not the more respect, or hold closer
intercourse with, his wife—a course about which the Electress
Sophia troubled herself very little.
Ernest Augustus, when he ceased to be under the influence of
the disgraced Countess von Platen, began to be sensible of some
sympathy for his daughter-in-law, Sophia. He softened in some
degree the rigour of her imprisonment and corresponded with her by
letter; a correspondence which inspired her with hope that her
freedom might result from it. This hope was, however, frustrated by
the death of Ernest Augustus, on the 20th of January 1698. From
that time the rigour of her imprisonment was increased fourfold.
If the heart of her old father-in-law began to incline towards her
as he increased in years, it is not to be wondered at that the heart of
her aged father melted towards her as time began to press heavily
upon him. But it was the weakest of hearts allied to the weakest of
minds. In the comfortlessness of his great age he sought to be
comforted by loving her whom he had insanely and unnaturally
oppressed—the sole child of his heart and house. In his weakness
he addressed himself to that tool of Hanover at Zell, the minister
Bernstorf; and that individual so terrified the poor old man by details
of the ill consequences which might ensue if the wrath of the new
Elector, George Louis, were aroused by the interference of the Duke
of Zell in matters which concerned the Elector and his wife, that the
old man, feeble in mind and body, yielded, and for a time at least left
his daughter to her fate. He thought to compensate for the wrong
which he inflicted on her under the impulse of his evil genius,
Bernstorf, by adding a codicil to his will.
By this codicil he bequeathed to the daughter whom he had
wronged all that it was in his power to leave, in jewels, moneys, and
lands; but liberty he could not give her, and so his love could do little
more than try to lighten the fetters which he had aided to put on. But
there was a short-lived joy in store, both for child and parents. The
fetters were to be cast aside for a brief season, and the poor captive
was to enjoy an hour of home, of love, and of liberty.
The last year of the seventeenth century (1700) brought with it
an accession of greatness to the Electoral family of Hanover,
inasmuch as in that year a bill was introduced into parliament, and
accepted by that body, which fixed the succession to the crown of
England after the Princess Anne, and in default of such princess
dying without heirs of her own body, in the person of Sophia of
Hanover. William III. had been very desirous for the introduction of
this bill; but under various pretexts it had been deferred, the
commonest business being allowed to take precedence of it, until the
century had nearly expired. The limitations to the royal action, which
formed a part of the bill as recommended in the report of the
committee, were little to the King’s taste; for they not only affected
his employment of foreign troops in England, but shackled his own
free and frequent departures from the kingdom. It was imagined by
many that these limitations were designed by the leaders in the
cabinet, in order to raise disputes between the two houses, by which
the bill might be lost. Such is Burnet’s report; and he sarcastically
adds thereto, that when much time had been spent in preliminaries,
and it was necessary to come to the nomination of the person who
should be named presumptive heir next to Queen Anne, the office of
doing so was confided to ‘Sir John Bowles, who was then disordered
in his senses, and soon after quite lost them.’ ‘He was,’ says Burnet,
‘set on by the party to be the first that should name the Electress-
dowager of Brunswick, which seemed done to make it less serious
when moved by such a person.’ So that the solemn question of
naming the heir to a throne was entrusted to an idiot, who, by the
forms of the house, was appointed chairman of the committee for the
conduct of the bill. Burnet adds, that the ‘thing,’ as he calls it, was
‘still put off for many weeks at every time that it was called for; the
motion was entertained with coldness, which served to heighten the
jealousy; the committee once or twice sat upon it, but all the
members ran out of the house with so much indecency that the
contrivers seemed ashamed of this management; there were seldom
fifty or sixty at the committee, yet in conclusion it passed, and was
sent up to the Lords.’ Great opposition was expected from the peers,
and many of their lordships designedly absented themselves from
the discussion. The opposition was slight, and confined to the
Marquis of Normanby, who spoke, and the Lords Huntingdon,
Plymouth, Guildford, and Jefferies, who protested, against the bill.
Burnet affirms, that those who wished well to the Act were glad to
have it passed any way, and so would not examine the limitations
that were in it, and which they thought might be considered
afterwards. ‘We reckoned it,’ says Burnet, ‘a great point carried that
we had now a law on our side for a Protestant successor.’ The law
was stoutly protested against by the Duchess of Savoy, grand-
daughter of Charles I. The protest did not trouble the King, who
despatched the Act to the Electress-dowager, and the Garter to her
son, by the hands of the Earl of Macclesfield.
The earl was a fitting bearer of so costly and significant a
present. He had been attached to the service of the mother of
Sophia, and was highly esteemed by the Electress-dowager herself.
The earl had no especial commission beyond that which enjoined
him to deliver the Act, nor was he dignified by any official appellation.
He was neither ambassador, legate, plenipotentiary, nor envoy. He
had with him, however, a most splendid suite; which was in some
respects strangely constituted, for among its members was the
famous Toland, whose book in support of rationality as applied to
religion had been publicly burnt by the hangman, in Ireland.
The welcome to this body of gentlemen was right royal. It may
be said that the Electoral family had neither cared for the dignity now
rendered probable for them, nor in any way toiled or intrigued to
bring it within their grasp; but it is certain that their joy was great
when the Earl of Macclesfield appeared on the frontier of the
Electorate with the Act in one hand and the Garter in the other. He
and his suite were met there with a welcome of extraordinary
magnificence, betokening ample appreciation of the double gift he
brought with him. He himself seemed elevated by his mission, for he
was in his general deportment little distinguished by courtly manners
or by ceremonious bearing; but it was observed that, on this
occasion, nothing could have been more becoming than the way in
which he acquitted himself of an office which brought a whole family
within view of succession to a royal and powerful throne.
On reaching the confines of the Electorate, the members of the
deputation from England were received by personages of the highest
official rank, who not only escorted them to the capital, but treated
them on the way with a liberality so profuse as to be the wonder of
all beholders. They were not allowed to disburse a farthing from their
own purses; all they thought fit to order was paid for by the Electoral
government, by whose orders they were lodged in the most
commodious palace in Hanover, where as much homage was paid
them as if each man had been a Kaiser in his own person. The
Hanoverian gratitude went so far, that not only were the ambassador
and suite treated as favoured guests, and those not alone of the
princess but of the people—the latter being commanded to refrain
from taking payment from any of them for any article of refreshment
they required—but for many days all English travellers visiting the
city were made equally free of its caravansaries, and were permitted
to enjoy all that the inns could afford without being required to pay
for the enjoyment.
The delicate treatment of the Electoral government extended
even to the servants of the earl and his suite. It was thought that to
require them to dine upon the fragments of their master’s banquets
would be derogatory to the splendour of the hospitality of the House
of Hanover and an insult to the domestics who followed in the train of
the earl. The government accordingly disbursed half-a-crown a day
to each liveried follower, and considered such a ‘composition’ as
glorious to the reputation of the Electoral house. The menials were
even emancipated from service during the sojourn of the deputation
in Hanover, and the Elector’s numerous servants waited upon the
English visitors zealously throughout the day, but with most
splendour in the morning; then, they were to be seen hurrying to the
bed-rooms of the different members of the suite, bearing with them
silver coffee and tea pots, and other requisites for breakfast, which
meal appears to have been lazily indulged in—as if the legation had
been habitually wont to ‘make a night of it’—in bed. And there was a
good deal of hard drinking on these occasions, but all at the expense
of the husband of Sophia Dorothea, who, in her castle of Ahlden,
was not even aware of that increase of honour which had fallen upon
her consort, and in which she had a right to share.
For those who were, the next day, ill or indolent, there were the
ponderous state coaches to carry them whithersoever they would go.
The most gorgeous of the fêtes given on this occasion was on the
evening of the day on which the Act was solemnly presented to the
Electress-dowager. Hanover, famous as it was for its balls, had
never seen so glorious a Terpsichorean festival as marked this
particular night. At the balls in the old Elector’s time Sophia Dorothea
used to shine, first in beauty and in grace; but now her place was ill
supplied by the not fair and quite graceless Mademoiselle von der
Schulenburg. The supper which followed was Olympian in its
profusion, wit, and magnificence. This was at a time when to be
sober was to be respectable, but when to be drunk was not to be
ungentlemanly. Consequently we find Toland, who wrote an account
of the achievements of the day, congratulating himself and readers
by stating that, although it was to be expected that in so large and so
jovial a party some would be found even more ecstatic than the
occasion and the company warranted, yet that, in truth, the number
of those who were guilty of excess was but small. Even Lord Mohun
kept himself sober, and to the end was able to converse as clearly
and intelligibly as Lord Saye and Sele, and his friend ‘my Lord
Tunbridge.’
This day of presentation of the Act, and of the festival in honour
of it, was one of the greatest days which Hanover had ever seen.
Speaking of the mother-in-law of Sophia Dorothea, Toland says:
—‘The Electress is three-and-seventy years old, which she bears so
wonderfully well, that, had I not many vouchers, I should scarce dare
venture to relate it. She has ever enjoyed extraordinary health, which
keeps her still very vigorous, of a cheerful countenance, and a merry
disposition. She steps as firm and erect as any young lady, has not
one wrinkle in her face, which is still very agreeable, nor one tooth
out of her head, and reads without spectacles, as I have often seen
her do, letters of a small character, in the dusk of the evening. She is
as great a writer as our late queen (Mary), and you cannot turn
yourself in the palace without meeting some monument of her
industry, all the chairs of the presence-chamber being wrought with
her own hands. The ornaments of the altar in the electoral chapel
are all of her work. She bestowed the same favour on the Protestant
abbey, or college, of Lockurn, with a thousand other instances, fitter
for your lady to know than for yourself. She is the most constant and
greatest walker I ever knew, never missing a day, if it proves fair, for
one or two hours, and often more, in the fine garden at Herrnhausen.
She perfectly tires all those of her court who attend her in that
exercise but such as have the honour to be entertained by her in
discourse. She has been long admired by all the learned world as a
woman of incomparable knowledge in divinity, philosophy, history,
and the subjects of all sorts of books, of which she has read a
prodigious quantity. She speaks five languages so well, that by her
accent it might be a dispute which of them was her first. They are
Low Dutch, German, French, Italian, and English, which last she
speaks as truly and easily as any native; which to me is a matter of
amazement, whatever advantages she might have in her youth by
the conversation of her mother; for though the late king’s (William’s)
mother was likewise an Englishwoman, of the same royal family;
though he had been more than once in England before the
Revolution; though he was married there, and his court continually
full of many of that nation, yet he could never conquer his foreign
accent. But, indeed, the Electress is so entirely English in her
person, in her behaviour, in her humour, and in all her inclinations,
that naturally she could not miss of anything that peculiarly belongs
to our land. She was ever glad to see Englishmen, long before the
Act of Succession. She professes to admire our form of government,
and understands it mighty well, yet she asks so many questions
about families, customs, laws, and the like, as sufficiently
demonstrate her profound wisdom and experience. She has a deep
veneration for the Church of England, without losing affection or
charity for any other sort of Protestants, and appears charmed with
the moderate temper of our present bishops and other of our learned
clergy, especially for their approbation of the liberty allowed by law to
Protestant Dissenters. She is adored for her goodness among the
inhabitants of the country, and gains the hearts of all strangers by
her unparalleled affability. No distinction is ever made in her court
concerning the parties into which Englishmen are divided, and
whereof they carry the effects and impressions with them
whithersoever they go, which makes others sometimes uneasy as
well as themselves. There it is enough that you are an Englishman;
nor can you ever discover by your treatment which are better liked,
the Whigs or the Tories. These are the instructions given to all the
servants, and they take care to execute them with the utmost
exactness. I was the first who had the honour of kneeling and kissing
her hand on account of the Act of Succession; and she said, among
other discourse, that she was afraid the nation had already repented
their choice of an old woman, but that she hoped none of her
posterity would give her any reasons to grow weary of their
dominion. I answered, that the English had too well considered what
they did to change their minds so soon, and they still remembered
they were never so happy as when they were last under a woman’s
government. Since that time, sir,’ adds the courtly but unorthodox
Toland to the ‘Minister of State in Holland,’ to whom his letter is
addressed, ‘we have a further confirmation of this truth by the
glorious administration of Queen Anne.’
The record would be imperfect if it were not accompanied by
another ‘counterfeit presentment,’ that of her son, Prince George
Louis, the husband of Sophia Dorothea. Toland describes him as ‘a
proper, middle-sized, well-proportioned man, of a genteel address,
and good appearance;’ but he adds, that his Highness ‘is reserved,
and therefore speaks little, but judiciously.’ ‘He is not to be
exceeded,’ says Toland, ‘in his zeal against the intended universal
monarchy of France, and so is most hearty for the common cause of
Europe,’ for the very good reason, that therein ‘his own is so
necessarily involved.’ Toland adds, that George Louis understood
the constitution of England better than any ‘foreigner’ he had ever
met with; a very safe remark, for our constitution was ill understood
abroad; and even had the theoretical knowledge of George Louis
been ever so correct, his practice with our constitution betrayed such
ignorance that Toland’s assertion may be taken only for what it is
worth. ‘Though,’ says the writer just named, ‘though he be well
versed in the art of war, and of invincible courage, having often
exposed his person to great dangers in Hungary, in the Morea, on
the Rhine, and in Flanders, yet he is naturally of peaceable
inclination; which mixture of qualities is agreed, by the experience of
all ages, to make the best and most glorious princes. He is a perfect
man of business, exactly regular in the economy of his revenues’
(which he never was of those of England, seeing that he outran his
liberal allowance, and coolly asked the parliament to pay his debts),
‘reads all despatches himself at first hand, writes most of his own
letters, and spends a considerable part of his time about such
occupations, in his closet, and with his ministers.’ ‘I hope,’ Toland
says, ‘that none of our countrymen will be so injudicious as to think
his reservedness the effect of sullenness or pride; nor mistake that
for state which really proceeds from modesty, caution, and
deliberation; for he is very affable to such as accost him, and
expects that others should speak to him first, which is the best
information I could have from all about him, and I partly know to be
true by experience.’... ‘As to what I said of his frugality in laying out
the public money, I need not give a more particular proof than that all
the expenses of his court, as to eating, drinking, fire, candles, and
the like, are duly paid every Saturday night; the officers of his army
receive their pay every month, so likewise his envoys in every part of
Europe; and all the officers of his household, with the rest that are on
the civil list, are cleared off every half-year.’ We are then assured
that his administration was equable, mild, and prudent—a triple
assertion which his own life and that of his hardly-used wife flatly
denied. Toland, however, will have it that there never existed a prince
who was so ardently beloved by his subjects. Hanover itself is said
to be without division or faction, and all Hanoverians as being in a
condition of ecstasy at the Solomon-like rectitude and jurisdiction of
his very Serene Highness. He describes Madame Kielmansegge as
a woman of sense and wit; and of ‘Mademoiselle Schulemberg,’ he
says that she is especially worthy of the rank she enjoys, and that ‘in
the opinion of others, as well as mine, she is a lady of extraordinary
merit!’ Of Sophia Dorothea, Toland makes no note whatever.
There only remains to be added, that the legation left Hanover
loaded with presents. The earl received the portrait of the Electress,
with an Electoral crown in diamonds by way of mounting to the
frame. George Louis bestowed upon him a gold basin and ewer.
Gold medals and snuffboxes were showered among the other
members. The chaplain, Dr. Sandys, was especially honoured by
rich gifts in medals and books. He was the first who ever read the
service of our Church in the presence of the Electress. She joined in
it with apparent fervour, and admired it generally; but when a hint
was conveyed to her that it might be well were she to introduce it in
place of the Calvinistic form used in her chapel, as of the Lutheran in
that of the Elector, she shook her head, with a smile; said that there
was no difference between the three forms, in essentials, and that
episcopacy was merely the established form in England. She
thought for the present she would ‘let well alone.’ And it was done
accordingly!
In the year 1705 the war was raging which France was carrying
on for the purpose of extending her limits and influence, and which
England and her allies had entered into in order to resist such
aggression and restore that terribly oscillating matter—the balance of
European power. The Duke of Marlborough had, at the prayer of the
Dutch States, left the banks of the Moselle, in order to help Holland,
menaced on the side of Liège by a strong French force. Our great
duke left General D’Aubach at Trèves to secure the magazines
which the English and Dutch had laid up there; but upon the
approach of Marshal Villars, D’Aubach destroyed the magazines and
abandoned Trèves, of which the French immediately took
possession. This put an end to all the schemes which had been laid
for attacking France on the side of the Moselle, where her frontiers
were but weak, and carried her confederates back to Flanders,
where, as the old-fashioned chronicler, Salmon, remarks, ‘they
yearly threw away thousands of brave fellows against stone walls.’
Thereupon, Hanover became menaced. On this, Horace Walpole
has something in point:
‘As the genuine wife was always detained in her husband’s
power, he seems not to have wholly dissolved their union; for on the
approach of the French army towards Hanover, during Queen
Anne’s reign, the Duchess of Halle (Ahlden) was sent home to her
father and mother, who doted on their only child, and did retain her
for a whole year, and did implore, though in vain, that she might
continue to reside with them.’ On the return of ‘the genuine wife’ to
captivity some of the old restrictions were taken off. There was no
prohibition of intercourse with the parents; for the Duke of Zell had
resolved on proceeding to visit his daughter, but only deferred his
visit until the conclusion of a grand hunt in which he was anxious to
take part. He went; and between fatigue, exposure to inclement
weather, and neglect on his return, he became seriously ill, rapidly
grew worse, died on the 28th of August 1705, and by his death gave
the domains of a dukedom to Hanover and deprived his daughter of
a newly-acquired friend.
The death of the Duke of Zell was followed by honour to
Bernstorf. George Louis appointed him to the post of prime-minister
of Hanover, and at the same time made him a count. The death of
the father of Sophia Dorothea was, however, followed by
consequences more fatal than those just named. The severity of the
imprisonment of the princess was much aggravated; and though she
was permitted to have an occasional interview with her mother, all
application to be allowed to see her two children was sternly refused
—and this refusal, as the poor prisoner used to remark, was the
bitterest portion of her misery.
It was of her son that George Louis used to say, in later years, ‘Il
est fougueux, mais il a du cœur’—hot-headed but not heartless.
George Augustus manifested this disposition very early in life. He
was on one occasion hunting in the neighbourhood of Luisberg, not
many miles from the scene of his mother’s imprisonment, when he
made a sudden resolution to visit her, regardless of the strict
prohibition against such a course laid on him by his father and the
Hanoverian government. Laying spurs to his horse, he galloped at
full speed from the field, and in the direction of Ahlden. His
astonished suite, seeing the direction which he was following at so
furious a rate, immediately suspected his design and became legally
determined to frustrate it. They left pursuing the stag and took to
chasing the prince. The heir-apparent led them far away over field
and furrow, to the great detriment of the wind and persons of his
pursuers; and he would have distanced the whole body of flying
huntsmen, but that his steed was less fleet than those of two officers
of the Electoral household, who kept close to the fugitive, and at last
came up with him on the skirts of a wood adjacent to Ahlden. With
mingled courtesy and firmness they represented to him that he could
not be permitted to go further in a direction which was forbidden, as
by so doing he would not only be treating the paternal command with
contempt, but would be making them accomplices in his crime of
disobedience. George Augustus, vexed and chafed, argued the
matter with them, appealed to their affections and feelings, and
endeavoured to convince them both as men and as ministers, as
human beings and as mere official red-tapists, that he was
authorised to continue his route to Ahlden by every law, earthly or
divine.
The red-tapists, however, acknowledged no law under such
circumstances but that of their Electoral lord and master, and that
law they would not permit to be broken. Laying hold of the bridle of
the prince’s steed, they turned its head homewards and rode away
with George Augustus in a state of full discontent and strict arrest.
CHAPTER X.
THE SUCCESSION—DEATH OF THE
ELECTRESS.
Marriage of Prince George to Princess Caroline of Anspach, and of his sister

to the Crown Prince of Prussia—Honours conferred by Queen Anne on
Prince George—Intention to bring over to England the Princess Sophia—
Opposed by Queen Anne—Foundation of the kingdom of Prussia—The
establishment of this Protestant kingdom promoted by the Jesuits—The
Electress Sophia’s visit to Loo—The law granting taxes on births, deaths,
and marriages—Complaint of Queen Anne against the Electress—Tom
D’Urfey’s doggrel verses on her—Death of the Electress—Character of
her.
The Elector, meditating on this sudden development of the domestic

affections of his son, resolved to aid such development, not by giving
him access to his mother, but by bestowing on him the hand of a
consort. Caroline of Anspach was a very accomplished young lady,
owing to the careful education which she received at the hands of
the best-loved child of Sophia Charlotte, Electress of Brandenburg,
and the first, but short-lived, Queen of Prussia. If the instructress
was able, the pupil was apt. She was quick, enquiring, intelligent,
and studious. Her application was great, her perseverance
unwearied, and her memory excellent. She learned quickly and
retained largely, seldom forgetting anything worth remembrance; and
was an equally good judge of books and individuals. Her perception
of character has, perhaps, never been surpassed. She had no
inclination for trivial subjects, nor affection for trivial people. She had
a heart and mind only for philosophers and philosophy; but she was
not the less a lively girl, or the more a pedant on that account. She
delighted in lively conversation, and could admirably lead or direct it.
Her knowledge of languages was equal to that of Sophia of Hanover,
of whom she was also the equal in wit and in repartee. But therewith
she was more tender, more gentle, more generous.
The marriage of George Augustus, Electoral Prince of
Brunswick-Hanover, with Caroline, daughter of John Frederick,
Margrave of Anspach, was solemnised in the year 1705. The wife of
George Augustus was of the same age as her husband. She had
had the misfortune to lose her father when she was yet extremely
young, and had been brought up at the Court of Berlin under the
guardianship of Sophia Charlotte, the consort of Frederick of
Prussia.
The sister of George Augustus, the only daughter of Sophia
Dorothea, and bearing the same baptismal names as her mother,
was also married during the captivity of the latter. Three remarkable
Englishmen were present at the marriage of the daughter of Sophia
Dorothea with the Prince Royal of Prussia. These were Lord Halifax,
Sir John Vanbrugh, and Joseph Addison. Queen Anne, who had
restored Halifax to a favour from which he had fallen, entrusted him
to carry the bill for the naturalisation of the Electoral family and for
the better security of the Protestant line of succession, and also the
Order of the Garter for the Electoral Prince. On this mission, Addison
was the invited companion of the patron whom he so choicely
flattered. Vanbrugh was present in his official character of
Clarencieux King-at-Arms, and performed the ceremony of
investiture. The little Court of Hanover was joyfully splendid on this
doubly festive occasion. The nuptials were celebrated with more
accompanying gladness than ever followed them. The pomp was
something uncommon in its way, and the bride must have been
wearied of being married long before the stupendous solemnity had
at length reached its slowly-arrived-at conclusion. She became
Queen of Prussia in 1712.
Honours now fell thick upon the Electoral family, but Sophia
Dorothea was not permitted to have any share therein. In 1706,
Queen Anne created her son, George Augustus, Baron of
Tewkesbury, Viscount Northallerton, Earl of Milford Haven, Marquis

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Preface  9 3.4 Polymeric Structures 93

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6.6 Viscoelastic Deformation 208 RECOVERY 350

7.1 Heat Capacity 227 PART II  aterials and Their

9.1 The Phase Rule 276

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polymers and composites (Chapter 12). In both chapters, we give examples of

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1.1 The Material World

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FIGURE 1.1 Stone age tools. (Georg Hergenhan / 123RF.)

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Preface 9 3.4 Polymeric Structures 93

7.1 Heat Capacity 227 PART II aterials and Their