BEE

Unit – 4

Transformers

4.1 Magnetic Materials

 A magnetic material is a material that experiences a force when placed in a magnetic field
 Although all magnetic materials are metallic, not all metals are magnetic
 Common magnetic materials include:

 Iron
 Steel (an alloy of iron)
 Nickel
 Cobalt
 Note: Copper and Aluminium are non-magnetic

 Magnetically soft materials (e.g. Iron):

 Are easy to magnetise

 Easily lose their magnetism
 Magnetically hard materials (e.g. Steel):

 Are hard to magnetise

 Do not easily lose their magnetism
 Permanent magnets are made from magnetically hard materials, as we don’t want them to lose
their magnetism
 Electromagnets are made from magnetically soft materials, as we want them to be able to
easily gain and lose their magnetism.

Bh Characteristics

B-H Curve

 The curve plotted between flux density B and magnetizing force H of a material is called
magnetizing or B-H curve.

 The shape of curve is non-linear. This indicates that relative permeability (µr = B / µ0H) of a
material is not constant, but it varies.

 B-H curves are extremely useful to analyse the magnetic circuit. If value of flux density and
dimension of magnetic circuit is known than from B-H curve total ampere turn can be easily
known.

Ideal And Practical Transformer

Ideal Transformer

An ideal transformer is one that has

 no winding resistance
 no leakage flux i.e. the same flux links both the windings
 no iron losses (i.e., eddy current and hysteresis losses) in the core.

Although an ideal transformer cannot be physically realized, yet its study provides a very
powerful tool in the analysis of a practical transformer. In fact, practical transformers have
properties that approach remarkably close to an ideal transformer.
Ideal Transformer and Phasor Diagram

Consider an ideal transformer on no load i.e., the secondary is open circuited as shown in the
figure. Under such conditions, the primary is simply a coil of pure inductance.

When an alternating voltage V₁ is applied to the primary, it draws a small magnetizing current
Iₘ which lags the applied voltage by 90°. This alternating current Iₘ produces an alternating
flux ϕ which is proportional to and in phase with it.

The alternating flux ϕ links both the windings and induces e.m.f. E₁ in the primary and e.m.f.
E₂ in the secondary. The primary e.m.f. E₁ is, at every instant, equal to and in opposition to
V₁ (Lenz’s law). Both e.m.f.s E₁, and E₂ lag flux ϕ by 90°. However, their magnitudes depend
upon the number of primary and secondary turns.

Phasor Diagram of Ideal Transformer

The phasor diagram of an ideal transformer on no load is also shown above. Since flux ϕ is
common to both the windings, it has been taken as the reference phasor.

The primary e.m.f. E₁ and secondary e.m.f. E₂ lag behind the flux ϕ by 90°.

Note that E₁ and E₂ are in phase. But E₁ is equal to V₁ and 180° out of phase with it.

Practical Transformer

A practical transformer differs from the ideal transformer in many respects. The practical
transformer has,
 iron losses,
 winding resistances and,
 magnetic leakage, giving rise to leakage reactance.
1. Iron Losses

Since the iron core is subjected to alternating flux, there occurs eddy current and hysteresis loss
in it. These two losses together are known as iron losses or core losses. The iron losses depend
upon the supply frequency, the maximum flux density in the core, volume of the core, etc.

2. Winding resistances

Since the windings consist of copper conductors, it immediately follows that both primary and
secondary will have winding resistance. The primary resistance R₁ and secondary resistance
R₂ act in series with the respective windings as shown in the figure.

When current flows through the windings, there will be power loss as well as a loss in voltage
due to IR drop. This will affect the power factor and E₁ will be less than V₁ while V₂ will be
less than E₂.

TYPES OF MAGNETIC MATERIAL

1.Paramagnetic Materials.

The materials, which are not strongly attracted by a magnet, such as aluminium, tin, platinum,
magnesium, manganese etc., are known as paramagnetic materials. Their relative permeability is
small but positive.

Such materials are slightly magnetized when placed in a strong magnetic field and act in the
direction of the magnetic field. In paramagnetic materials the individual atomic dipoles are
oriented in a random fashion, as shown in Figure.

The resultant magnetic field is, therefore, negligible. When an external magnetic field is applied,
the permanent magnetic dipoles orient themselves parallel to the applied magnetic field and give
rise to a positive magnetization. Since the orientation of the dipoles parallel to the applied
magnetic field is not complete, the magnetization is small. These materials have little application
in the field of electrical engineering.
2. Diamagnetic Materials. The materials which are repelled by a magnet such as zinc, mercury,
lead, sulphur, copper, silver, bismuth, wood etc., are known as diamagnetic materials.

Their permeability is slightly less than unity.

For example, the relative permeabilities of bismuth, copper and wood are 0.99983, 0.999995 and
0.9999995 respectively.

They are slightly magnetized when placed in a strong magnetic field and act in the direction
opposite to that of applied magnetic field. In diamagnetic materials, the two relatively weak
magnetic fields (one caused due to orbital revolution and other due to axial rotation) are in
opposite directions and cancel each other. Permanent magnetic dipoles are absent in them.

3. Ferromagnetic Materials. Ferromagnetism may be thought of as a special case of para

magnetism in which the individual spin magnetic moments are interacting or coupled. As with
paramagnets, ferromagnets have strong and positive magnetic susceptibility. Ferromagnetism is
possible only when atoms are arranged in a lattice and the atomic magnetic moments interact to
align parallel with each other. This field is sufficient to magnetize the material to saturation.
Unlike paramagnets, when the applied field is removed, they retain a component of
magnetization in the direction of the applied field – they are “permanently” magnetized
Ferromagnetic materials are of two types: (a) soft magnetic material and (b) hard magnetic
materials.

4.2 Emf Equation

As primary winding excited by the a sinusoidal alternating voltage an alternating current flows in
the winding producing an alternating varying flux Ø

Ø = Øm sin wt
As per Faradays Law of Electromagnetic Induction emf E1 is induced

E1 = N1

E1 = N1 (Ø Sin wt)

= - N1 Øm w Cos wt

Sin (90-wt)

= - Sin (wt-90)

E1 = N1 Øm w Sin (wt-90)

w=

E1 = N1 Ø m Sin (wt-90)

Max value of E1 = E max

Is when Sin (wt-90) = 1

E1 max = N1 Ø m

Hence rms value of induced EMF in primary winding

E1 rms = =

E1 = 4.44 F Ø m N1

Similarly RMS value of induced EMF in secondary wdg Is

E2 = 4.44 F Ø m N2

4.3 Losses in Transformers

 Losses in a Transformer [6m]
 There are 2 types of losses occurring in a transformer

A) 1. Core loss or Iron loss

B) 2. Copper loss
 Core losses:
 This loss is due to the reversal of flux
 The flux set up in the core is dependent on the i/p supply

as the i/p supply is constant in magnitude

the flux set up will be constant and

core losses are also constant.

 Core losses are voltage dependent loss they can be subdivided in 2

1 Hysteresis loss

2 Reedy current loss

Hysteresis loss: The iron loss occurring in the core of T/F due to the Hysteresis curve of the
magnetic material used for core is called as Hysteresis loss.

Hysteresis curve is the curve as loop which shows the properly of magnetic material to lag the
flux density B behind the field Intensely H

Above is the 3 different loops (Hysteresis of 3 diff. Materials)

 the selection of magnetic material for the construction of core depends upon Hysteresis loop
of that material having tall and narrow Hysteresis loop is selected for the T/F core

silicon Steel

Hysteresis loss depends on fold factor

P =K.B
H H m
1.67
F V – watts

Where K = constant (Hyst)

H

B = max Flux density

m

F = Frequency

= Volume of core.

A] Reedy current loss :

This loss is due to the flow of reedy (circular) current in the core caused by induced emf in core

PE = Ke Bm f t v – watts 2 2 2

Where

Ke = reedy current const.

t = thickness of core

It can be reduced by using stacks of laminations instead of solid core

B] Copper loss : PCU

The Copper loss is due to resistance of the primary and secondary winding.

It is load dependent / current dependent loss

As load on a transformer is variable (changing) current changes copper loss is a

variable loss

Total C is loss = I R + I R 12 12 22 22
Copper loss depends upon load on T/F and is proportional to square of load current or KVA
rating of transformer

PCU 2
(KVA) 2

F.L = full load

PCU (at half load) = 2

PCu F.L

= (0.5) PCU F.L.

2

Or PCu ( load) = ( ) PCu F.L 2

4.5 Regulation and Efficiency

Find no load vtg E 2

Remove the load and measure the reading of V meter Ew will get no load vtg E
2 2

E = V when load is absent

2 2

Now connect load and measure V this is now the load voltage
2

For each reading E will be same but V will change acc. To load
2 2

 Form Results Plot graph for efficiency and regulation against I2 and O/P power W2
Efficiency:

Efficiency it is the ratio output power to input power of transformer

Output power = input power – total loss

Input power = O/P + losses

O/P power = KVA Cos Ø2 1000

Or = V 2 I Cos Ø2
2

Losses = Pi + PCU (F.L)

= iron + copper loss

Full load =

Half load(H.L) or 50% or 0.5 =

 =

Maximum efficiency – for numerical :

The efficiency of T/F is maximum when copper loss equates iron loss this is the condition for
max efficiency

ie Pi = PCU

PCU = Pi at max n

where KVA at max n given = Full load KVA

4.6 Autotransformer and Three-Phase Transformer Connections

Auto Transformer

An auto Transformer is a special types of transformer such that a part of the

winding is common to both primary as well as secondary

It has only One winding wended on a laminated magnetic core

With the help of auto Transformer the voltage can be stepped up and stepped

down at any desired value

Fig A shows auto T/F as step down T/F variable terminal B C is connected to load and it acts as
secondary wdg.

The position of point C is called as topping point can be selected as per requirement

Fig. B show auto T/F as step up T/F variable terminal B C is connected to supply side ie ac side
and it acts as secondary winding

The operating principle of auto Transformer is same as that of 2 winding Transformer

Advantages
 Weight of copper required in an auto Transformer is always loss than that of the
conventional 2 winding Transformer and hence it is chaper
 Com[act in size and loss costly.
 Losses taking place in Transformer is reduced hence efficiency is higher than conventional
Transformer.
 Due to reduced resistance, voltage, regulation is better than conventional T/F.

Disadvantage:

As low voltage and high voltage sides are not separate then there is always risk of electric shocks
when use for high vtg. Applications

Applications
 Starting squirrel cage induction motor and synchronous motor.
 Auto transformer as dimmer stat
 Used as variable ac to variable ac Voltage

Three-Phase Transformer Connections:

 Connection Phase Voltage Line Phase Line current
Voltage current
Star Vp = VL /3 VL = √ 3 Ip = IL Ip = IL
x VP

There are four different ways in which three single-phase transformers may be connected
together between their primary and secondary three-phase circuits. These four standard
configurations are given as: Delta-Delta (Dd), Star-Star (Yy), Star-Delta (Yd), and Delta-Star
(Dy).
The delta-delta connection nevertheless has one big advantage over the star-delta configuration,
in that if one transformer of a group of three should become faulty or disabled, the two remaining
ones will continue to deliver three-phase power with a capacity equal to approximately two
thirds of the original output from the transformer unit.