Bangladesh Airlines Training Center BATC

Training Note for

Module 3
Electrical Fundamentals
Category B1.1/B2

This training note has been prepared for Module 3 Electrical Fundamentals, Category B1.1/ B2 in
accordance with the syllabus prescribed in EASA Part 66 to fulfill the requirements of EASA
Part147.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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List of Effective Pages
Page Page Issue Revision Date
Module Chapter Topic
From To No. No

3 3.0 Cover Page 0-1 0-1 1 4 17 August 2017

3 3.0 LEP 0-2 0-2 1 4 17 August 2017
3 3.0 Content 0-3 0-3 1 4 17 August 2017
3 3.1 1-1 1-6 1 4 17 August 2017
3 3.2 2-1 2-8 1 4 17 August 2017
3 3.3 3-1 3-8 1 4 17 August 2017
3 3.4 4-1 4-6 1 4 17 August 2017
3 3.5 5-1 5-26 1 4 17 August 2017
3 3.6 6-1 6-22 1 4 17 August 2017
3 3.7 7-1 7-26 1 4 17 August 2017
3 3.8 8-1 8-8 1 4 17 August 2017
3 3.9 9-1 9-24 1 4 17 August 2017
3 3.10 10-1 10-24 1 4 17 August 2017
3 3.11 11-1 11-14 1 4 17 August 2017
3 3.12 12-1 12-30 1 4 17 August 2017
3 3.13 13-1 13-12 1 4 17 August 2017
3 3.14 14-1 14-22 1 4 17 August 2017
3 3.15 15-1 15-18 1 4 17 August 2017
3 3.16 16-1 16-6 1 4 17 August 2017
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CONTENTS
SL. No. TOPIC PAGE NO.
3.1 Electron Theory 1-1
3.2 Static Electricity and Conduction 2-1
3.3 Electrical Terminology 3-1
3.4 Generation of Electricity 4-1
3.5 DC Source of Electricity 5-1
3.6 DC Circuits 6-1
3.7 Resistance / Resistors 7-1
3.8 Power 8-1
3.9 Capacitance / Capacitor 9-1
3.10 Magnetism 10-1
3.11 Inductance / Inductor 11-1
3.12 DC Motor / Generator Theory 12-1
3.13 AC Theory 13-1
3.14 Resistive (R), Capacitive (C) and Inductive (L) Circuits 14-1
3.15 Transformers 15-1
3.16 Filters 16-1
3.17 AC Generators 17-1
3.18 AC Motors 18-1

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Chapter 01

Electron Theory

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3.1 ELECTRON THEORY
3.1.1 Structure and Distribution of Electrical Charges within: Atoms, Molecules, Ions,
Compounds

This chapter addresses the fundamental concepts that are the building blocks for advanced
electrical knowledge and practical troubleshooting. Some of the questions addressed are: How
does energy travel through a copper wire and through space? What is electric current,
electromotive force, and what makes a landing light turn on or a hydraulic pump motor run? Each
of these questions requires an understanding of many basic principles. By adding one basic idea
on top of other basic ideas, it becomes possible to answer most of the interesting and practical
questions about electricity or electronics.

Our understanding of electrical current must begin with the nature of matter. All matter is
composed of molecules. All molecules are made up of atoms, which are themselves made up of
electrons, protons, and neutrons.

3.1.1.2 General Composition of Matter

Matter
Matter can be defined as anything that has mass and has volume and is the substance of which
physical objects are composed. Essentially, it is anything that can be touched. Mass is the amount
of matter in a given object. Typically, the more matter there is in an object the more mass it will
have. Weight is an indirect method of determining mass but not the same. The difference between
mass and weight is that weight is determined by how much something or the fixed mass is pulled
by gravity. Categories of matter are ordered by molecular activity. The four categories or states
are: solids, liquids, gases, and plasma. For the purposes of the aircraft technician, only solids,
liquids, and gases are considered.

Element
An element is a substance that cannot be reduced to a simpler form by chemical means. Iron, EASA – 147 Course Notes
gold, silver, copper, and oxygen are examples of elements. Beyond this point of reduction, the
element ceases to be what it is.

Compound
A compound is a chemical combination of two or more elements. Water is one of the most
common compounds and is made up of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom.

The Molecule
The smallest particle of matter that can exist and still retain its identity, such as water (H2O), is called
a molecule. A molecule of water is illustrated in Figure 3.1.1. Substances composed of only one type
of atom are called elements. But most substances occur in nature as compounds, that is, combinations
of two or more types of atoms. It would no longer retain the characteristics of water if it were

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compounded of one atom of hydrogen and two atoms of oxygen. If a drop of water is divided in two
and then divided again and again until it cannot be divided any longer, it will still be water.

Figure: 3.1.1 A water molecule.

The Atom
The atom is considered to be the most basic building block of all matter. Atoms are composed of
three subatomic particles. These three sub-atomic particles are: protons, neutrons, and electrons.
These three particles will determine the properties of the specific atoms. Elements are substances
composed of the same atoms with specific properties. Oxygen is an example of this. The main
property that defines each element is the number of neutrons, protons, and electrons. Hydrogen
and helium are examples of elements. Both of these elements have neutrons, protons, and
electrons but differ in the number of those items. This difference alone accounts for the variations
in chemical and physical properties of these two different elements. There are over a 100 known
elements in the periodic table, and they are categorized according to their properties on that table.
The kinetic theory of matter also states that the particles that make up the matter are always
moving. Thermal expansion is considered in the kinetic theory and explains why matter contracts
when it is cool and expands when it is hot, with the exception of water/ice.

Electrons, Protons, and Neutrons EASA – 147 Course Notes

At the center of the atom is the nucleus, which contains the protons and neutrons. The protons are
positively charged particles, and the neutrons are a neutrally charged particle. The neutron has
approximately the same mass as the proton. The third particle of the atom is the electron that is a
negatively charged particle with a very small mass compared to the proton. The proton’s mass is
approximately 1,837 times greater than the electron. Due to the proton and the neutron location in
the central portion of the atom (nucleus)and the electron’s position at the distant periphery of the
atom, it is the electron that undergoes the change during chemical reactions. Since a proton
weighs approximately 1,837 times as much as an electron, the number of protons and neutrons in
its nucleus determines the overall weight of an atom. The weight of an electron is not considered
in determining the weight of an atom. Indeed, the nature of electricity cannot be defined clearly
because it is not certain whether the electron is a negative charge with no mass (weight) ora
particle of matter with a negative charge.
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Hydrogen represents the simplest form of an atom, as shown in Figure 3.1.2. At the nucleus of
the hydrogen atom is one proton and at the outer shell is one orbiting electron. At a more
complex level is the oxygen atom, as shown in Figure 3.1.3, which has eight electrons in two
shells orbiting the nucleus with eight protons and eight neutrons. When the total positive charge
of the protons in the nucleus equals the total negative charge of the electrons in orbit around the
nucleus, the atom is said to have a neutral charge.

Figure 3.1.2 Hydrogen atom. Figure 3.1.3 Oxygen atom.

Valence Electrons
Valence is the number of chemical bonds an atom can form. Valence electrons are electrons that
can participate in chemical bonds with other atoms. The number of electrons in the outermost
shell of the atom is the determining factor in its valence. Therefore, the electrons contained in this
shell are called valence electrons.

Ions
Ionization is the process by which an atom loses or gains electrons. Dislodging an electron from
an atom will cause the atom to become positively charged. This net positively charged atom is
called a positive ion or a cation. An atom that has gained an extra number of electrons is
negatively charged and is called a negative ion or an anion. When atoms are neutral, the
positively charged proton and the negatively charged electron are equal.

Free Electrons EASA – 147 Course Notes

Valence electrons are found drifting midway between two nuclei. Some electrons are more tightly
bound to the nucleus of their atom than others and are positioned in a shell or sphere closer to the
nucleus, while others are more loosely bound and orbit at a greater distance from the nucleus.
These outermost electrons are called “free” electrons because they can be easily dislodged from
the positive attraction of the protons in the nucleus. Once freed from the atom, the electron can
then travel from atom to atom, becoming the flow of electrons commonly called current in a
practical electrical circuit.

Electron Movement
The valence of an atom determines its ability to gain or lose an electron, which ultimately
determines the chemical and electrical properties of the atom. These properties can be categorized
as being a conductor, semiconductor or insulator, depending on the ability of the material to
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produce free electrons. When a material has a large number of free electrons available, a greater
current can be conducted in the material.

3.1.2 Molecular Structure of Conductors, Semiconductors and Insulators

Conductors
Elements such as gold, copper and silver possess many free electrons and make good conductors.
The atoms in these materials have a few loosely bound electrons in their outer orbits. Energy in
the form of heat can cause these electrons in the outer orbit to break loose and drift throughout
the material. Copper and silver have one electron in their outer orbits. At room temperature, a
piece of silver wire will have billions of free electrons.

Insulators
These are materials that do not conduct electrical current very well or not at all. Good examples
of these are: glass, ceramic, and plastic. Under normal conditions, atoms in these materials do not
produce free electrons. The absence of the free electrons means that electrical current cannot be
conducted through the material. Only when the material is in an extremely strong electrical field
will the outer electrons be dislodged. This action is called breakdown and usually causes physical
damage to the insulator.

Semiconductors
This material falls in between the characteristics of conductors and insulators, in that they are not
good at conducting or insulating. The two most common materials used for semiconductors are
germanium and silicon. The essential characteristic of these elements is that each atom has four
valence electrons to share with adjacent atoms in forming bonds. While both elements are used in
semiconductor construction, silicon is preferred in most modern applications due to its ability to
operate over a wider range of temperatures. The nature of a bond between two silicon atoms is
such that each atom provides one electron to share with the other. The two electrons shared are in
fact shared equally between the two atoms. This form of sharing is known as a covalent bond.
Such bonds are very stable, and hold the two atoms together very tightly, requiring much energy
to break this bond.
EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure: 3.1.4 Insulator, Semiconductor & Conductor

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NOTES

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NOTES

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Chapter 02
Static Electricity and Conduction

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3.2 STATIC ELECTRICITY AND CONDUCTION

3.2.1 Static Electricity

Electricity is often described as being either static or dynamic. The difference between the two is
based simply on whether the electrons are at rest (static) or in motion (dynamic). Static electricity
is a buildup of an electrical charge on the surface of an object. It is considered “static” due to the
fact that there is no current flowing as in AC or DC electricity. Static electricity is usually caused
when non-conductive materials such as rubber, plastic or glass are rubbed together, causing a
transfer of electrons, which then results in an imbalance of charges between the two materials.
The fact that there is an imbalance of charges between the two materials means that the objects
will exhibit an attractive or repulsive force.

3.2.2 Attractive and Repulsive Forces

One of the most fundamental laws of static electricity, as well as magnetic, deals with attraction
and repulsion. Like charges repel each other and unlike charges attract each other. All electrons
possess a negative charge and as such will repel each other. Similarly, all protons possess a
positive charge and as such will repel each other. Electrons (negative) and protons (positive) are
opposite in their charge and will attract each other. For example, if two pith balls are suspended,
as shown in Figure 3.2.1, and each ball is touched with the charged glass rod, some of the charge
from the rod is transferred to the balls. The balls now have similar charges and, consequently,
repel each other as shown in part B of Figure 3.2.1. If a plastic rod is rubbed with fur, it becomes
negatively charged and the fur is positively charged. By touching each ball with these differently
charged sources, the balls obtain opposite charges and attract each other as shown in part C of
Figure 3.2.1.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.2.1 Reaction of Like and Unlike Charges

Although most objects become charged with static electricity by means of friction, a charged
substance can also influence objects near it by contact. This is illustrated in Figure 3.2.2. If a
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positively charged rod touches an uncharged metal bar, it will draw electrons from the uncharged
bar to the point of contact. Some electrons will enter the rod, leaving the metal bar with a
deficiency of electrons (positively charged) and making the rod less positive than it was or,
perhaps, even neutralizing its charge completely.

Figure 3.2.2 Charging by Contact EASA – 147 Course Notes

A method of charging a metal bar by induction is demonstrated in Figure 3.2.3. A positively

charged rod is brought near, but does not touch, an uncharged metal bar. Electrons in the metal
bar are attracted to the end of the bar nearest the positively charged rod, leaving a deficiency of
electrons at the opposite end of the bar. If this positively charged end is touched by a neutral
object, electrons will flow into the metal bar and neutralize the charge. The metal bar is left with
an overall excess of electrons.

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Figure 3.2.3 Charging a Bar by Induction

3.2.3 Electrostatic Field

A field of force exists around a charged body. This field is an electrostatic field (sometimes
called a dielectric field) and is represented by lines extending in all directions from the charged
body and terminating where there is an equal and opposite charge. EASA – 147 Course Notes

To explain the action of an electrostatic field, lines are used to represent the direction and
intensity of the electric field of force. As illustrated in Figure 3.2.4, the intensity of the field is
indicated by the number of lines per unit area, and the direction is shown by arrowheads on the
lines pointing in the direction in which a small test charge would move or tend to move if acted
upon by the field of force.

Either a positive or negative test charge can be used, but it has been arbitrarily agreed that a small
positive charge will always be used in determining the direction of the field. Thus, the direction
of the field around a positive charge is always away from the charge, as shown in Figure 3.2.4,
because a positive test charge would be repelled. On the other hand, the direction of the lines
about a negative charge is toward the charge, since a positive test charge is attracted toward it.
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Figure 3.2.4 Direction of Electric Field around Positive and Negative Charges

Figure 3.2.5 illustrates the field around bodies having like charges. Positive charges are shown,
but regardless of the type of charge, the lines of force would repel each other if the charges were
alike. The lines terminate on material objects and always extend from a positive charge to a
negative charge. These lines are imaginary lines used to show the direction a real force takes.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.2.5 Field around Two Positively Charged Bodies

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3.2.4 Coulomb’s Law

Coulomb's law states that the electrical force between two charged objects is directly proportional
to the product of the quantity of charge on the objects and inversely proportional to the square of
the separation distance between the two objects. In equation form, Coulomb's law can be stated
as:
𝑄𝑄1 𝑄𝑄2
𝐹𝐹 ∝
𝑑𝑑2
𝑄𝑄1 𝑄𝑄2
𝐹𝐹 = 𝑘𝑘
𝑑𝑑 2

where,

F represents the force (in Newtons)

Q1 represents the quantity of charge on object 1 (in Coulombs),

Q2 represents the quantity of charge on object 2 (in Coulombs), and

d represents the distance of separation between the two objects (in meters).

The symbol k is a proportionality constant known as the Coulomb's law constant. The value of
this constant is dependent upon the medium that the charged objects are immersed in. In the case
of air, the value is approximately 9.0 x 109 N • m2/C2. If the charged objects are present in water,
the value of k can be reduced by as much as a factor of 80. It is worthwhile to point out that the
units on k are such that when substituted into the equation the units on charge (Coulombs) and the
units on distance (meters) will be canceled, leaving a Newton as the unit of force.

The Coulomb's law equation provides an accurate description of the force between two objects
whenever the objects act as point charges. A charged conducting sphere interacts with other
charged objects as though all of its charge were located at its center. While the charge is
uniformly spread across the surface of the sphere, the center of charge can be considered to be the EASA – 147 Course Notes
center of the sphere. The sphere acts as a point charge with its excess charge located at its center.
Since Coulomb's law applies to point charges, the distance d in the equation is the distance
between the centers of charge for both objects (not the distance between their nearest surfaces).

The symbols Q1 and Q2 in the Coulomb's law equation represent the quantities of charge on the
two interacting objects. Since an object can be charged positively or negatively, these quantities
are often expressed as "+" or "-" values. The sign on the charge is simply representative of
whether the object has an excess of electrons (a negatively charged object) or a shortage of
electrons (a positively charged object). It might be tempting to utilize the "+" and "-" signs in the
calculations of force. While the practice is not recommended, there is certainly no harm in doing
so. When using the "+" and "-" signs in the calculation of force, the result will be that a "-" value
for force is a sign of an attractive force and a "+" value for force signifies a repulsive force.
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Mathematically, the force value would be found to be positive when Q1 and Q2 are of like charge
- either both "+" or both "-". And the force value would be found to be negative
when Q1 and Q2 are of opposite charge - one is "+" and the other is "-". This is consistent with the
concept that oppositely charged objects have an attractive interaction and like charged objects
have a repulsive interaction. In the end, if you're thinking conceptually (and not merely
mathematically), you would be very able to determine the nature of the force - attractive or
repulsive - without the use of "+" and "-" signs in the equation.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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3.2.5 Conduction of Electricity

Conduction through a solid, under the influence of an electric force, is dependent on the atomic
structure of the solid. The best having a single electron in the valence level of the atom.

In liquids the conduction properties are also affected by the movement of atoms and molecules
themselves. Water in its pure state will not conduct because the oxygen and hydrogen atoms share
an electron to fill the valence level of the hydrogen. When mixed with impurities, free electrons
become available and water conducts.

When certain salts and acids are added to water the molecules split into positive and negative
charged ions and move towards opposite charged plates by convection. These solutions are
electrolytes.

For gases to conduct they normally require to be ionized, to remove an electron from the valence
shell. This is done by increasing the energy by light radiation, high voltage or high temperature, etc.
The conduction may then be maintained between points of different potential. A stream of
electrons may be passed through a vacuum firstly by liberating them from a low potential surface
(cathode) and then directing them to a high potential surface (anode).

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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NOTES

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Chapter 03

Electrical Terminology

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3.3 ELECTRICAL TERMINOLOGY

In this chapter basic electrical terminology, their meanings, units and physical parameters will be
covered.

The basic terminologies we will study are:

 Charge
 Current
 Conventional/Electron Flow
 Voltage
 Potential & Potential difference
 Electromotive Force (emf)
 Resistance
 Conductance & Conductivity
 Power

3.3.1 Charge (Q), Unit = Coulomb (C)

The Current of electricity (symbol I) is a flow of electrons but the electron itself is too small to be
of use as the unit of electrical quantity and therefore a more practical unit consisting of many
millions of electrons has been chosen. The unit employed to measure electric charge is the
COULOMB. One Coulomb (C) is the total charge (Q) of 6.21×1018 or 6.21 million, million,
million electrons, where one electron has a charge of 1.61 x 10-19 C.

Note that this is a Quantity of electricity (Q) not a measure of current, but it is used to define the
unit of electrical current the AMPERE (A).

3.3.2 Current (I), Unit = Ampere (A)

This is the “Rate of Flow of Charge (Q)”. It has the units of Ampere’s (A). One Amp is equal to EASA – 147 Course Notes
one coulomb ( C) per second, or 6.21 x 1018 electrons passing any given point in a circuit in one
second, or
𝑄𝑄
𝐼𝐼 =
𝑡𝑡
where t = time in seconds

e.g. if a steady current of 2A flows for one minute then the amount of charge (Q) transferred will
be:

𝑄𝑄
𝐼𝐼 =
𝑡𝑡
Therefore, Q = It = 2 × 60 = 120 Coulombs

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Figure 3.3.1 Electrical Current

3.3.3 Electron Flow and Conventional Current Flow

Conventional Current assumes that current flows out of the positive terminal, through the circuit
and into the negative terminal of the source. This was the convention chosen during the discovery
of electricity. They were wrong!

Figure 3.3.1 Conventional Current Flow

Electron Flow is what actually happens and electrons flow out of the negative terminal, EASA – 147 Course Notes
through the circuit and into the positive terminal of the source.

Both Conventional Current and Electron Flow are used by industry. Many textbooks are
available in both Electron Flow and Conventional Current formats.

The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) adheres to the concept that current flows from
negative to positive (Electron Flow); therefore, the majority of the aviation industry also follows
this convention. But UK and Europe adhere to Conventional Current flow system.

It is important not to let this concept of current flow direction confuse your understanding of
electricity. The actual direction of current is not important when troubleshooting aircraft
electrical systems. It is often important to know if current flowing or not; however, the direction
of flow is irrelevant. Simply be consistent in your approach to direction of current flow.
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Conventional current flow will be used throughout this training manual, unless stated otherwise.

Figure 3.3.2 Electron Flow

Figure 3.3.3 Electron Flow through a circuit

3.3.4 Voltage (V), (E), (p.d.), (emf)

3.3.4.1 Voltage

The force which creates the flow of current in a circuit is known as the electromotive force (emf) EASA – 147 Course Notes
and it magnitude is measured in Volts. Potential Difference (p.d.) is the voltage difference, or
voltage drop between two points.

One volt is the potential difference between two points if one joule of energy is required to move
one coulomb (6.2 x 1018 electrons) between them.

The greater the voltage of a supply source, the greater its potential to produce a current flow.
Thus, a 115 volt supply has 115 times the potential to produce a current flow than a 1 volt supply.

The unit of voltage is the volt (V).

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𝑊𝑊
𝑉𝑉 =
𝑄𝑄
where W = Power & Q = Charge

There is a relationship between V & I, in that Q = It. Therefore the above equation can be
transformed into:

𝑊𝑊
𝑉𝑉 =
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼

Water Analogy

Voltage is sometimes defined as Electrical Pressure. This electrical pressure forces the electrons
to move through a load.

Figure 3.3.2 Water Analogy for Potential Difference EASA – 147 Course Notes

3.3.4.2 Electromotive Force

To make use of electricity by provision of an electric current, the potential difference must be
maintained.

That is, the positive and negative charge must be continuously replenished. A cell (or battery)
uses chemical energy to maintain the potential difference until such time that it is also depleted of
charge.

The unit of electromotive force is the Volt and its symbol (E).
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3.3.4.3 Potential Difference

If 100V is applied across a circuit between points A & E then a p.d. of 100V is said to exist. If we
then were to measure the points B, C & D we could find the measurements 60V, 30V & 10V
respectively.

Figure 3.3.3 Potential Difference

The following potential difference could be measured in the circuit

A - B 40V
B – C 30V
C – D 20V
D – E 10V

3.3.5 Resistance (R), Unit = Ohm (Ω)

All materials at normal temperatures oppose the movement of electric charge through them and
this opposition to the flow of electric current is called the RESISTANCE (R) of the material.
(This is due to collisions between the moving charges and the atoms of the material).

The rate at which electricity flows through a circuit is affected by the resistance of the
components and/or wires in the circuit. Increased resistance results in a decrease in the amount of
current that will flow through the wire. All appliances, e.g. lights, power tools etc. can all be
thought of as resisters.
EASA – 147 Course Notes
Resistance is the opposition that a substance offers to the flow of electric current. It is represented
by the uppercase letter R. The standard unit of resistance is the ohm, sometimes written out as a
word, and sometimes symbolized by the uppercase Greek letter omega (Ω). When an electric
current of one ampere passes through a component across which a potential difference (voltage)
of one volt exists, then the resistance of that component is one ohm.

In general, when the applied voltage is held constant, the current in a direct-current (DC)
electrical circuit is inversely proportional to the resistance. If the resistance is doubled, the current
is cut in half; if the resistance is halved, the current is doubled.

This rule also holds true for most low-frequency alternating-current (a.c.) systems, such as
household utility circuits. In some a.c. circuits, especially at high frequencies, the situation is
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more complex, because some components in these systems can store and release energy, as well
as dissipating or converting it.

The electrical resistance per unit length, area, or volume of a substance is known as resistivity.
Resistivity figures are often specified for copper and aluminium wire, in ohms per kilometre.

Opposition to a.c. but not to DC, is a property known as Reactance. In an AC circuit, the
resistance and reactance combine vectorically to yield Impedance. The unit of resistance is the
Ohm and its symbol Ω.

3.3.5.1 Factors Affecting Resistance

The factors that govern the value of the load resistance are:

 The material
 The cross-sectional area of the conductor
 The length of the conductor
 The temperature of the conductor

e.g. Copper has a lower resistance to current flow than iron. A thin wire has greater resistance
than a thick wire A long wire has greater resistance than a short wire, a hot wire has a greater
resistance than a cold wire, assuming the same material.

Combining these relationships it can be seen that:

𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙ℎ 𝑙𝑙
Resistance ∝ ∝
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎

However, the RESISTIVITY (ρ-rho) of the material must also be taken into account, so the
formulae becomes:

𝑙𝑙 EASA – 147 Course Notes

Resistance = 𝜌𝜌
𝑎𝑎

3.3.6 Conductance

It is sometimes more convenient to think in terms of how well a material conducts currents rather
than to think in terms of how well it opposes current. The term “Conductance” is often used and
is just the opposite of resistance. It is defined as the ease with which a substance passes current
flow. Mathematically, conductance is the reciprocal of resistance.

1
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 =
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅

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The letter G is used to represent conductance, or sometimes Sigma ς.

The equation can be written as:

1
𝐺𝐺 =
𝑅𝑅

The unit of conductance is the mho, pronounced “moe”. Noticed that mho is ohm spelt
backwards.

mhos = 1/ohms

The resistance of 1 ohm = a conductance of 1 mhos, however a resistance of 2 ohms = 0.5 mhos
and 1k Ω has a conductance of 0.001 mhos or 1m mhos.

In most cases it is more convenient to think in terms of ohms (resistance) rather than in terms of
mhos (conductance).

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NOTES

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Chapter 04
Generation of Electricity

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3.4 GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY

There are electrons and protons in the atoms of all materials but, to do useful work, charges must
be separated in order to produce a potential difference (p.d.). that we can use to make current flow
and do work. Since the generation of electric current is a fundamental requirement in every
aircraft, we shall be looking at this topic in much greater detail later. For now, we will briefly
describe the following methods for separating charges and creating a flow of current.

 Chemical Action
 Friction
 Pressure
 Light
 Heat
 Magnetism and Motion

This module would mainly address electricity generation by chemical action and magnetism-
motion methods in details. The electricity generation by light, heat, friction and pressure is
covered in more detail later within module 3 or in other modules.

3.4.1 Chemical Action

Chemical energy can be converted into electricity; the most common form of this is the battery. A
primary battery produces electricity using two different metals in a chemical solution like alkaline
electrolyte, where a chemical reaction between the metals and the chemicals free more electrons
in one than the in the other. One terminal of the battery is attached to one of the metals such as
zinc; the other terminal is attached to the other metal such as manganese oxide. The end that frees
more electrons develops a positive charge and the other end develops a negative charge. If a wire
is attached from one end of the battery to the other, electrons flow through the wire to balance the
electrical charge.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

3.4.2 Friction

Static electricity that is the separation and build-up of charge is an everyday phenomenon that is
often caused by friction - the physical stripping of electrons from one body and depositing on
another. Early examples in science were the rubbing of a glass rod (which loses electrons and
gains a positive charge) with a silk stocking! (gains electrons, receives negative charge) and the
rubbing of an ebonite rod (receives negative charge) with cats fur (becomes positively charged).
Everyday examples are:

• Combing the hair (dry). The comb attracts the individual hairs and the hairs repel each
other and stand on end.

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• Removing a shirt (especially nylon). The shirt crackles and sparks may be seen, the shirt
is also attracted to the body.
• The receiving of ‘electric shock’ from cars (also aircraft) when touching them on the
outside. Here the charge has been produced by the friction of air passing around the
vehicle.
• The rapid collection of dust by records. The dust is attracted by the charge built up on
the record produced by friction of handling and playing.
• Lightning flash is a result of the buildup of static electricity in clouds.

Although not used to produce electricity for any aircraft systems, static electricity is generated
by friction as the aircraft moves through the air and will therefore be considered at various
points throughout the course.

3.4.3 Pressure

Certain crystals and semiconductors produce an emf between two opposite faces when the
mechanical pressure on them is either increased or decreased (the polarity of the emf is reversed
when the pressure changes from an increase to a decrease). This emf is known as the piezoelectric
emf.

Figure 3.4.1 Piezoelectric Effect EASA – 147 Course Notes

This effect is used in a number of devices including semi-conductor strain gauges and vibration
sensors. As the mechanical pressure on the crystal is altered, a varying voltage which is related to
the pressure is produced by the crystal. The voltage can be as small as a fraction of a volt or as
large as several thousand volts depending on the crystal material and the pressure. Aircraft
systems employing the piezoelectric effect generally only produce very small emf’s, the very high
voltages produced by materials such as lead Zirconate Titanate are used in ignition systems for
gas ovens and gas fires.

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3.4.4 Light

A photovoltaic cell is a device that converts light energy into electricity. Fundamentally, the
device contains certain chemical elements that when exposed to light energy, the release
electrons. Photons in sunlight are taken in by the solar panel or cell, where they are then
absorbed by semi conducting materials, such as silicon. Electrons in the cell are broken loose
from their atoms, allowing them to flow through the material to produce electricity. The
complementary positive charges that are also created are called holes (absence of electron)
and flow in the direction opposite of the electrons in a silicon solar panel. Solar cells have
many applications and have historically been used in earth orbiting satellites or space probes,
hand held calculator, and wrist watches.

3.4.5 Heat

The Seebeck effect-the thermocouple: When two different metals are brought into contact
with one another, it is found that electrons can leave one of the metals more easily than they
can leave the other metal. This is because of the difference in what is known as the work
function of the two metals. Since electrons leave one metal and are gained by the other, a
potential difference exists between the two metals; thus the emf is known as the contact
potential or contact emf. If two metals, say copper and iron, are joined at two points and both
junctions are at the same temperature, the contact potentials cancel each other out and no
current flows in the loop of wire. However, Thomas Johann Seebeck (1770 -1831) discovered
that if the two junctions are kept at different temperatures, there is a drift of electrons around
the circuit, that is to say, current flows.

The magnitude of the voltage produced by this method is small - only a few millivolts per
degree centigrade - but it is sufficient to be measured. The current flow is a measure of the
difference in temperature between the ‘hot’ junction and the ‘cold’ junction. Each junction is
known as a thermocouple and if a number of thermocouples are connected in series so that
alternate junctions are ‘hot’ and the other junctions are ‘cold’, the total emf is increased; this
arrangement is known as a thermopile. On aircraft, thermocouples are used for temperature
EASA – 147 Course Notes
measurement and will be examined in more detail later.

3.4.6 Magnetism and Motion

Magnets or magnetic devices are used for thousands of different jobs. One of the most useful
and widely employed applications of magnets is in the production of vast quantities of electric
power from mechanical sources. The mechanical power may be provided by a number of
different sources, such as gasoline or diesel engines, and water or steam turbines. However,
the final conversion of these source energies to electricity is done by generators employing
the principle of electromagnetic induction. These generators, of many types and sizes, are
discussed in other chapters and module. The important subject to be discussed here is the
fundamental operating principle of all such electromagnetic-induction generators.

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To begin with, there are three fundamental conditions which must exist before a voltage can
be produced by magnetism.

 There must be a conductor in which the voltage will be produced.

 There must be a magnetic field in the conductor's vicinity.
 There must be relative motion between the field and conductor. The conductor must be
moved so as to cut across the magnetic lines of force, or the field must be moved so
that the lines of force are cut by the conductor.

In accordance with these conditions, when a conductor or conductors move across a magnetic
field so as to cut the lines of force, electrons within the conductor are propelled in one
direction or another. Thus, an electric force, or voltage, is created.

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NOTES

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Chapter 05
DC Sources of Electricity

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3.5 DC SOURCES OF ELECTRICITY

3.5.1 Introduction

DC is the current that flows in one direction only (recalling that conventional current flows from
positive to negative whilst electrons travel in the opposite direction, from negative to positive).
The most commonly used method of generating DC is the electrochemical cell. In this section we
shall describe the basic principles of cells and batteries.

We shall also look at two other important devices that generate electric current: thermocouples
and photocells.

In the end of eighteenth century, the electric cell was discovered by an Italian Physicist Luigi
Galvani during an experiment for a class in anatomy. For the experiment Galvani removed frog
from a salt solution and suspended them by means of a copper wire. He then noticed that each
time an iron scalped was brought in contact with a frog leg, a reaction occurred, was produced by
muscles of the frog. Just three years later, Alessandro Volta, another Italian scientist, found that
the frog leg was not responsible for the electricity but rather the electricity was the result of
chemical action between the copper wire, iron scalpel (Knife) and salt solution. Pursuing these
findings still further, Volta built the first electric cell.

A battery is a device composed of two or more cells in which chemical energy is converted into
electrical energy. The chemical nature of the battery components provides an excess of electrons
at one terminal and a deficiency at the other. When the two terminals are joined by a conductor,
electrons flow, and as they flow, the chemical composition of the active material changes.

For aircraft, although batteries are treated as emergency reserve of power; it furnishes the
following functions:

• To help and maintain the d.c. system voltage under transient conditions. The starting of
large d.c. motor driven accessories, such as inverters and pumps, requires high input EASA – 147 Course Notes
current which would lower the busbar voltage momentarily unless the battery was
available to assume a share of the load. A similar condition exists should a short circuit
develop in a circuit protected by a heavy duty circuit breaker or current limiter.
• This function possibly applies to a lesser degree on aircraft where the electrical system is
predominantly a.c., but the basic principle still holds true.
• To supply power for short term heavy loads when generator or ground power is not
available, e.g. internal starting of an engine.
• Under emergency conditions, a battery is intended to supply limited amounts of power.
Under these conditions the battery could be the sole remaining source of power to operate
essential flight instruments, radio communication equipment, etc. for as long as the
capacity of the battery allows.

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3.5.2.1 History of Invention of Voltaic Cell

In the end of eighteenth century, an Italian Physicist Luigi Galvani during an experiment for a
class in anatomy discovered the electric cell. For the experiment Galvani removed frog legs from
a salt solution and suspended them the means of a copper wire. He then noticed that each time an
iron scalpel was brought in contact with a frog leg, a reaction occurred, that, the leg jerked.
Galvani concluded incorrectly that muscles of the frog produced electricity. Just three years later,
Allessandro Volta, another Italian scientist, found that the frog's leg was not responsible for the
electricity but rather the electricity was the result of chemical action between the copper wire,
iron scalpel (knife) and salt solution. Pursuing these findings still further, Volta built the first
electric cell (voltaic pile) responsible for the electricity but rather the electricity was the result of
chemical action between the copper wire, iron scalpel (knife) and salt solution. Pursuing these
findings still further, Volta built the first electric cell (voltaic pile)

3.5.3 Voltaic Pile

It consists of a stack of alternate silver and zinc plates separated from each other by pieces of
cloth saturated with salt solution. Using this pile, Volta found that he could produce an electric
current, through a wire connecting the silver and zinc plates. Thus voltaic pile was the first
practical method of producing electricity by chemical action.

3.5.4 Simple Voltaic Cell

A simple voltaic cell comprises of copper and zinc plates, plus an electrolyte of lye-solution.
Although a voltage cell can be built by using either a salt solution or an acid solution and
electrodes of zinc, iron, silver, copper, carbon, platinum or any two metals different from each
other, at least on one of which the solution can act chemically. As Mr. Volta made the first single
cell by placing copper and zinc plates in a glass filled with lye-solution he found that he could
cause an electric current to flow through a wire when it was connected between copper and zinc
plates. In recognition of his work this cell is called "VOLTAIC CELL".
EASA – 147 Course Notes
Chemical Action

In voltaic cell when two electrodes are placed in a solution, a chemical action takes place, giving
one of the electrode a positive charge and the other a negative charge. Thus, a potential difference
or emf between the two electrodes, as a source of electricity, is available. The chemical action is
as follows: -

(a) When Sulphuric acid (H2S04) is dissolved in water, its particles break down and form
hydrogen ions (H+) each having a single positive charge and Sulphate ions (S04) each having
two negative charges. The entire solution electrically neutral i.e., it contains equal number of
positive and negative charge.

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(b) When a zinc electrode is placed in the solution, some of the zinc dissolves in the solution and
produces positively charged zinc irons. With each zinc ion so produced, leaving two electrons on
the zinc electrode. Positive charge are shown as + + in solution and negative ions cause the
solution to become positively and electrons on the zinc electrode cause it to become negatively
charged.

(c) When a second electrode of copper is inserted in the solution, the H+ ions leave and combine
with an electron in a copper atom to form hydrogen gas. This loss of electrons from the copper
cause the copper electrode to become positive charge with respect to solution.

(d) As the zinc electrode is negative and copper electrode is positive with respect to the solution,
it follows that zinc electrode is negative with respect to the copper electrode. When these two
electrodes are connected by conductor as shown in (figure-4) electrons will flow from zinc
electrode to copper electrode. Actually the potential difference between the electrodes is
approximately 1.08 V.

3.5.2 Construction and Basic Chemical Action of Primary Cells

The most commonly used primary cell, or dry cell, as it is called, is of the carbon-zinc type. In
this cell, a carbon rod is supported in a zinc container by a moist paste containing ammonium
chloride, manganese dioxide, and granulated carbon. When a conductor joins the zinc case and
the carbon rod, electrons leave the zinc and flow to the carbon. The zinc is left with positive ions
which attract negative chlorine ions from the ammonium chloride electrolyte and form zinc
chloride on the inside of the can. Zinc chloride is actually corrosion, and it eats away the zinc,
eventually causing the battery to leak.

The positive ammonium ions that are left in the electrolyte are attracted to the carbon rod where
they accept the electrons that have just arrived from the zinc. As they are neutralized, they break
down into ammonia and hydrogen gasses which are absorbed into the moist manganese dioxide.

Carbon-zinc cells produce one and a half volts regardless of their size, but the size of the cell
EASA – 147 Course Notes
determines the amount of current it can supply. Leakage, which at one time was a problem with
carbon-zinc batteries, is minimized by the use of effective seals and by enclosing the zinc can
inside of steel jacket.

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Figure 3.5.1 Primary Cells

The positive ammonium ions that are left in the electrolyte are attracted to the carbon rod where
they accept the electrons that have just arrived from the zinc. As they are neutralized, they break
down into ammonia and hydrogen gasses which are absorbed into the moist manganese dioxide.

Carbon-zinc cells produce one and a half volts regardless of their size, but the size of the cell
determines the amount of current it can supply. Leakage, which at one time was a problem with EASA – 147 Course Notes
carbon-zinc batteries, is minimized by the use of effective seals and by enclosing the zinc can
inside of steel jacket.

3.5.6 Primary Cell and Secondary Cell: Difference

A battery is, as indicated earlier, a device which converts chemical energy into electrical energy
and is made up of a number of cells which, depending on battery utilization, may be of the
primary type or secondary type. Both types of cell operate on the same fundamental principle, i.e.
the exchange of electrons due to the chemical action of an electrolyte and electrode materials.
The essential differences between the two lies in the action that occurs during discharge. In the
primary ceil this action destroys the active materials of the cell, thus limiting its effective life to a
single discharge operation, whereas in the secondary cell the discharge action converts the active
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material into other forms, from which they can subsequently be electrically reconverted, into the
original materials. Thus, a secondary cell can have a life of numerous discharge actions, followed
by the action of re-conversion more commonly known as charging.

3.5.7 Local Action

(a) Zinc electrodes used in the primary cells are not chemically pure; it contains tiny
impurities such as iron and carbon. These impurities enter into chemical action with the
electrolyte to produce small electrical current around the zinc plate even when no external
circuit is completed, between the positive and negative plates. As a result chemical
energy is consumed and the life of the cell is decreased. This condition is called local
action.

(b) To prevent local action, zinc electrodes are usually amalgamated with mercury. When
this is done, the zinc dissolves in the mercury but impurities do not. As a result the zinc is
free to enter into chemical action with the electrolyte but the impurities are covered with
mercury and do not enter into chemical action with electrolyte to produce local action.

3.5.8 Polarization

When a primary cell is furnishing current, hydrogen gas is formed. This gas appears in the from
of bubbles which do not rise to the surface as rapidly as they are formed. Some of the bubbles
cling to the positive electrodes and from a layer of nonconducting gas about it. This interferes
with the action of the in the following two ways:-

(a) The internal resistance of the cell is increased, since the non- conducting bubbles of
hydrogen gas on the positive plate diminishes the area through which the positive
hydrogen ions can reach the positive plate, combine with electrons and turns into
hydrogen gas.

(b) The positive hydrogen ions moving in the direction of the positive electrode, collection or
EASA – 147 Course Notes
in the region of the gas, and repel other hydrogen ions moving towards that electrode.
This is equivalent to an emf which opposes the emf of the cell. A cell whose internal
opposing of counter emf, exists is said to be "Polarized". The effect of polarization is to
decrease rapidly the closed circuit voltage of the cell. Consequently, the current furnished
by the cell rapidly diminishes strength.

(c) Polarization is overcome by the addition of manganese dioxide or some other oxidizing
agent, to the electrolyte, the manganese dioxide combines with the hydrogen gas on the
plate to form water, thus preventing positive plate from the cell.

(d) Another method which can be used on some wet primary cells is to remove the positive
pale from the cell and wipe off the layer of gas.

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3.5.9 Dry Cell (Leclanche Cell)

To overcome the defects of local action and polarization, various, types of types of primary cells
using different chemicals have been made. Dry Leclanche Cell is most widely used.

Chemical Action

Chemical action that takes place in the cell is somewhat similar to that of a Leclanche cell as
explained before.

(a) When the cell is first assembled, electrolyte breaks down into positive ammonia ions (NH4+)
and negative chloride ions (Cl-). When the zinc contacts the electrolyte, positive zinc ions enter
the solution and drive positive hydrogen and ammonia ions towards the carbon rod. This action
produces a negative charge on the zinc and a positive charge on the carbon. That is, a potential
difference exists between the two electrodes.

(b) When an external circuit is connected between the terminals of the electrodes, electrons
flows from zinc to carbon through the internal circuit. As this happens, further chemical action
within the cell maintains the difference of potential between the electrodes until the zinc is
consumed or the electrolyte loses its useful chemical properties.

3.5.10 Lead Acid Batteries

Secondary cells or storage batteries are used to provide electricity for emergency operation of
airplane systems, aerospace equipment, automobile lighting, and staring system. They are also
used with a wide variety of mobile equipment designed for military and civilian use. The storage
battery dose not store electricity. Chemical energy gets stored when a direct current of proper
polarity is passed through the battery (charging). The substances thus formed react chemically to
provide power when the battery is use (discharging). Electrical energy is transformed into
chemical energy during charging and chemical energy to useful electrical energy during
discharging. There is one important difference between secondary cells can be recharged,
EASA – 147 Course Notes
restoring it approximately to its original chemical condition and thus extending its useful life.
This is not possible in case of primary cells.

Construction

A lead acid battery consists of the following:-

(a) Plates: A plate consists of thin rectangular grid or frame work cast from lead antimony
alloy. The grid is designed to provide a means for conducting electric current between
exterior terminal and active material with which the space in the gird ate filled. This active
material is composed chiefly of oxides of lead, when it is originally applied in paste form.
After drying this paste, the plates are given a "Forming charge" for converting lead

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compound into active material, thus making the plates either positive or negative. The active
material of positive plate becomes lead peroxide (Pb02). It is vary porous to permit the
electrolyte to penetrate the plate freely. The active material of negative plate becomes spongy
load which is also porous, so that electrolyte can penetrate it freely. There is one more
negative plate than the total number of positive plates in each cell of a lead acid battery.
(b) Separators: These are sheets of non-conducting material used to separate or electrically
insulate the positive and negative plates to prevent short-circuiting of plates. The separators
are porous are made of chemically treated wood (usually cedar). Micro porous rubber or
fibrous glad. They are smooth on the side next to negative plate but have grooved
(corrugated) side next to positive plate. The groves permit free circulation of the electrolyte
between the plates, allow for normal shedding of active material from the positive plates to
fall to the bottom of the cell, and permit the escape of oxygen gas formed on the positive
Plate.
(c) Container: The cells of a battery are contained in a single moulded receptacle divided into
compartments. The container is made of hard rubber, plastic composition, wood, glass or any
material that is resistant to acid and mechanical shock. On the bottom of each compartment,
there are ribs for supporting the plates.
(d) Vent Plugs: These are made of made hard rubber. They have very small vent holes to allow
the escape of gas formed when the battery is being charged, Non-leakable of electrolyte
when the aircraft is maneuvering or fling upside down.
(e) Electrolyte: The electrolyte used in a lead acid storage battery is a dilute solution of
sulphuric acid and distilled water. The electrolyte of a full charged battery usually contains
about 38 percent sulphuric acid by weight or about 27 percent by volume.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.5.2 Construction of Lead- Acid Battery

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Chemical Action

The chemical reactions that take place in a lead acid cell are as follows:-

(a) Charging Action-The formed positive plates are of dark chocolate color. The active material
of these plates consists of mixture of lead peroxide. The negative plates are of light gray color
having active material a mixture of spongy metallic lead. The electrolyte is a dilute solution
of sulphuric acid (H2SO4) and water (H2O). On charging, following action takes place as
shown in the in fully charged batteries: - fig.3.5.3 & 3.5.5

(i) The negative plate is composed of spongy lead (Pb).

(ii) The positive plate is composed of lead peroxide (PbO2)
(iii) The electrolyte is a dilute solution of sulphuric acid (H2S04).

(b) Chemical Action during Discharge: - (Fig. 3.5.4)

(i) At the negative plate the spongy load (Pb) decreases and lead sulphate (PbS04) increases.
(ii) At the positive plate, the lead peroxide (PbO2) decreases and lead sulphate (PbSO4) increases.
(iii) The sulphuric acid (H2O) increases.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.5.3 (a) Charging (b) Discharging

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Figure 3.5.4 Chemical Changes Taking Place during Discharge

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.5.5 Chemical Changes Taking Place during Charge

Rating

(a) The open circuit voltage (when not discharging) of a fully charged ceil is about 2.1 volts. This
is true regardless of the size of the cell. The normal voltage of a discharged cell is 1.75 volts. On
load or closed circuit voltage of a fully charged cell is 2.0 volts. To get more voltage a number of
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cells are connected in series.
(b) The current that a battery will deliver depends on the total area of plate comprising a cell, the
internal resistance of the cell and connections, and the rate at which the chemical reaction takes
place. This means that the number of plates connected in parallel and their condition, determine
the current capacity of a cell.
(c) The capacity of battery is measured in ampere-hours, which is a current–time rating. This
capacity is determined by multiplying the current in Amperes by the number of hours a battery
will deliver the current. Thus, a battery capable of delivering 5 amperes of current for 20 hours
has a rating of 100 ampere- hours. This means that we can expect to draw 5 amperes of current
for 20 hours before it reaches its normal discharged condition (1.75 volts) per cell. The ampere -
hour rating is normally based on a hours discharge rate at 800F. There are other battery ratings for
which manufacturers’ specification should be consulted.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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3.5.11 Nickel Cadmium Battery

General
(1) Nickel cadmium battery is a type of storage battery, which is used to provide electricity for
emergency operation of airplane system, aero-space ground equipment, automobile lighting,
ignition and starting systems.
(2) They have several advantages as following:-
a) They can be re-charged by constant potential method an, extremely short period. (Less
than an hour)
b) They will maintain a relatively steady voltage even when discharged at high rate.
c) If they are over-charged or charged in the wrong direction, they will not be permanently
damaged.
d) They can stand idle in any state of charge for indefinite time.
e) They will retain a charge condition for prolong periods.
f) Freezing does not damage them.
g) They are not subject to failure from vibration or severe jolting.
h) They do not normally oxide corrosive fumes.
i) They are composed of individually replaceable cells.
j) No capacity is necessary to determine their condition.
k) The lower the temperature, the battery will retain its charge.

Construction
(a) Container. - It is moulded nylon placed in a steel case.
(b) Electrolyte- The electrolyte is a 30 % (by weight) solution of potassium hydroxide in
distilled water. The S.G. is 1.320 at 60 F.
(c) Plates - The plates of the nickel cadmium cell are made of sintered powder (caused to
become a solid mass by heating without thoroughly melting) which adheres to a nickel
wire screen. The active materials nickel di-oxide (niO2) of the positive plates and metallic
cadmium on the negative plates are electrically bonded to the basic plate structure.
(d) Separators - these are made of two layers of nylon cloth and one layer of cellophane.
EASA – 147 Course Notes
Charging Action
(a) During charge, the active material of positive plates future oxidize and turns from nickel oxide
to nickel di-oxide and the metallic cadmium of the negative plate is deoxidize and turns form
cadmium oxide to metallic cadmium. The S.G. of the electrolyte does not vary during the
charging and discharging cycle of the battery as it does not take part in chemical reaction; it
merely provides path for conduction of electric current through it. The nominal open circuit
voltage of fully charged cell is 1.3 volts. It will require 19 cells connected in series to make 24
volts battery. The voltage of a discharged cell is 1 volt.
(b) Rating: The capacity rating of this type of batteries is usually based on a steady 20 hrs.
Discharge e.g. 100 A.H. battery will furnish 5 amperes for 20 hours.

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3.5.12 Lithium-ion Battery

3.5.12.1 Structure of Lithium-Ion Cells

Li-Ion cell has a three layer structure. A positive electrode plate (made with Lithium Cobalt oxide
- cathode), a negative electrode plate (made with specialty carbon - anode) and a separator layer.

Figure 3.5.6 Schematic diagrams of the structure of cylindrical and prismatic lithium-ion cells

Inside the battery also exists an electrolyte which is a lithium salt in an organic solvent. Li-Ion is
also equipped with a variety of safety measures and protective electronics and/or fuses to prevent
reverse polarity, over voltage and overheating and also have a pressure release valve and a safety
vent to prevent battery from burst. Schematic diagrams of the structure of cylindrical and
prismatic lithium-ion cells

3.5.12.2 Lithium-Ion Cells Charging and Discharging Actions

Lithium-ion uses a cathode (positive electrode), an anode (negative electrode) and electrolyte as
conductor. The cathode is metal oxide and the anode consists of porous carbon. During discharge,
the ions flow from the anode to the cathode through the electrolyte and separator; charge reverses
the direction and the ions flow from the cathode to the anode. Figure 3.5.7 illustrates the process.
EASA – 147 Course Notes

When the cell charges and discharges, ions shuttle between cathode (positive electrode) and
anode (negative electrode). On discharge, the anode undergoes oxidation, or loss of electrons, and
the cathode sees a reduction, or a gain of electrons. Charge reverses the movement.

Charging method that commonly used for charging of Lithium-Ion cells is constant current -
constant voltage (CV-CC). This means charging with constant current until the 4.2V are reached
by the and continuing with constant voltage until the current drops to zero.

The charge time depends on the charge level of the battery and varies from 2-4 hours for full
charge. Also Li-Ion cannot fast charge as this will increase their temperature above limits.
Charging time increases at lower temperatures.

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Figure 3.5.7 Ion flow in lithium-ion battery

3.5.12.3 Advantages of Lithium-ion Batteries

o Smaller and lighter: Li-ion battery is lighter than other rechargeable batteries in
consideration of battery capacity. This makes it more practical in portable
consumer electronic devices in which physical specifications such as weight and
form factor are considered important selling points.
o High energy density: Li-ion battery has higher energy density than other
rechargeable batteries. This means having high power capacity without being too
bulky. This is suitable for use in power-hungry devices such as laptops and
smartphones. Advancements in technology open potential for higher capacities.
o Low self-discharge: Li-ion battery also has a low self-discharge rate of about 1.5
percent per month. This means that the battery has a longer shelf life when not in
used because it discharges slowly than other rechargeable batteries. Take note that
nickel-metal hydride battery has a self-discharge of 20 percent per month.
o Zero to low memory effect: Li-ion battery has zero to minimal memory effect.
Take note than memory effect is a phenomenon observed in rechargeable batteries
in which they lose their maximum energy capacity when repeated recharged after EASA – 147 Course Notes
being only partially discharged. This memory effect is common in nickel-metal
hydride rechargeable batteries such as NiCd and NiMH.
o Quick charging: Li-ion battery is quicker to charge than other rechargeable
batteries. It actually takes a fraction of a time to charge when compared to
counterparts.
o High open-circuit voltage: Li-ion battery has a chemistry that results in higher
open-circuit voltage than other aqueous batteries such as lead acid, nickel-metal
hydride, and nickel-cadmium.
o Longer lifespan: Li-ion battery can typically handle hundreds of charge-discharge
cycles. Some lithium ion batteries loss 30 percent of their capacity after 1000
cycles while more advanced lithium ion batteries still have better capacity only
after 5000 cycles.
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3.5.12.4 Advantages of Lithium-ion Batteries

o Expensive: Li-ion battery is expensive to manufacture. In fact, the total product

cost of this battery is around 40 percent higher than nickel-metal hydride battery.
Take note that this battery needs an on-board computer circuitry to manage and
ensure that voltage and current are well within the safe limits. This circuitry makes
it more expensive.
o Sensitivity to high temperature: Li-ion battery is susceptible to the downside of
too much heat caused by overheating of the device or overcharging. Heat causes
the cells or packs of this battery to degrade faster than they normally would.
o Aging effect: Li-ion battery will naturally degrade as soon as they leave the
factory. This means that it is not completely durable despite longer charge-
discharge lifecycle because of this normal degradation that transpires whether
consumers use them or not. Storage in a cool place at 40 percent charge reduces
the aging effect.
o Deep discharge: Li-ion battery has low self-discharge. The general integrity of
this battery remains intact even if partially discharged. However, deep discharge
or when the voltage of a lithium ion cell drops below a certain level, it becomes
unusable.
o Safety concerns: Li-ion battery may explode when overheated or overcharged.
This is because gasses formed by electrolyte decomposition increases the internal
pressure of the cell. Overheating or internal short circuit can also ignite the
electrolyte and cause fire. This risk might also subject li-ion batteries to
transportation restrictions, especially when shipped in larger quantities.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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3.5.13 Service of Batteries

Preparation of Electrolyte

The following equipment is used for preparation of electrolyte:

(a) Hydrometer - The hydrometer is a device for measuring specific gravity of fluid, it consists
of a graduated float in the form of a sealed glass tube whose bulbous lower portion is weighted to
make the tube float vertically. The hydrometer float is contained in a glass syringe, to which the
electrolyte is drown by means of a rubber bulb. To obtain accurate reading with hydrometer, the
following points should be borne in mind:-

i. Sufficient liquid must be drawn into the syringe to fill the hydrometers.
ii. The upper end of hydrometer should not touch the bulb.
iii. Hydrometer is to be held at eye level, (while nothing reading)
iv. At least three readings are to be taken.
v. Hydrometer used to check lead-acid batteries must not be used for alkaline batteries
& vice versa.

(b) Protective clothing -Rubber aprons and rubber gloves are to be used when cleaning,
servicing or repairing the batteries. In addition, goggles and rubber bots are to be worn when
mining the electrolyte. Protective clothing should be rinsed after use and then hung up in a cool
place; folding must be avoided as this causes the number to crack.

(c) Neutralizing Agents - Both acid and alkaline electrolytes are highly corrosive. The following
neutralizing agents must, therefore, be readily available:-

i. For alkaline battery room dilute acetic acid (Vinegar) and boric acid.
ii. For lead-acid battery room saturated solution of bicarbonate of soda, sawdust and
ammonia.
(d) First Aid Equipment- The first aid equipment, must be kept in the battery charging room:-
EASA – 147 Course Notes

i. Liquid Ammonia: It is used on clothing contaminated with sulphuric acid. It is not

to be affected skin.
ii. Boric Acid: This is used to decontaminate clothing, skin and eyes, affected by alkaline
electrolyte.
iii. Saturated solution of soda-Bicarbonate: For use when skin is affected by a sulfuric acid.
iv. Five Percent Solution of Soda- Bicarbonate: To be used if acid is spilt in the eyes,
v. Olive oil: For use of skin burnt with electrolyte.

(e) Electrolyte- Electrolyte issued from store for lead acid batteries is generally of 1.400 specific
gravity (solution of sulphuric acid and water). Concentrated commercial grade sulphuric acid has

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a specific gravity of 1.835. It must be mixed with distilled water to lower it to be the proper
specific gravity for filling batteries.

Sulphuric acid or battery electrolyte may cause painful burns if it gets on any part of the body.
Personnel engaged in the handing or mixing electrolyte should be very careful to protect them
form the electrolyte.

When sulphuric acid and water is mixed together to produce electrolyte, heat is generated.
Therefore, when mixing electrolyte, always pour acid into water slowly and stir the mixture.

WARNING

NEVER POUR WATER INTO THE ACID SINCE HEAT MAY BE GENERATED SO
RAPIDLY THAT ACID WILL BE THROWN UP ON THE OPERATOR. THE CONTAINER
SHOULD BE OF GLASS, CARTHENWARE, LEADLINEWOOD; OR OF A SIMILAR
MATERIAL WHICH IS IMPERVIOUS TO SULPHURIC ACID AND CAN STAND THE
HEAT GENERATED IN THE MIXTURE (WATER AND ACID) ALLOW THE
ELECTROLYTE TO COOL BELLOW 90° F. BEFORE USING.

(f) Temperature Correction for S.G:

When checking the S.G. of electrolyte keeps in mind the temperature effect on the S.G. of
electrolyte, if the electrolyte temperatures between 650F and 950F, no correction may be made as
the correction required is negligible. If the temperature is above or below this range, the
following chart is to be used for guidance and compliance.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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3.5.14 Test of Batteries

The following tests are carried-out on the storage batteries (lead acid type).

(a) Leakage Test: Test batteries for leak by mans of the leak tester mentioned below:

(i) Test aperture by holding the rubber bush on a flat surface and pumping slowly until the
airspeed indicator shown 204 knots. Ensure that the pressure holds.
(ii) Fit the nozzle over vent in turn, and pump slowly until the indicator shows knots. The
Indicator should not fail below 195 knots in 15 seconds or below 189 knots in 30 seconds.
(iii)In the vent of failure to reach this standard, the test should be carried out again with a vent
known to be serviceable, if still unsatisfactory, the battery is to be returned to equipment
section marked Tailed to pass pressure test".

(b) Insulation Test: Stand the battery upon a flat metal plate and connect the metal clamps (if
fitted) to the plate. Test with an isolation resistance tester (megger) between the positive terminal
of the battery and the plate. The normal possible minimum reading is 1 mega ohrn, but 250.000
ohms may be accepted in very damp weather conditions.

(c) Capacity Test: To test the battery for capacity test, proceed as follows:-

(i) Ensure that range selector switch of the test set is in the "OFF" position.
(ii) Connect the fully charged battery to the input terminals of the capacity test set, battery
positive to test set positive.
(iii) Place discharge rheostat in "All in" position (minimum discharge current).
(iv) Note reading of ampere-hour meter.
(v) Set range selector switch to the voltage appropriate to the battery.
(vi) Press the contactor push button and adjust the discharge rheostat until the ammeters
indicates a discharge rated capacity.
(vii) When the overall voltage of the battery has dropped to 1.8 volts pep cell the contactor
should open, disconnecting the battery from the discharge circuit.
EASA – 147 Course Notes
(viii) Subtract the initial reading o the ampere-hour meter form the final reading & find the
capacity of the battery.

NOTE

The contactor will not open if only one or two cell is of a battery drop to 1.8 Volts, for these
reason voltmeter readings of each ceil must be taken at hourly Interval during the discharge. The
discharge must be stopped when any cell falls below 1.8 volts.

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3.5.15 Capacity of a Battery

The capacity of battery depends on the efficiencies of a cell. The efficiencies of a cell can be
considered in two ways:

(i) The quality or ampere-hour (Ah) efficiency,

(ii) The energy or watt hour (Wh) efficiency.

The efficiency does not take into account the varying voltages of charge and discharge. The wh
efficiency does so and is always less than Ah efficiency because average p.d. during discharging
is less than that during charging. Usually, during discharge the e. m. f. falls from about 2.1v to
1.8v whereas during charge, it rises from 1.8 volt to about 2.6 volts.

Ah efficiency = amp-hours discharge/amp-hours charge

The amp-hour efficiency of a lead acid-cell in normally between 90-95%, meaning that about
100 Ah must be put back into the cell for every 90-95 Ah taken out of it. Because of gassing this
takes place during the charge, the Ah available for delivery from the battery decreases, it also
decreases:

(i) due to self discharge of the plates caused due to local reactions and
(ii) due to leakage to current because of faulty insulation between the cells of the battery.

The Wh efficiency varies between 72-80%. If Ah efficiency is given, wh efficiency can be found
from the following relation:-

Wh efficiency = (Ah efficiency x average volts on discharge)/Average volts on charge

From the above, it is clear that anything that increases the charge volts or reduce the discharge
volts will decrease Wh efficiency. Because high charge and discharge rates will do this, hence it
is advisable to avoid these. EASA – 147 Course Notes

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3.5.16 Internal Resistance and Its Effect on a Battery

The resistance present inside of a battery while connected to a load is called internal resistance.
Internal resistance restricts the movement of current inside of any power source, including
batteries. In the case of a battery, the internal resistance is determined by the load applied and the
battery’s state of charge.

A battery’s internal resistance is equal to the difference between the Open-Circuit Voltage (OCV)
and the Closed-Circuit Voltage (CCV), divided by the applied load. That is:

Internal Resistance = (OCV-CCV)/load amperage

A battery’s internal resistance always becomes greater as the battery becomes discharged. This is
due to the lowering of a battery’s CCV as the battery becomes weaker. The OCV remains nearly
constant while the CCV drops; therefore, the difference between these two voltages increases.
Hence internal resistance increases.

The internal resistance of a battery becomes very significant when a power source is chosen or a
delicate circuit is designed. However, for general-purpose applications, a battery’s internal
resistance will not adversely affect an aircraft electrical system until that the battery becomes
over 75 percent discharged. When the battery reaches this low state of charge, its internal
resistance becomes too high and the CCV lowers. This low CCV obviously affects circuit
performance.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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3.5.17 Interconnection of Cells: Cells Connected In Series and Parallel

Cells may be connected in series, parallel or any combination of the two in order to form a
battery. When cells are connected to form a battery they should be of similar construction, and
have the same terminal voltage, internal resistance and capacity.

When connected in series:

 The battery voltage is the total of the individual cell voltages.

 The battery resistance is equal to the total of the individual cell resistances.
 The battery capacity is the same as the capacity of a single cell.

Figure 3.5.8 shows a battery pack with four 1.20V nickel-based cells in series to produce 4.8V. In
comparison, a six-cell lead acid string with 2V/cell will generate 12V, and four Li-ion with
3.60V/cell will give 14.40V.

Figure 3.5.8: Series connection of four cells

When connected in parallel:

 The battery voltage is the same as the voltage of a single cell.

 The battery resistance is equal to the parallel total of the cell resistances.
 The battery capacity is equal to the total of the individual cell capacities.

Figure 3.5.9 illustrates four cells connected in parallel. The voltage of the illustrated pack remains
at 1.2V, but the current handling and runtime are increased fourfold.
EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.5.9 Parallel connection of four cells

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Figure 3.5.10 Series/parallel connection of four cells

The series/parallel configuration shown in figure 3.5.10 achieves the desired voltage and current
ratings with a standard cell size. The total power is the product of voltage-times-current and four
1.20V cells multiplied with 1000mAh produce 4.8Wh.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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3.5.18 Thermocouple

3.5.18.1 Thermocouple Principle

Thermoelectric temperature measuring instruments depend for their operation on electrical

energy which is produced by the direct conversion of heat energy at the measuring source.
Thus unlike resistance thermometers they are independent of any external electrical supply.
This form of energy conversion, known as the Seebeck effect, was first demonstrated by
Seebeck in 1871, when he discovered that by taking two wires of dissimilar metals and
joining them at their ends, so as to form two separate junctions, A and B as in Figure 3.5.11,
a thermo-e.m.f. was produced when the junctions were maintained at different temperatures,
causing current to flow round the circuit.

The arrangement of two dissimilar metal wires joined together in this manner is called a
thermocouple, the junction at the higher temperature being conventionally termed the hot
or measuring junction and that at the lower temperature the cold or reference junction. (In
practice, the hot junction is in the form of separate unit for sensing the temperature and this
is regarded generally as the thermocouple proper.)

Figure 3.5.11 Thermocouple principle.

EASA – 147 Course Notes
Experiments which followed Seebeck's discovery proved the existence of two other effects. When
an electric current flows through the junction of two different substances it causes heat to be
either absorbed or liberated at the junction, depending on the direction of the current. This is
known as the Peltier effect. In a circuit in which the only generated voltage is a thermo-e.m.f.,
current flows through a heated junction in a certain direction. If, instead of heat being supplied to
the system, a battery is introduced into the circuit, of such polarity that a current is driven in the
same direction as the thermo-current, the junction which was previously heated will be cooled,
and the junction which was previously held at a constant temperature will be heated.

Lord Kelvin (when he was Sir William Thomson) discovered that effects similar to the Seebeck
and Peltier effects occur in a single, homogeneous conductor: if two parts of a conductor are at
different temperatures, an e.m.f. is generated; and when current flows from a part of a conductor
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to another which is at a different temperature, heat may be either liberated or absorbed. These
phenomena are different aspects of a single Thomson effect.

3.5.18.2 Thermocouple Materials and Combinations

The materials selected for use as thermoelectric sensing elements fall into two main groups, base
metal and rare metal, and are listed in Table. The choice of a particular thermocouple is dictated
by the maximum temperature to be encountered in service. Thermocouples required for use in
aircraft are confined to those of the base metal group.

In order to utilize the thermoelectric principle for temperature measurement, it is obviously

necessary to measure the e.m.f.'s generated at the various temperatures. This is done by
connecting a moving-coil millivoltmeter, calibrated in degrees Celsius, in series with the circuits
so that it forms the cold junction. The introduction of the instrument into the circuit involves the
presence of additional junctions which produce their own e.m.f.'s and so introduce errors in
measurement. However, the effects are taken into consideration when designing practical
thermocouple circuits, and any errors resulting from `parasitic e.m.f.'s', as they are called, are
eliminated.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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3.5.19 Photo Cells

Photo voltaic Cells directly convert light into electricity at the atomic level. Some materials
exhibit a property known as the photoelectric effect that causes them to absorb photons of light
and release electrons. When these free electrons are captured, an electric current results that can
be used as electricity.

Figure 3.5.12 Photovoltaic Cell as the source of DC electricity

The diagram above illustrates the operation of a basic photovoltaic cell, also called a solar cell.
Solar cells are made of the same kinds of semiconductor materials, such as silicon, used in the
microelectronics industry. For solar cells, a thin semiconductor wafer is specially treated to form
an electric field, positive on one side and negative on the other. When light energy strikes the
solar cell, electrons are knocked loose from the atoms in the semiconductor material. If electrical
conductors are attached to the positive and negative sides, forming an electrical circuit, the
electrons can be captured in the form of an electric current -- that is, electricity. This electricity
can then be used to power a load, such as a light or a tool.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.5.13 Photovoltaic Cell, Module and Array

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A number of solar cells electrically connected to each other and mounted in a support structure or
frame is called a photovoltaic module. Modules are designed to supply electricity at a certain
voltage, such as a common 12 volts system. The current produced is directly dependent on how
much light strikes the module.

Multiple modules can be wired together to form an array. In general, the larger the area of a
module or array, the more electricity that will be produced. Photovoltaic modules and arrays
produce direct-current (dc) electricity. They can be connected in both series and parallel electrical
arrangements to produce any required voltage and current combination.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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NOTES

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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Chapter 06
DC Circuits

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INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

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3.6 DC CIRCUITS

3.6.1 Introduction

The material covered in this chapter contains many new terms that are explained as you progress
through the material. The basic DC circuit is the easiest to understand, so the chapter begins with
the basic circuit and from there works into the basic schematic diagram of that circuit. The
schematic diagram is used in all your future work in electricity and electronics. It is very important
that you become familiar with the symbols that are used.

This chapter also explains how to determine the total resistance, current, voltage, and power in a
series, parallel, or combination circuit through the use of Ohm's and Kirchhoff's laws. The voltage
divider network, series, parallel, and series-parallel practice problem circuits will be used for
practical examples of what you have learned.

3.6.2 The Basic Electric Circuit

The torch is an example of a basic electric circuit. It contains a source of electrical energy (the dry
cells in the torch), a load (the bulb) which changes the electrical energy into a more useful form of
energy (light), and a switch to control the energy delivered to the load.

Before you study a schematic representation of the torch, it is necessary to define certain terms The
load is any device through which an electrical current flows and which changes this electrical
energy into a more useful form. Some common examples of loads are a light bulb, which changes
electrical energy to light energy; an electric motor, which changes electrical energy into mechanical
energy; and the speaker in a radio, which changes electrical energy into sound. The source is the
device which furnishes the electrical energy used by the load. It may consist of a simple dry cell (as
in a torch), a storage battery (as in an automobile), or a power supply (such as a battery charger).
The switch, which permits control of the electrical device, interrupts the current delivered to the
load. EASA – 147 Course Notes

3.6.2 Schematic Representation

The technician's main aid in troubleshooting a circuit in a piece of equipment is the schematic
diagram. The schematic diagram is a "picture" of the circuit that uses symbols to represent the
various circuit components; physically large or complex circuits can be shown on a relatively small
diagram. Before studying the basic schematic, look at Figure 3.6.1.

This figure shows the symbols that are used in this chapter. These, and others like them, are referred
to and used throughout the study of electricity and electronics.

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Figure 3.6.1 Symbols Commonly Used in Electricity

The schematic in Figure 3.6.2 represents a torch. View A of the figure shows the torch in the off or
de-energized state. The switch (S1) is open. There is no complete path for current (I) through the
circuit, and the bulb (DS1) does not light. In Figure 6.2 view B, switch S1 is closed.

Conventional current flows in the direction of the arrows from the positive terminal o{ the battery
(BAT), through the lamp (DS1), through the switch, (S1) and back to the negative terminal of the
battery. With the switch closed the path for current is complete. Current will continue to flow until
the switch (S1) is moved to the open position or the battery is completely discharged.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.6.2 Basic Torch Schematic

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3.6.3 Ohm’s Law

This explains how the amount of current I in a circuit depends on its resistance R and the applied
voltage. Specifically, I = V/R, determined in 1828 by the experiments of George Simon Ohm. If
we know any two of the factors V, I, and R, you can calculate the third. Ohm's law also determines
the amount of electric power in the circuit. The amount of power consumed in a circuit is equal to
the voltage times the current.

This law applies to electric to electric conduction through good conductors and may be stated as
follows:

The ratio of potential difference (V) between any two points on a conductor to the current (I)
flowing between them, is constant, provided the temperature of the conductor does not change. In
other words,

V/I = constant or V/I = R

Where R is the resistance of the conductor between the two points considered.

Put in the other way, it simply means that provided R is kept constant, current is directly
proportional to the potential difference across the ends of a conductor. However, this linear
relationship between V and I does not apply to all non-metallic conductors.

3.6.3.1 The Current I = V/R

If we keep the same resistance in a circuit but vary the voltage, the current will vary. For the
general case of any V and R, Ohm's law is

I = V/ R
where I is the amount of current through the resistance R connected across the source of
potential difference V. With volts as the practical unit for V and ohms for R, the amount of
EASA – 147 Course Notes
current I is in amperes. Therefore,
Amperes = volts / ohms

This formula says to simply divide the voltage across R by the ohms of resistance between the
two points of potential difference to calculate the amperes of current through R. In Figure
3.6.2, for instance, with 6 V applied across a 3Ω resistance, by Ohm's law the amount of current
I equals 6/3 or 2A.

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Figure 3.6.2 Schematic Diagram with Values Calculated by Ohm’s Law

High Voltage but Low Current It is important to realize that with high voltage, the current can
have a low value when there is a very large amount of resistance in the circuit. For example,
1000 V applied across 1,000,000 Ω results in a current of only 1/1000 A. By Ohm's law,

I = V/R
= 1000 V / 1,000,000 Ω
= 0.001 A.

The practical fact is that high-voltage circuits usually do have a small value of current in
electronic equipment. Otherwise, tremendous amounts of power would be necessary.

Low Voltage but High Current At the opposite extreme, a low value of voltage in a very low
resistance circuit can produce a very large amount of current. A 6V battery connected across a
resistance of 0.01Ω produces 600 A of current:

I = V/R
= 6V / 0.01Ω
= 600 A

Typical V and I Transistors and integrated circuits generally operate with a do supply of 3, 5,
6, 9, 12, 20, or 28 V. The current is usually in millionths or thousandths of one ampere up to EASA – 147 Course Notes
about 5A.

3.6.3.2 The Voltage V = IR

Referring to Figure 3.6.2, the amount of voltage across R must be the same as V because the
resistance is connected directly across the battery. The numerical value of this V is equal to the
product I X R. For instance, the I R voltage in Figure 3.6.1 is 2A X 3Ω, which equals the 6 V of
the applied voltage. The formula is
V=IR

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With I in ampere units and R in ohms, their product V is in volts. Actually, this must be so
because the I value equal to V / R is the amount that allows the I R product to be the same as the
voltage across R.

Besides the numerical calculations possible with the I R formula, it is useful to consider that the
I R product means voltage. Whenever there is current through a resistance, it must have a
potential difference across its two ends equal to the I R product. If there were no potential
difference, no electrons could flow to produce the current.

3.6.3.3 The Resistance R = V/I

As the third and final version of Ohm's law, the three factors V, I, and R are related by the
formula
R = V/I

In Figure 3.6.1R is 3Ω because 6V applied across the resistance produces 2A through it.
Whenever V and I are known, the resistance can be calculated as the voltage across R divided by
the current through it.

Physically, a resistance can be considered as some material with elements having an atomic
structure that allows free electrons to drift through it with more or less force applied. Electrically,
though, a more practical way of considering resistance is simply as a V/I ratio. Anything that
allows 1A of current with 10V applied has a resistance of 10Ω. This V/I ratio of 10Ω is its
characteristic. If the voltage is doubled to 20V, the current will also double to 2A, providing the
same V/I ratio of a 10Ω resistance.

Furthermore, we do not need to know the physical construction of a resistance to analyze its
effect in a circuit, so long as we know its V/I ratio.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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3.6.4 Kirchhoff's Laws

Many types of circuits have components that are not in series, in parallel, or in series-parallel. For
example, a circuit may have two voltages applied in different branches. Another example is an
unbalanced bridge circuit. Where the rules of series and parallel circuits cannot be applied, more
general methods of analysis become necessary. These methods include the application of
Kirchhoff's laws and the network theorems.

Any circuit can be solved by Kirchhoff's laws because they do not depend on series or parallel
connections. Stated in 1847 by the German physicist Gustav R. Kirchhoff, the two basic rules
for voltage and current are:
1. The algebraic sum of the voltage sources and IR voltage drops in any closed path
must total zero.
2. At any point in a circuit the algebraic sum of the currents directed in and out must
total zero.

3.6.4.1 Kirchhoff's Current Law

The algebraic sum of the currents entering and leaving any point in a circuit must equal zero.
Or stated another way: The algebraic sum of the currents into any point of the circuit must equal
the algebraic sum of the currents out of that point. Otherwise, charge would accumulate at the
point, instead of having a conducting path. An algebraic sum means combining positive and
negative values.

Algebraic Signs

In using Kirchhoff's laws to solve circuits it is necessary to adopt conventions that determine
the algebraic signs for current and voltage terms. A convenient system for currents is:
Consider all currents into a branch point as positive and all currents directed away from that point
as negative.
EASA – 147 Course Notes
As an example, in Figure 3.6.3 we can write the currents as
IA +IB - IC=0 or
5A+3A-8A=0

Figure 3.6.3 Current IC out from point P equals 5A + 3A into P.

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Currents I A and I B are positive terms because these currents flow into P, but Ic, directed out,
is negative.

Current Equations
For a circuit application, refer to point c at the top of the diagram in Figure 3.6.4. The 6A IT
into point c divides into the 2A I3 and 4A I4-5, both directed out. Note that I4-5 is the current
through R 4 and R 5.The algebraic equation is:

IT – I3 – I4-5 = 0

Substituting the values for these currents, 6A - 2A - 4A=0

For the opposite directions, refer to point d at the bottom of Figure 3.6.4. Here the branch
currents into d combine to equal the main-line current IT returning to the voltage source. Now
IT is directed out from d, with I3 and I4 - 5 directed in. The algebraic equation is

- I T + I 3 + I 4-5 = 0
-6A+2A+4A=0

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.6.4 Series-parallel circuit to illustrate Kirchhoff’s laws.

The Iin = Iout

Note that at either point c or point d in Figure 3.6.4, the sum of the 2A and 4A branch
currents must equal the 6A total line current. Therefore, Kirchhoff's current law can also be
stated as: Iin = Iout. For Figure 3.6.4, the equations of current can be written:

At point c: 6A=2A+4A
At point d: 2A+4A=6A

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Kirchhoff's current law is really the basis for the practical rule in parallel circuits that the total
line current must equal the sum of the branch currents.

3.6.4.2 Kirchhoff's Voltage Law

The algebraic sum of the voltages around any closed path is zero. If you start from any point
at one potential and come back to the same point and the same potential, the difference of
potential must be zero.

Algebraic Signs

In determining the algebraic signs for voltage terms, first mark the polarity of each voltage, as
shown in Figure 3.6.4. A convenient system then is: Go around any closed path and consider
any voltage whose plus terminal is reached first as positive, and vice versa. This method applies
to voltage drops and voltage sources. Also, the direction can be clockwise or
counterclockwise. In any case, if you come back to the starting point, the algebraic sum of all
the voltage terms must be zero.

If you do not come back to the start, then the algebraic sum is the voltage between the start
and finish points.

You can follow any closed path. The reason is that the net voltage between any two points in
a circuit is the same regardless of the path used in determining the potential difference.

Loop Equations

Any closed path is called a loop. A loop equation specifies the voltages around the loop.
Figure 3.6.4 has three loops. The outside loop, starting from point a at the top, through cefdb,
and back to a, includes the voltage drops V1, V4, V5, and V2 and the source VT.

The inside loop acdba includes V1, V3, V2, and VT. The other inside loop, cefdc with V4, V5,
EASA – 147 Course Notes
and V3, does not include the voltage source.

Consider the voltage equation for the inside loop with VT. In clockwise direction, starting
from point a, the algebraic sum of the voltages is:

-Vl-V3-V2+VT=0 or
-30V-120V-90V+240V=0

Voltages V1, V3, and V2 have the negative sign, because for each of these voltages the
negative terminal is reached first. However, the source VT is a positive term because its plus
terminal is reached first, going in the same direction.

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For the opposite direction, going counterclockwise in the same loop from point b at the
bottom, V2, V3, and Vl have positive values and VT is negative. Then

V2+V3+V1-VT=0or
90V+120V+30V - 240V=0

When we transpose the negative term of -240 V, the equation becomes

90V+120V+30V=240V

This equation states that the sum of the voltage drops equals the applied voltage.

ΣV = VT

The Greek letter Σ means "sum of." In either direction, for any loop, the sum of the IR voltage
drops must equal the applied voltage VT. In Figure 3.6.3for the inside loop with the source V T ,
going counterclockwise from point b:

90V+120V+30V=240V

This system does not contradict the rule for algebraic signs. If 240 V were on the left side of the
equation, this term would have a negative sign.

Stating a loop equation as ΣV = VT eliminates the step of transposing the negative terms from
one side to the other to make them positive. In this form, the loop equations show that
Kirchhoff's voltage law is really the basis for the practical rule in series circuits that the sum of
the voltage drops must equal the applied voltage.

When a loop does not have any voltage source, the algebraic sum of the IR voltage drops alone
must total zero. For instance, in Figure 3.6.4, for the loop cefdc without the source VT, going
clockwise from point c, the loop equation of voltages is
EASA – 147 Course Notes
-
V4 -V 5 +V 3 =0
-40V-80V+ 120V=0
0=0

Notice that V 3 is positive now, because its plus terminal is reached first by going clockwise
from d to c in this loop.

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3.6.5 Maxwell's Loop Current Method

This method which is particularly well-suited to coupled circuit solutions employs a system of
loop or mesh currents instead of branch currents (as in Kirchhoff's laws). Here, the currents in
different meshes are assigned continuous paths so that they do not split at a junction into branch
currents. This method eliminates a great deal of tedious work involved in the branch-current
method and is best suited when energy sources are voltage sources rather than current sources.
Basically, this method consists of writing loop voltage equations by Kirchhoff's voltage law in
terms of unknown loop currents. The number of independent equations to be solved reduces from
b (by Kirchhoff's laws) to b-(j-1) for the loop current method where b is the number of branches
and j is the number of junctions in a given network.

Figure 3.6.5

Figure 3.6.5 shows two batteries E1and E2connected in a network consisting of five resistors. Let
the loop currents for the three meshes be I1, I2 and I3. It is obvious that current through R4 (when
considered as a part of the first loop) is (I1 - I2) and that through R5 is (I2 - I3). However, when R4 is
considered part of the second loop, current through it is (I2 -I1). Similarly, when R5 is considered
part of the third loop, current through it is Applying Kirchhoff's voltage law to the three loops, we
get,
EASA – 147 Course Notes

E1-I1R1-R4(I1-I2)=0
or I1(R3+R4)-I2R4-E1=0 ...loop 1

Similarly, -I2R2-R5(I2-I3) -R4(I2 –I1) = 0

or I1R4-I2(R2+R4+R5)+I3R5=0 ...loop 2

Also -13R3-E2-R5(I3-I2)=0
or I2R5-I3(R3+R5)-E2=0 ...loop 3

The above three equations can be solved not only to find loop currents but branch currents as
well.

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3.6.6 Superposition Theorem

According to this theorem, if there are a number of e.m.fs acting simultaneously in any linear
bilateral network, then each e.m.f acts independently of the others i.e. as if the other e.m.fs did not
exist. The value of current in any conductor is the algebraic sum of the currents due to each e.m.f.
Similarly, voltage across any conductor is the algebraic sum of the voltages which each e.m.f
would have produced while acting singly. In other words, current in or voltage across, any
conductor of the network is obtained by superimposing the currents and voltages due to each
e.m.f. in the network. It is important to keep in mind that this theorem is applicable only to linear
networks where current is linearly related to voltage as per Ohm's law.

Hence, this theorem may be stated as follows:

In a network of linear resistances containing more than one generator- (or source of emf), the
current which flows at any point is the sum of all the currents which would flow at that point if
each generator were considered separately and all the other generators replaced for the time being
by resistances equal to their internal resistances.

Figure 3.6.6

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.6.7

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Explanation

In Figure 3.6.6 I1, I2and I represent the values of currents which are due to the simultaneous
action of the two sources of e.m.f. in the network. In Figure 3.6.6(a) are shown the current values
which would have been obtained if left-hand side battery had acted alone. Similarly, Figure 3.6.7
represents conditions obtained when right-hand side battery acts alone. By combining the current
values of Figure 3.6.6(b) and 3.6.7 the actual values of Figure 3.6.6 can be obtained.

Obviously, I1 = I1’ – I1”,

I2 = I2” - I2’,
I = I’ + I”.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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3.6.7 Thevenin Theorem

It provides a mathematical technique for replacing a given network, as viewed from two output
terminals, by a single voltage source with a series resistance. It makes the solution of
complicates' networks (particularly, electronic networks) quite quick and easy. The application of
this extremely useful theorem will be explained with the help of the following simple example.

Figure 3.6.8

Suppose, it is required to find current flowing through load resistance R L as shown in Figure
3.6.8(a). We will proceed as under:

(a) Remove R L from the circuit terminals A and B and redraw the circuit as shown in Figure
3.6.8(b). obviously, the terminals have become open-circuited.
(b) Calculate the open-circuit voltage VOC which appears across terminals A and B when they are
open i.e. when R L is removed.

As seen, VOC = drop across R 2=1R2where I is the circuit current when A and B are
open.
I = E/(R1+R2+r)
or VOC = IR2 = ER2 / (R1+R2+r) (r is the internal resistance of battery)
EASA – 147 Course Notes
It is also called `Thevenin voltage' Vth.

(c) Now, imagine the battery to be removed from the circuit, leaving its internal resistance r
behind and redraw the circuit, as shown in Figure 3.6.8(c). When viewed inwards from terminals
A and B, the circuit consists of two parallel paths: one containing R 2and the other containing
(R1+r). The equivalent resistance of the network, as viewed from these terminals is given as:

R = R2 II (R1+r) = {R2(R1+r)} / {R2+(R1+r)}

This resistance is also called, Thevenin resistance Rth (though, it is also sometimes written as Ri or
R0).

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Consequently, as viewed from terminals A and B, the whole network (excluding R1,) can be
reduced to a single source (called Thevenin's source) whose e.m.f. equals Voc(or Vth) and whose
internal resistance equals Rth (or Ri ), as shown in Figure 3.6.9.

Figure 3.6.9

(d) RL is now connected back across terminals A and B from where it was temporarily removed
earlier. Current flowing through RLis given by

I = Vth / (Rth + RL)

It is clear from above that any network of resistors and voltage sources (and current sources as
well) when viewed from any two points A and B in the network, can be replaced by a single
voltage source and a single resistance in series with the voltage source.

After this replacement of the network by a single voltage source with a series resistance has been
accomplished, it is easy to find current in any load resistance joined across terminals A and B.
This theorem is valid even for those linear networks which have a nonlinear load.

Hence, Thevenin's theorem, as applied to d.c. circuits, may be stated as under:

The current flowing through a load resistance RL connected across any two terminals A and B of EASA – 147 Course Notes
a linear, active bilateral network is given by Voc II (Ri+RL ) where Voc is the open-circuit voltage
(i.e. voltage across the two terminals when RL is removed) and Ri is the internal resistance of the
network as viewed back into the open-circuited network from terminals A and B with all voltage
sources replaced by their internal resistance (if any) and current sources by infinite resistance.

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3.6.8 Reciprocity Theorem

It can be stated in the following manner:

In any linear bilateral network, if a source of e.m f E in any branch produces a current I in any
other branch, then the same e.m.f, E acting in the second branch would produce the same current I
in the first branch.

In other words, it simply means that E and I are mutually transferable. The ratio E/I is known as
the transfer resistance (or impedance in a.c. systems). Another way of stating the above is that the
receiving point and the sending point in a network are interchangeable. It also means that
interchange of an ideal voltage source and an ideal ammeter in any network will riot change the
ammeter reading. Same is the case with the interchange of an ideal current source and an ideal
voltmeter.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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3.6.9 Norton's Theorem

This theorem is an alternative to the Thevenin's theorem. In fact, it is the dual of Thevenin's
theorem. Whereas Thevenin's theorem reduces a two-terminal active network of linear resistances
and generators to an equivalent constant-voltage source and series resistance, Norton's theorem
replaces the network by an equivalent constant-current source and a parallel resistance.

This theorem may be stated as follows:

(i) Any two-terminal active network containing voltage sources and resistances when viewed
from its output terminals, is equivalent to a constant-current source and a parallel resistance. The
constant current is equal to the current which would flow in a short-circuit placed across the
terminals and parallel resistance is the resistance of the network when viewed from these open-
circuited terminals after all voltage and current sources have been removed and replaced by their
internal resistances.

Figure 3.6.10

Explanation:

As seen from Figure 3.6.10(a), a short is placed across the terminals A and B of the network
with all its energy sources present. The short circuit current Isc gives the value of constant-
EASA – 147 Course Notes
current source.

For finding Ri, all sources have been removed as shown in Figure 3.6.10(b). The resistance of
the network when looked into from terminals A and B gives Ri.

The Norton's equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 3.6.10(c). It consists of an ideal constant-
current source of infinite internal resistance having a resistance of R i connected in parallel with
it.

(ii) Another useful generalized form of this theorem is as follows:

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The voltage between any two points in a network is equal to Isc. Ri where Isc is the short-circuit
current between the two points and Ri is the resistance of the network as viewed from these points
with all voltage sources being replaced by their internal resistances (if any) and current sources
replaced by open-circuits.

Suppose, it is required to find the voltage across resistance R3and hence current through it (Figure
3.6.10(d)). If short-circuit is placed between A and B, then current in it due to battery of e.m.f. E1
is E1/ /R1and due to the other battery is E2 /R2

Isc = E1/R1 + E2/R2

= E1G1 + E2G2
where G1and G2are branch conductances.

Now, the internal resistance of the network as viewed from A and B simply consists of three
resistances R1, R2and R3connected in parallel between A and B. Please note that here load
resistance R3has not been removed. In the first method given above, it has to be removed.

1/Ri = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3

= G1 + G2 + G3
So Ri = 1/ (G1 + G2 + G3)
So VAB = Isc.Ri = (E1G1 + E2G2)/ (G1 + G2 + G3)

Current through R2 is 13= VAB/R3.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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3.6.10 Effect of Internal Resistance of a Supply

Figure 3.6.11 illustrates how the output of a 100V source can drop to 90 V because of the internal
10V drop across ri. In Figure 3.6.11(a), the voltage across the output terminals is equal to the
100V of VG because there is no load current on an open circuit. With no current, the voltage drop
across ri is zero. Then the full generated voltage is available across the output terminals. This
value is the generated emf, open-circuit voltage, or no-load voltage.

We cannot connect the test leads inside the source to measure VG. However, measuring this no-
load voltage without any load current provides a method of determining the internally generated
emf. We can assume the voltmeter draws practically no current because of its very high
resistance.

Figure 3.6.11 Internal voltage drop decreases voltage at output terminals of generator. (a) Open-circuit
voltage equals VG of 100V because there is no load current. (b) Terminal voltage VL between A and B is
reduced to 90V because of 10V drop across 100Ω ri with 0.1 A of IL.

In Figure 3.6.10(b) with a load, however, current of 0.1 A flows, to produce a drop of 10 V across
the 100Ω of ri. Note that RT is 900 + 100 = 1000Ω. Then IL equals 100/1000 which is 0.1 A.

As a result, the voltage output VL equals 100 - 10 = 90 V. This terminal voltage or load voltage is
available across the output terminals when the generator is in a closed circuit with load current.
The 10V internal drop is subtracted from VG because they are series-opposing voltages. EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.6.11 How terminal voltage VL drops with more load current IL.
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The graph in Figure 3.6.11 shows how the terminal voltage VL drops with increasing load current
IL. The reason is the greater internal voltage drop across ri.

Across the top row, infinite ohms for RL means an open circuit. Then IL is zero, there is no
internal drop Vi, and VL is the same 100 V as VG.

Across the bottom row, zero ohms for RL means a short circuit. Then the short-circuit current of
1A results in zero output voltage because the entire generator voltage is dropped across the
internal resistance. Or, we can say that with a short circuit of zero ohms across the load, the
current is limited to VG/ ri.

The lower the internal resistance of a generator, the better it is in terms of being able to produce
full output voltage when supplying current for a load. For example, the very low ri, about 0.01Ω,
for a 12V lead-acid battery is the reason it can supply high values of load current and maintain its
output voltage.

For the opposite case, a higher ri means that the terminal voltage of a generator is much less with
load current. As an example, an old dry battery with ri of 500 Ω would appear normal when
measured by a voltmeter but be useless because of low voltage when normal load current flows in
an actual circuit.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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3.6.11 Some Practical Applications

For an aircraft technician, there are countless uses for the material contained in this chapter Ohm's
law can be used during the installation, repair, and inspection of various electrical units; in the
acquisition of electrical components; in determining wire sizes for a given application; and in
basic electric circuit design. Some examples of these applications are stated in the following
problems. It should be noted that owing to the brevity of these examples, they may not fully
illustrate the complexity of a given situation that might be encountered during actual aircraft
maintenance.

Problem No. 1: During an annual inspection it was noticed that the bus bar (the main electrical
distribution connection) had been replaced by the previous aircraft owner. One way for the
technician to verify the airworthiness of this bus bar is to determine its actual load-carrying
capability and compare it with the aircraft's actual total load. It was determined from the part
number of the bus bar that the maximum amperage allowable to enter this part was 60 amps. Is
the bus bar within its amperage limit?

Solution: By applying Kirchhoff's law for parallel circuits, it was determined that the current
flowing from the bus bar was also the current flowing through the bus ban The maximum
allowable current through the bus is 60 amps; therefore, the total aircraft load could not exceed
this value. Since all aircraft circuits are connected in parallel to the bus, the total current was
determined using

𝐼𝐼𝑡𝑡 = 𝐼𝐼1 + 𝐼𝐼2 + 𝐼𝐼3 + 𝐼𝐼4 + 𝐼𝐼5 + 𝐼𝐼6 + 𝐼𝐼7

If the loads on the aircraft are as follows, it IS a simple process to determine if the bus bar is
electrically overloaded.

Navigation lights 10A

Navigation radio 4A
Communication radio 3A
EASA – 147 Course Notes
Pitot heat 12A
Flap motor 8A
Hydraulic pump motor 16A
Fuel pump motor 6A

Simply sum the individual current flows to find the total current flow.

𝐼𝐼𝑡𝑡 = 10𝐴𝐴 + 4𝐴𝐴 + 3𝐴𝐴 + 12𝐴𝐴 + 8𝐴𝐴 + 16𝐴𝐴 + 6𝐴𝐴 = 59𝐴𝐴

Since the aircraft’s total load is only 59 amps and the bus bar can handle 60 amps, the bus
installation can be considered within its current limit.

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Problem No. 2: What size generator must be placed on the aircraft used in problem no. 1? The
approved generators for that particular airplane are rated at 30, 60, and 90 amps.

Solution: Once again, since we know that the current to a point is equal to the current from that
point, we can determine that the 59A “pulled” from the aircraft’s bus bar must be “pushed” into
the bus bar by the generator. Therefore, the 60A generator would be required as a minimum.
However, the 59A calculated earlier does not include the current needed to charge the battery
after starting the aircraft engine. (Note: On this aircraft, the battery current does not feed through
the bus; it is received directly from the generator.). Since battery charging current can often
exceed 20A for short periods, the 90A generator should be installed.

Problem No. 3: While a new electric fuel pump is installed on an aircraft, the fuel flow
adjustment must be made by changing the voltage to the pump motor. This change in voltage
changes the rpm of the pump motor, hence changing the fuel flow through the pump. To
accomplish this voltage change, the aircraft system contains an adjustable resistor in series with
the fuel pump motor. If the aircraft manual calls for 8V to be applied to the pump motor and the
aircraft system voltage is 14V, at what resistance must the variable resistor be set?

Solution: Since the voltage drops are additive in a series circuit, the voltage drop of the resistor
plus the voltage drop of the fuel pump must equal 14V (system voltage); or, 14V-8V=resistor
voltage drop. The voltage drop of the resistor is therefore 6V. The equation R=E/I can be used to
determine the resistor’s value. According to the data plate of the fuel pump, the motor draws 2A
at 8V. Since the motor and resistor are in series, 2A must flow through the variable resistor.
Using

𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟
𝑅𝑅𝑟𝑟 =
𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑟
Where Rr = resistance of the resistor in ohms
Vr = the voltage drop over the resistor (6V)
Ir = the current flow through the resistor (2A)
EASA – 147 Course Notes
𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟 6𝑉𝑉
𝑅𝑅𝑟𝑟 = = = 3Ω
𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑟 2𝐴𝐴

The variable resistor should be set for 3Ω in order to produce the correct fuel flow.

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NOTES

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Chapter 07
Resistance/Resistor

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INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

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3.7 RESISTANCE/RESISTOR

The term resistance refers to the opposition that all materials offer to the passage of electrical
current. All materials offer some resistance. Silver has the least resistance of the well-known
metals, and copper has a little more resistance than silver. A material offering no resistance to
current flow is known as a superconductor. Temperatures close to absolute zero (-459.60 F.) tend
to make a few materials act as superconductors. For instance, suppose we have a ring of lead that
is at a temperature of absolute zero. If we start a current flowing in the ring (from a battery, for
example) and then disconnect the battery, current will continue to flow indefinitely.

Materials which readily carry electrical current at normal temperatures are called conductors.
Conductors are the "highways" that connect the parts of electrical circuits. These can be in the
form of wires, metal ribbons, plated areas of a circuit board, or even sections of a metal chassis.

3.7.1 Factors Affecting Resistance

The resistance of a wire depends upon its temperature, its size, and its material.

3.7.1.1 Temperature

When the temperature of a metal conductor like copper, aluminum rises, the resistance of the
conductor increases proportionately. On the other hand, when the temperature of conductors like
carbon, a gas, or an electrolyte rises, the resistance of such conductors decreases proportionately.

3.7.1.2 Length

The longer the length of the conductor, the greater the resistance. Let us imagine we have a
number of small cubes, one behind the other, like the ones in Figure 3.7.1. Assume that each cube
offers a resistance of one ohm. If two of these cubes are placed end to end, we will find that the
resistance is twice as much, or two ohms. A line of four cubes will have a resistance of four
ohms, and a line of 100 cubes will have a resistance of 100 ohms. Therefore, resistance varies EASA – 147 Course Notes
directly with the length of the conductor. The reason is simple. The cubes act as resistors in a
series, and there is a voltage drop across each "cube resistor."

3.7.1.3 Area

Now, let us place two of these cubes side by side, a. in Figure 3.7.2, only this time we will pass
the current broadside through the blocks. In reality, we are passing the current through two one-
ohm resistors in parallel. The current divides equally between the two equal resistors. The total
resistances equals the value of one resistor (one ohm) divided by the number of paths (two), or
one-half ohm. In other words, when the area is doubled, the resistance is cut in half. Likewise, if
four of these cubes are placed together to make an area of four square inches, the total resistance
will be one-fourth ohm. Therefore, the resistance of a conductor varies inversely with its cross-
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sectional area. The size of wire selected is a compromise between the least resistance to the
current and the least cost of the wire.

Figure 3.7.1 The resistance of a conductor Figure 3.7.2 The resistance of a conductor
varies with its length. Varies with its cross-sectional area.

Material
Resistance varies directly with the kind of material. A formula for finding the resistance of a
conductor should include temperature, length, area and material. However, ordinary temperature
changes have such a small effect that they can be ignored. The following formula is used:

R= KL/A
where,
R is the resistance of the conductor in ohms,
K is the specific resistance of the material,
L is the length of the conductor, EASA – 147 Course Notes
A is the cross-sectional area of the conductor.

3.7.2 Specific Resistance

Specific resistance, or resistivity, is the resistance in ohms offered by a unit volume (the circular-
mil-foot or the centimeter cube or meter cube) of a substance to the flow of electric current.
Resistivity is the reciprocal of conductivity. A substance that has a high resistivity will have a low
conductivity, and vice versa. A piece of copper one foot long and with a cross-sectional area of
one circular mil has a resistance of 10.4 ohms. Therefore, copper has a specific resistance of 10.4.
The specific resistances for several common metals are listed as follows:

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Table 3-1: Specific Resistance

Substance Specific Resistance

Circular-mil-foot (ohms) Ωm

Silver 9.8 1.59x10-8

Iron 63.4 9.71x10-8

German Silver 128.3 20.34 x10-8

Copper 10.4 1.68x10-8

Aluminum 17.2 2.65x10-8

3.7.3 Resistor Color Coding

Because carbon resistors are small physically, they are color-coded to mark their R value in
ohms. The basis of this system is the use of colors for numerical values, as listed in Table 3-2. In
memorizing the colors, note that the darkest colors, black and brown, are for the lowest numbers,
zero and one, through lighter colors to white for nine. The color coding is standardized by the
Electronic Industries Association (EIA).

Table 3-2 Resistor Color Coding

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3.7.3.1 Resistance Color Stripes

The use of bands or stripes is the most common system for color-coding carbon resistors, as
shown in Figure 3.7.3. Color stripes are printed at one end of the insulating body. Reading from
left to right, the first band close to the edge gives the first digit in the numerical value of R. The
next band marks the second digit. The third band is the decimal multiplier, which gives the
number of zeroes after the two digits.

In Figure 3.7.4(a), the first stripe is red for 2 and the next stripe is green for 5. The red multiplier
in the third stripe means add two zeroes to 25, or "this multiplier is 102." The result can be
illustrated as follows:

Red Green Red

2 5 X 100 = 2500

Therefore, this R value is 2500 Ω.

The example in Figure 3.7.4(b) illustrates that black for the third stripe just means "do not add
any zeroes to the first two digits." Since this resistor has red, green, and black stripes, the R value
is 25Ω.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.7.3 How to read color stripes on carbon resistors.

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Figure 3.7.4 Examples of color-coded R values

3.7.3.2 Values of Resistance

Resistors under 10Ωfor these values, the third stripe is either gold or silver, indicating a fractional
decimal multiplier. When the third stripe is gold, multiply the first two digits by 0.1. In Figure
3.7.4(c), the R value is

25 X 0.1 = 2.5 Ω

Silver means a multiplier of 0.01. If the third band in Figure 3.7.4(c) were silver, the R value
would be

25 X 0.01 = 0.25Ω.

It is important to realize that the gold and silver colors are used as decimal multipliers only in the
third stripe. However, gold and silver are used most often as a fourth stripe to indicate how
accurate the R value is.

3.7.3.3 Resistor Tolerance

The amount by which the actual R can be different from the color-coded value is the tolerance, EASA – 147 Course Notes
usually given in percent. For instance, a 2000Ω resistor with ± 10 percent tolerance can have
resistance 10 percent above or below the coded value. This R, therefore, is between 1800 and
2200 Ω. The calculations are as follows:

10 percent of 2000 is 0.1 X 2000 = 200

For + 10percent, the value is

2000 + 200 = 2200 Ω

For -10 percent, the value is 1000 - 200 = 1800 Ω

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As illustrated in Figure3.7.3, silver in the fourth band indicates a tolerance of ± 10 percent; gold
indicates ±5 percent. If there is no color band for tolerance, it is±20 percent. The inexact value of
carbon resistors is a disadvantage of their economical construction.
It should be noted that some resistors have five stripes, instead of four. In this case, the first three
stripes give three digits, followed by the decimal multiplier in the fourth stripe and tolerance in
the fifth stripe. These resistors have more precise values, with tolerances of 0.1 to 2 percent.

3.7.3.4 Preferred Resistance Values

In order to minimize the problem of manufacturing different R-values for an almost unlimited
variety of circuits, specific values are made in large quantities so that they are cheaper and more
easily available than unusual sizes. For resistors of ±10 percent, the preferred values are 10, 12,
15, 18, 22, 27, 33, 39, 47, 56, 68, and 82 with their decimal multiples. As examples, 47, 470,
4700, and 47,000 are preferred values. In this way, there is a preferred value available within 10
percent of any R value needed in a circuit. For more accurate resistors of lower tolerance, there
are additional preferred values.

3.7.3.5 Power Rating of Resistors

In addition to having the required ohms value, a resistor should have a wattage rating high
enough to dissipate the I2R power produced by the current flowing through the resistance,
without becoming too hot. Carbon resistors in normal operation are often quite warm, up to a
maximum temperature of about 850C, which is close to the 1000C boiling point of water. Carbon
resistors should not be so hot, however, that they "sweat" beads of liquid on the insulating case.
Wire wound resistors operate at very high temperatures, a typical value being 3000C for the
maximum temperature. If a resistor becomes too hot because of excessive power dissipation, it
can change appreciably in resistance value or burn open.

The power rating is a physical property that depends on the resistor construction, especially
physical size. Note the following:
EASA – 147 Course Notes
1. A larger physical size indicates a higher power rating.
2. Higher-wattage resistors can operate at higher temperatures.
3. Wire-wound resistors are physically larger with higher wattage ratings than carbon resistors.

For approximate sizes, a 2W carbon resistor is about 1 in. long with 1/4 in. diameter; a ¼ W
resistor is about 0.35 in. long with diameter of 0.1 in.

For both types, a higher power rating allows a higher voltage rating. This rating gives the highest
voltage that may be applied across the resistor without internal arcing. As examples for carbon
resistors, the maximum voltage is 500 V for a 1W rating and 250 V for ¼ W. In wire wound
resistors, excessive voltage can produce an arc between turns; in carbon resistors, the arc is
between carbon granules.

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3.7.4 Series and Parallel Combinations of Resistors

In some cases two or more resistors are combined in series or parallel to obtain a desired R-value
with a higher wattage rating. The total resistance RT depends on the series or parallel connections.
However, the combination has a power rating equal to the sum of the individual values, whether
the resistors are in series or in parallel. The reason is that the total physical size increases with
each added resistor. Equal resistors are generally used in order to have equal distribution of I, V,
and P.

3.7.4.1 Series Combination of Resistor

The series circuit is the most basic electrical circuit and provides a good introduction to basic
circuit analysis. The series circuit represents the first building block for all of the circuits to be
studied and analyzed. Figure 3.7.5 shows this simple circuit with nothing more than a voltage
source or battery, a conductor, and a resistor. This is classified as a series circuit because the
components are connected end-to-end, so that the same current flows through each component
equally. There is only one path for the current to take and the battery and resistor are in series
with each other. With these values, we can now begin to learn more about the nature of the
circuit. In this configuration, there is a 12-volt DC source in series with two resistors, R1 = 10 Ω
and R2 = 30 Ω. For resistors in a series configuration, the total resistance of the circuit is equal to
the sum of the individual resistors. The basic formula is:

RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + ………RN

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.7.5 Series Circuit

For Figure 3.7.5, this will be:

RT = 10Ω + 30Ω
RT = 40 Ω

Now that the total resistance of the circuit is known, the current for the circuit can be determined.
In a series circuit, the current cannot be different at different points within the circuit. The current
through a series circuit will always be the same through each element and at any point. Therefore,
the current in the simple circuit can now be determined using Ohm’s law:
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Formula, E = I (R)
Solve for current, I = E/R
The variables, E = 12V and RT = 40 Ω
Substitute variables, I = 12V / 40 Ω
Current in circuits, I = 0.3A

Ohm’s law describes a relationship between the variables of voltage, current, and resistance that
is linear and easy to illustrate with a few extra calculations. First will be the act of changing the
total resistance of the circuit while the other two remain constant. In this example, the RT of the
circuit in Figure 3.7.5will be doubled. The effects on the total current in the circuit are:

Formula, E = I (R)
Solve for current, I = E / R
The variables, E = 12V and RT = 80 Ω
Substitute variables, I = 12V / 80Ω
Current in circuits, I = 0.15A

It can be seen quantitatively and intuitively that when the resistance of the circuit is doubled, the
current is reduced by half the original value.

Next, reduce the RT of the circuit in Figure 3.7.5 to half of its original value. The effects on the
total current are:

Formula, E = I (R)
Solve for current, I = E / R
The variables, E = 12V and RT = 20 Ω
Substitute variables, I = 12V / 20 Ω
Current in circuits, I = 0.6A

Being a series circuit it should be remembered that

EASA – 147 Course Notes
(i) Current is the same through the two resistors.
(ii) But voltage drop across each is different due to its different resistance and is given by
Ohm's Law and
(iii) Sum of the two voltage drops is equal to the voltage applied across the two
conductors.

3.7.4.2 Parallel Combination of Resistor

A circuit in which two of more electrical resistance or loads are connected across the same
voltage source is called a parallel circuit. The primary difference between the series circuit and
the parallel circuit is that more than one path is provided for the current in the parallel circuit.
Each of these parallel paths is called a branch.

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The parallel circuit consists of two or more resistors connected in such a way as to allow current
flow to pass through all of the resistors at once. This eliminates the need for current to pass one
resistor before passing through the next. When resistors are connected in parallel, the total
resistance of the circuit decreases. The total resistance of a parallel combination is always less
than the value of the smallest resistor in the circuit. In the parallel circuit, the current has several
resistors that it can pass through, actually reducing the total resistance of the circuit in relation to
any one resistor value. The amount of current passing through each resistor will vary according to
its individual resistance. The total current of the circuit will then be the sum of the current in all
branches. It can be determined by inspection that the total current will be greater than that of any
given branch. Using Ohm’s law to calculate the resistance based on the applied voltage and the
total current, it can be determined that the total resistance is less than any individual branch.

Figure 3.7.6 Basic Parallel Circuit

An example of this is if there was a circuit with a 100Ω resistor and a 5 Ω resistor; while the
exact value must be calculated, it still can be said that the combined resistance between the two
will be less than the 5 Ω.

The formula for the total parallel resistance is as follows:

1/ RT = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3+ ……. +1/RN EASA – 147 Course Notes

If the reciprocal of both sides is taken, then the general formula for the total parallel resistance is:

RT = 1 / (1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3+ ……. +1/RN)

Typically, it is more convenient to consider only two resistors at a time because this setup occurs
in common practice. Any number of resistors in a circuit can be broken down into pairs.
Therefore, the most common method is to use the formula for two resistors in parallel.

RT = 1 / (1/R1 + 1/R2)

Combining the terms in the denominator and rewriting

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RT = (R1R2) / (R1 + R2)

Put in words, this states that the total resistance for two resistors in parallel is equal to the product
of both resistors divided by the sum of the two resistors.

General formula to find RT = (R1R2) / (R1 + R2)

Let known values of R1 = 500 Ω and R2 = 400 Ω

RT = (500 Ω X 400 Ω) / (500 Ω + 400 Ω)

RT =200000 Ω / 900 Ω
RT = 222.22 Ω

The main characteristics of a parallel circuit are:

(i) Same voltage acts across all parts of the circuit.
(ii) Different resistors have their individual current.
(iii) Branch currents are additive.
(iv) Conductance are additive.
(v) Powers are additive.

3.7.4.3 Series-Parallel Combination of Resistance

Most of the circuits that the technician will encounter will not be a simple series or parallel
circuit. Circuits are usually a combination of both, known as series-parallel circuits, which are
groups consisting of resistors in parallel and in series. An example of this type of circuit can be
seen in Figure 3.7.7. While the series-parallel circuit can initially appear to be complex, the same
rules that have been used for the series and parallel circuits can be applied to these circuits.

The voltage source will provide a current out to resistorR1, then to the group of resistors R2 and
R3 and then to the next resistor R4 before returning to the voltage source. The first step in the
EASA – 147 Course Notes
simplification process is to isolate the group R2 and R3 and recognize that they are a parallel
network that can be reduced to an equivalent resistor. Using the formula for parallel resistance,

R23 = (R2R3) / (R2 + R3)

R2 and R3 can be reduced to R23. Figure 3.7.8 now shows an equivalent circuit with three series
connected resistors. The total resistance of the circuit can now be simply determined by adding
up the values of resistorsR1, R23, and R4.

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Figure 3.7.7 Series-Parallel Circuit Figure 3.7.8Equivalent circuit with three

Series connected Resistor
Determining the Total Resistance

A more quantitative example for determining total resistance and the current in each branch in a
combination circuit is shown in the following example. Also refer to Figure 3.7.9.

Figure 3.7.9 Determining Total Resistance

The first step is to determine the current at junction A, leading into the parallel branch. To
determine the IT, the total resistance RT of the entire circuit must be known. The total resistance EASA – 147 Course Notes
of the circuit is given as:

RT = R1 + R23
Where R23 = (R2R3) / (R2 + R3) parallel network
Find REQ R23 = (2k Ω X 3k Ω) / (2k Ω + 3k Ω)
Solve for REQ R23 = 6k Ω / 5k Ω
R23 = 1.2k Ω
Solve for RT RT = 1k Ω + 1.2k Ω
RT = 2.2k Ω
The total resistance of the circuit RT are now determined.
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3.7.5 Potentiometer

The schematic symbol for the potentiometer is shown in Figure 3.7.10. The potentiometer is
considered a three terminal device. As illustrated, terminals 1 and 2 have the entire value of the
potentiometer resistance between them. Terminal 3 is the wiper or moving contact. Through this
wiper, the resistance between terminals 1 and 3 or terminals 2 and 3 can be varied.

Figure 3.7.10 Potentiometer schematic symbol.

While the rheostat is used to vary the current in a circuit, the potentiometer is used to vary the
voltage in a circuit. A typical use for this component can be found in the volume controls on an
audio panel and input devices for flight data recorders, among many other applications.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.7.11 Potentiometer and schematic symbol

In Figure 3.7.11, a potentiometer is used to obtain a variable voltage from a fixed voltage source
to apply to an electrical load. The voltage applied to the load is the voltage between points 2 and
3. When the slider arm is moved to point 1, the entire voltage is applied to the electrical device
(load); when the arm is moved to point 3, the voltage applied to the load is zero. The
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potentiometer makes possible the application of any voltage between zero and full voltage to the
load.

The current flowing through the circuit of Figure 3.7.11 leaves the negative terminal electron
flow of the battery and divides, one part flowing through the lower portion of the potentiometer
(points 3 to 2) and the other part through the load. Both parts combine at point 2 and flow through
the upper portion of the potentiometer (points 2 to 1) back to the positive terminal of the battery.
In View B of Figure 3.7.11, a potentiometer and its schematic symbol are shown.

In choosing a potentiometer resistance, the amount of current drawn by the load should be
considered as well as the current flow through the potentiometer at all settings of the slider arm.
The energy of the current through the potentiometer is dissipated in the form of heat. It is
important to keep this wasted current as small as possible by making the resistance of the
potentiometer as large as practicable. In most cases, the resistance of the potentiometer can be
several times the resistance of the load. Figure 3.7.12 shows how a potentiometer can be wired to
function as a rheostat

Figure 3.7.12 Potentiometer wired to function as rheostat

3.7.6 Rheostat

The schematic symbol for the rheostat is shown in Figure 3.7.13. A rheostat is a variable resistor
EASA – 147 Course Notes
used to vary the amount of current flowing in a circuit. Figure 3.7.14 shows a rheostat connected
in series with an ordinary resistance in a series circuit.

Figure 3.7.13 Rheostat schematic symbol Figure 3.7.14 Rheostat connected in series

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As the slider arm moves from point A to B, the amount of rheostat resistance (AB) is increased.
Since the rheostat resistance and the fixed resistance are in series, the total resistance in the
circuit also increases, and the current in the circuit decreases. On the other hand, if the slider arm
is moved toward point A, the total resistance decreases and the current in the circuit increase.

3.7.7 Wheatstone Bridge

A bridge circuit has four terminals, two for input voltage and two for output. The purpose is to
have a circuit where the voltage drops can be balanced to provide zero voltage across the output
terminals, with voltage applied across the input. In Figure 3.7.15 the input terminals are C and D,
with output terminals A and B.

Figure 3.7.15Wheatstone Bridge Circuit

The bridge circuit has many uses for comparison measurements. In the Wheatstone bridge, an
unknown resistance Rx is balanced against a standard accurate resistor Rs for precise
measurement of resistance.

In Figure 3.7.15, S1 applies battery voltage to the four resistors in the bridge. To balance the
bridge, the value of Rs is varied. Balance is indicated by zero current in the galvanometer G.
Finally, S2is a spring switch that is closed just to check the meter reading.
EASA – 147 Course Notes
The reason for zero current in the meter can be seen by analysis of the voltage drops across the
resistors. Rs in series with Rx forms a voltage divider across VT; the parallel string of R1in series
with R2is also a voltage divider across the same source. When the voltage division is in the same
ratio for both strings, the voltage drop across RS equals the voltage across R2.Also, the voltage
across Rx then equals the voltage across R1. In this case, points A and B must be at the same
potential. The difference of potential across the meter then must be zero, and there is no
deflection.

At balance, the equal voltage ratios in the 2 branches of the Wheatstone bridge can be stated as

IARx / IARs = IBR1 / IBR2

or Rx / Rs = R1 / R2
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Note that IA and IB cancel. Now, inverting RS to the right side of the equation,

Rx = RS X R1 R2

Usually, the total resistance of R1 and R2 is fixed, but any desired ratio can be chosen by moving
point B on the ratio arm. The bridge is balanced by varying Rs for zero current in the meter. At
balance, then, the value of Rx can be determined by multiplying Rs by the ratio of R1/R2. As an
example, if the ratio is 1/100 and Rs is 248 Ω, the value of Rx equals 248 X 0.01, or 2.48Ω.

The balanced bridge circuit can be analyzed as simply two series resistance strings in parallel
when the current is zero through the meter. Without any current between A and B, this path is
effectively open. When current flows through the meter path, however, the bridge circuit must be
analyzed by Kirchhoff's laws or network theorems.

3.7.8 Temperature coefficient of Conductance

3.7.8.1 Conductance

Conductance (G) is reciprocal of resistance. Whereas resistance of a conductor measure the

opposition which it offers to the flow of current, the conductance measures the inducement
which it offers to its flow.

Temperature coefficient with the symbol alpha (α) states how much the resistance as well as
conductance changes for a change in temperature. A positive value for α means R increases with
temperature i.e. G decrease with temperature; with a negative α, R decreases i.e. G increases;
zero for α means R is constant i.e. G is constant. Some typical values of α, for metals and for
carbon, are listed below:
Table 3-3: Temperature Coefficient

Material Temperature coefficient

per 0C, α
Aluminum 0.004 EASA – 147 Course Notes
Carbon -0.0003
Constantan 0 (average)
Copper 0.004
Gold 0.004
Iron 0.006
Manganin 0 (average)
Nichrome 0.0002
Nickel 0.005
Silver 0.004
Steel 0.003
Tungsten 0.005

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3.7.8.2 Positive α

All metals in their pure form, such as copper and tungsten, have a positive temperature
coefficient. The α for tungsten, for example, is 0.005. Although α is not exactly constant, an
increase in wire resistance i.e. decrease in conductance caused by a rise in temperature can be
calculated approximately from the formula for resistance R

Rt = R0+ R0 (α∆t)

where R0 is the resistance at 200C, Rt is the higher resistance at the higher temperature, and ∆t is
the temperature rise above 200C.

In practical terms, a positive α means that heat increases R in wire conductors. Then current is
reduced, with a specified applied voltage.

3.7.8.3 Negative α

Note that carbon has a negative temperature coefficient. In general, α is negative for all semi-
conductors, including germanium and silicon. Also, all electrolyte solutions, such as sulfuric acid
and water, have a negative α.

A negative value of α means less resistance i.e. high conductance at higher temperatures. The
resistance of semiconductor diodes and transistors, therefore, can be reduced appreciably when
they become hot with normal load current in other words conductance increased.

The negative α has a practical application in the use of carbon thermistors. A thermistor can be
connected as a series component to decrease its resistance i.e. increase conductance to
compensate for the increased hot resistance of wire conductors.

3.7.8.4 Fixed Resistor

EASA – 147 Course Notes
Although it might seem that resistance has a disadvantage in reducing the current in a circuit,
actually resistors are probably the most common components in electronic equipment. A resistor
is manufactured with a specific value of ohms for R. The most common resistors are carbon-
composition and wire-wound.

Figure 3.7.16 is a schematic representation of a fixed resistor. Fixed resistors have built into the
design a means of opposing current. The general use of a resistor in a circuit is to limit the
amount of current flow. There are a number of methods used in construction and sizing of a
resistor that control properties such as resistance value, the precision of the resistance value, and
the ability to dissipate heat. While in some applications the purpose of the resistive element is
used to generate heat, such as in propeller anti-ice boots, heat typically is the unwanted loss of
energy.

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Figure 3.7.16 Fixed Resistor

3.7.8.5 Tolerance and Limitations of Resistor

It is very difficult to manufacture a resistor to an exact standard of ohmic values. Fortunately,

most circuit requirements are not extremely critical. For many uses, the actual resistance in ohms
can be 20 percent higher or lower than the value marked on the resistor without causing difficulty.
The percentage variation between the marked value and the actual value of a resistor is known as
the “tolerance” of a resistor. A resistor coded for a 5 percent tolerance will not be more than 5
percent higher or lower than the value indicated by the color code.

The resistor color code is made up of a group of colors, numbers, and tolerance values. Each color
is represented by a number, and in most cases, by a tolerance value.

When the color code is used with the end-to-center band marking system, the resistor is normally
marked with bands of color at one end of the resistor. The body or base color of the resistor has
nothing to do with the color code, and in no way indicates a resistance value. To prevent
confusion, this body will never be the same color as any of the bands indicating resistance value.

3.7.8.6 Stability of Resistor

High stability of resistance may be indicated by a fifth pink color code ring, which indicates the
stability of the resistance when operated at higher range.

3.7.9 Methods of Construction of Resistor

3.7.9.1 Construction of Fixed Resistor

EASA – 147 Course Notes
(1) Wire-Wound Resistors
In this construction, a special type of wire called resistance wire is wrapped around an insulating
core, as shown in Figure 3.7.17. The length of wire used and its specific resistivity determine the
R of the unit. Types of resistance wire include tungsten and manganin. The insulated core is
commonly porcelain, a phenolic material like Bakelite, cement, or just plain pressed paper. Bare
wire is used, but the entire unit is generally encased in an insulating material.

Since they are generally for high-current applications with low resistance and appreciable power,
wire-wound resistors are available in wattage ratings from 5W up to 100W or more. The
resistance can be less than 1 Ω up to several thousand ohms.

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In addition, wire-wound resistors are used where accurate, stable resistance values are necessary.
Examples are precision resistors for the function of an ammeter shunt or a precision potentiometer
to adjust for an exact amount of R.

Figure 3.7.17 Wire-wound Resistor

(2) Carbon-Composition Resistors

This type of resistor is made of finely divided carbon or graphite mixed with a powdered
insulating material as a binder, in the proportions needed for the desired R value. The resistor
element is enclosed in a plastic case for insulation and mechanical strength. Joined to the two
ends of the carbon resistance element are metal caps with leads of tinned copper wire for
soldering the connections into a circuit. These are called axial leads because they come straight
out from the ends.

(3) Film-Type Resistors

There are two kinds. The carbon-film type has a thin coating around an insulator. Metal-film
resistors have a spiral around a ceramic substrate (Figure 3.7.18). Their advantage is more
precise R values. The film-type resistors use metal end caps for the terminal leads, which makes
the ends a little higher than the body.
EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.7.18 Construction of Metal-Film Resistor

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(4) Cermet Resistors

These have a carbon coating fired onto a solid ceramic substrate. The purpose is to have more
precise R values and greater stability with heat. They are often made in a small square with leads
to fit a printed-circuit (PC) board.

(5) Fusible Resistors

This type is a wire-wound resistor made to burn open easily when the power rating is exceeded.
It then serves the dual functions of a fuse and a resistor to limit the current.

3.7.9.2 Construction of Variable Resistor

Variable resistors can be wire-wound or the carbon type as illustrated in Figure 3.7.19. Inside the
metal case of Figure 3.7.19(a), the control has a circular disc, shown in Figure 3.7.19(b), that is
the carbon-composition resistance element. It can be a thin coating on pressed paper or a molded
carbon disc. Joined to the two ends are the external soldering-lug terminals 1 and 3. The middle
terminal is connected to the variable arm that contacts the resistor element by a metal spring
wiper. As the shaft of the control is turned, the variable arm moves the wiper to make contact at
different points on the resistor element. The same idea applies to the slide control in Figure
3.7.20, except that the resistor element is long instead of circular.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.7.19 Variable carbon resistor (a) External View Figure 3.7.20 Slide control for variable R.
(b) Internal view.

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When the contact moves closer to one end, the R decreases between this terminal and the variable
arm. Between the two ends, however, R is not variable but always has the maximum resistance of
the control. Carbon controls are available with a total R from 1000 Ω to 5 MΩ, approximately.

(1) Tapered Controls

The way R varies with shaft rotation is called the taper of the control. With a linear taper, one-
half rotation changes R by one-half the maximum value. Similarly, all values of R change in
direct proportion to rotation. For a nonlinear taper, though, R can change more gradually at one
end, with bigger changes at the opposite end. This effect is accomplished by different densities of
carbon in the resistance element. For the example of a volume control, its audio taper allows
smaller changes in R at low settings. Then it is easier to make changes without having the volume
too loud or too low.

(2) Decade Resistance Box

As shown in Figure 3.7.21, the decade box is a convenient unit for providing any one R within a
wide range of values. It can be considered as test equipment for trying different R values in a
circuit. Inside the box are five series strings of resistors, with one string for each dial switch.

 The first dial at the bottom connects in R of 1 to 9 Ω. It is the units dial.

 The second dial has units of 10 from 10 to 90Ω. It is the tens dial.
 The hundreds dial has R of 100 to 900 Ω.
 The thousands dial has R of 1000 to 9000 Ω.
 The last dial at the top has R of 10,000 to 90,000 Ω.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.7.21 Decade Resistance Box

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3.7.9.3 Thermistors

Figure 3.7.22 shows the schematic symbol for the thermistor. The thermistor is a type of a
variable resistor, which is temperature sensitive. This component has what is known as a negative
temperature coefficient, which means that as the sensed temperature increases, the resistance of
the thermistor decreases.

Figure 3.7.22 Schematic symbol of Thermistor

3.7.9.4 Voltage Dependent Resistor

Device designed to limit the voltage with a symmetrical, strongly non-linear voltage-current
characteristic. The voltage limitation is achieved by reducing the resistance of the varistor by
several orders of magnitude when the operating voltage range is exceeded. Depending on the
configuration, the protection level of varistors can range from low to high voltage, whereby
impulses high in energy can be absorbed, with a response time of only a few 10 ns. It is mainly
determined by the inductance of the leads. At around 0.4 to 40 nF, the self-capacitance is
extremely high, which prevents the varistor from being used to exceed the voltage limit in HF
systems. This image cannot currently be displayed.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.7.23 Voltage dependent Resistor

Voltage dependent resistor shows a high degree of non-linearity between their resistance value
and applied voltage. They are made of non-homogeneous material giving a rectifying action at
the contacts of the two particles. Different materials are used to cause the voltage depending
resistance. The principal ones are silicon carbide and zinc oxide.

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3.7.9.5 Photoresistor or Photocell

A photoresistor or light-dependent resistor (LDR) or photocell is a light-controlled variable

resistor. The resistance of a photoresistor decreases with increasing incident light intensity; in
other words, it exhibits photoconductivity. A photoresistor can be applied in light-sensitive
detector circuits, and light- and dark-activated switching circuits.

Figure 3.7.24 Photoresistor or Photocell

A photo resistor is made of a high resistance semiconductor. In the dark, a photo resistor can have
a resistance as high as several megohms (MΩ), while in the light, a photo resistor can have a
resistance as low as a few hundred ohms. If incident light on a photo resistor exceeds a certain
frequency, photons absorbed by the semiconductor give bound electrons enough energy to jump
into the conduction band. The resulting free electrons (and their hole partners) conduct electricity,
thereby lowering resistance.

This kind of resistor can be found where the intensity of the ambient light is sensed for adjusting EASA – 147 Course Notes
cockpit lighting condition.

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3.7.10 Construction of Potentiometers and Resistors

Three type of variable resistor are in common use, they are:

Carbon track
Thick film
Wire wound

Variable resistor are constructed in such a way that a wiper is made to move over the length of
the resistor. The resistor may be straight or formed into a circular arc, the latter reducing the size
and allowing the wiper to rotate about a center shaft.

Figure 3.7.25 Simple potentiometer Figure 3.7.26 Simple Rheostats

3.7.11 Construction of Wheatstone Bridge

The fundamental concept of the Wheatstone Bridge is two voltage dividers, both fed by the same
input, as shown to the right. The circuit output is taken from both voltage divider outputs, as
shown here.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.7.27 Wheatstone Bridge

In its classic form, a galvanometer (a very sensitive dc current meter) is connected between the
output terminals, and is used to monitor the current flowing from one voltage divider to the other.
If the two voltage dividers have exactly the same ratio (R1/R2 = R3/R4), then the bridge is said to
be balanced and no current flows in either direction through the galvanometer. If one of the
resistors changes even a little bit in value, the bridge will become unbalanced and current will

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flow through the galvanometer. Thus, the galvanometer becomes a very sensitive indicator of the
balance condition.

Applications of the Wheatstone Bridge

One very common application in industry today is to monitor sensor devices such as strain
gauges. Such devices change their internal resistance according to the specific level of strain (or
pressure, temperature, etc.), and serve as the unknown resistor RX. However, instead of trying to
constantly adjust R2 to balance the circuit, the galvanometer is replaced by a circuit that can be
calibrated to record the degree of imbalance in the bridge as the value of strain or other condition
being applied to the sensor.

A second application is used by electrical power distributors to accurately locate breaks in a

power line. The method is fast and accurate, and does not require a large number of field
technicians.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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NOTES

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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NOTES

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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Chapter 08

Power, Work and Energy

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INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

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3.8 POWER, WORK AND ENERGY

3.8.1 Energy

Energy is typically defined as something that gives us the capacity to perform work. As
individuals, saying that we feel full of energy is probably indicating that we can perform a lot of
work. Energy can be classified as one of two types: either potential or kinetic.

3.8.1.1 Potential Energy

Potential energy is defined as being energy at rest, or energy that is stored. Potential energy may
be classified into three groups: (1) that due to position, (2) that due to distortion of an elastic
body, and (3) that which produces work through chemical action. Water in an elevated reservoir,
and an airplane raised off the ground sitting on jacks are examples of the first group; a stretched
bungee chord on a Piper Tri-Pacer or compressed spring are examples of the second group; and
energy in aviation gasoline, food, and storage batteries are examples of the third group.

To calculate the potential energy of an object due to its position, as in height, the following
formula is used:

Potential Energy = Weight × Height

A calculation based on this formula will produce an answer that has units of foot-pounds (ft-lb) or
inch pounds (in-lb), which are the same units that apply to work. Work is described as a force
being applied over a measured distance, with the force being pounds and the distance being feet
or inches. It can be seen that potential energy and work have a lot in common.

Calculation of Energy

Example: A aircraft weighing 450,000 pounds needs to be raised 4 feet in the air so maintenance
can be done on the landing gear. How much potential energy does the airplane possess because of EASA – 147 Course Notes
this raised position?

Potential Energy = Weight × Height

PE = 450,000 lb × 4 ft
PE = 1,800,000 ft-lb

Aviation gasoline possesses potential energy because of its chemical nature. Gasoline has the
potential to release heat energy, based on its British thermal unit (BTU) content. One pound of
aviation gas contains 18,900 BTU of heat energy, and each BTU is capable of 778 ft-lb of work.
So if we multiply 778 by 18,900, we find that one pound of aviation gas is capable of 14,704,200
ft-lb of work. Imagine the potential energy in the completely serviced fuel tanks of an airplane.

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3.8.1.2 Kinetic Energy

Kinetic energy is defined as being energy in motion. An airplane rolling down the runway or a
rotating flywheel on an engine are both examples of kinetic energy. Kinetic energy has the same
units as potential energy, namely foot-pounds or inch-pounds. To calculate the kinetic energy for
something in motion, the following formula is used:

Kinetic Energy = ½ Mass × Velocity2

To use the formula, we will show the mass as weight ÷ gravity and the velocity of the object will
be in feet per second. This is necessary to end up with units in foot-pounds.

Calculation of Energy
Example: A aircraft weighing 600,000 lb is moving down the runway on its takeoff roll with a
velocity of 200 fps. How many foot-pounds of kinetic energy does the airplane possess?

Kinetic Energy = ½ Mass × Velocity2

Kinetic Energy = ½ × 600,000 ÷ 32.2 × 2002
KE = 372,670,000 ft-lb

3.8.1.3 Energy in an Electrical Circuit

Energy is defined as the ability to do work. Because power is the rate of energy usage, power
used over a span of time is actually energy consumption. If power and time are multiplied
together, we will get energy.

The joule is defined as a unit of energy. There is another unit of measure which is perhaps more
familiar. Because power is expressed in watts and time in seconds, a unit of energy can be called
a watt-second (Ws) or more recognizable from the electric bill, a kilowatt-hour (kWh).

3.8.2 Work
EASA – 147 Course Notes

Work, in the mechanical sense of the term, is done when a resistance is overcome by a force
acting through a measurable distance. Two factors are involved: (1) force and (2) movement
through a distance. As an example, suppose a small aircraft is stuck in the snow. Two men push
against it for a period of time, but the aircraft does not move. According to the technical
definition, no work was done in pushing against the aircraft. By definition, work is accomplished
only when an object is displaced some distance against a resistive force. To calculate work, the
following formula is used:

Work = Force (F) × distance (d)

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In the English system, the force will be identified in pounds and the distance either in feet or
inches, so the units will be foot-pounds or inch-pounds. Notice these are the same units that were
used for potential and kinetic energy. In the metric system, the force is identified in newtons (N)
and the distance in meters, with the resultant units being joules. One pound of force is equal to
4.448 N and one meter is equal to 3.28 feet. One joule is equal to 1.36 ft-lb.

Calculation of Work

Example: How much work is accomplished by jacking a 150,000-lb Airbus A-320 airplane a
vertical height of 3 ft?

Work = Force × Distance

= 150,000 lb × 4 ft
= 600,000 ft-lb

Example: How much work is accomplished when a tow tractor is hooked up to a tow bar and a
Boeing 737-800 airplane weighing 130,000 lb is pushed 80 ft into the hangar? The force on the
tow bar is 5,000 lb.

Work = Force × Distance

= 5,000 lb × 80 ft
= 400,000 ft-lb

3.8.3 Power

The concept of power involves a force being applied over a measured distance, but adds one
more consideration time. In other words, how long does it take to accomplish the work. If
someone asked the average person if he or she could lift one million pounds 5 feet off the ground,
the answer most assuredly would be no. This person would probably assume that he or she is to
lift it all at once. What if he or she is given 365 days to lift it, and could lift small amounts of
weight at a time? The work involved would be the same, regardless of how long it took to lift the
EASA – 147 Course Notes
weight, but the power required is different. If the weight is to be lifted in a shorter period of time,
it will take more power. The formula for power is as follows:

Power = Force × distance ÷ time

The units for power will be foot-pounds per minute, foot-pounds per second, inch-pounds per
minute or second, and possibly mile-pounds per hour. The units depend on how distance and time
are measured.

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Electric Power

The unit of electric power is the watt (W), named after James Watt (1736-1819). One watt of
power equals the work done in one second by one volt of potential difference in moving one
coulomb of charge.
Remember that one coulomb per second is an ampere. Therefore power in watts equals the
product of amperes times volts.

Power in watts = volts X amperes

P=VXI

When a 6V battery produces 2A in a circuit, for example, the battery is generating 12W of power.
The power formula can be used in three ways:

P=VXI
I = P / V or
V=P/I

3.8.4 Power Dissipation by a Resistor

When current flows in a resistance, heat is produced because friction between the moving free
electrons and the atoms obstructs the path of electron flow. The heat is evidence that power is
used in producing current. This is how a fuse opens, as heat resulting from excessive current
melts the metal link in the fuse.

The power is generated by the source of applied voltage and consumed in the resistance in the
form of heat. As much power as the resistance dissipates in heat must be supplied by the voltage
source; otherwise, it cannot maintain the potential difference required to produce the current.

The correspondence between electric power and heat is indicated by the fact that 1W used during
the time of 1 sec. is equivalent to 0.24 calorie of heat energy. The electric energy converted to
EASA – 147 Course Notes
heat is considered to be dissipated or used up because the calories of heat cannot be returned to
the circuit as electric energy.

Since power is dissipated in the resistance of a circuit, it is convenient to express the power in
terms of the resistance R. The V x I formula can be rearranged as follows:

Substituting IR for V

P=VXI
= IR X I
= I2R.
This is a common form for the power formula because of the heat produced by current in a

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resistance.
For another form, substitute V/R for I. Then

P=V x I =V x V/R
P = V2/R

In all the formulas, V is the voltage across R in ohms, producing the current I in amperes, for
power in watts.

Any one of the three formulas can be used to calculate the power dissipated in a resistance. The
one to be used is just a matter of convenience, depending on which factors are known.

Figure 3.8.1 Calculating the electric power in a circuit.

In Figure 3.8.1, for example, the power dissipated with 2A through the resistance and 12V across
it is 2 x12 =24 W.

Or, calculating in terms of just the current and resistance, the power is the product of 2 squared,
or 4, times 6, which equals 24W.

Using the voltage and resistance, the power can be calculated as 12 squared, or 144, divided by 6,
which also equals 24W.

No matter which formula is used, 24W of power is dissipated, in the form of heat. This amount of
power must be generated continuously by the battery in order to maintain the potential difference EASA – 147 Course Notes
of 12 V that produces the 2A current against the opposition of 6Ω.

In some applications, the electric power dissipation is desirable because the component must
produce heat in order to do its job. For instance, a 600W toaster must dissipate this amount of
power to produce the necessary amount of heat. Similarly, a 300W light bulb must dissipate this
power to make the filament white-hot so that it will have the incandescent glow that furnishes the
light. In other applications, however, the heat may be just an undesirable byproduct of the need to
provide current through the resistance in a circuit. In any case, though, whenever there is current
in a resistance, it dissipates power equal to I2R.

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Power formulas

In order to calculate I or R for components rated in terms of power at a specified voltage, it may
be convenient to use the power formulas in different forms. There are three basic power formulas,
but each can be in three forms for nine combinations, as follows:

P = VI P = I2R P = V2/R
Or I = P/V or R= P/I2 or R = V2/R
Or V= P/I or I = √P/R or V = √PR

Note that all these formulas are based on Ohm’s law V = IR and the power formula P= VI.

Example 1: What is the power dissipated by a 32 ohm resistor when a current of 1.4 A flows
through it?

P = I2 ×R
= (1.4)2×32
= 63 Watt

Example 2: How much energy is dissipated by a resistor if a potential difference of 9.0V is

applied to it for 331 seconds and a current of 0.23A flows through it?

Energy, E = V×I×t
= 9×0.23×331
= 690J

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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3.8.5 Maximum Power Transfer

Every source of EMF has internal resistance. If it is required to develop the maximum possible
amount of power in an external load, then the load resistance must be equal in value to the
internal resistance of the source.

This may be shown by calculating the power developed in RLoad for different values of RLoad.
Figure 3.8.2 illustrates that maximum power is developed in the load when RLoad equals RInternal.

Figure 3.8.2 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

Matching is very important in electronic circuits which usually have a fairly high source
resistance. A typical example is the ‘matching’ of a loudspeaker to an audio amplifier.

Note: For a power source with variable internal resistance and given load (R), the smaller the
internal resistance, the higher the power transfer to the load. The highest power transfer is
achieved here when the internal resistance is zero.

Batteries, generators and other power supply systems are not operated under maximum power
transfer conditions, since to do so would result in the same amount of power being dissipated in
the source as was supplied to the load, which is wasteful of energy. Thus power systems are EASA – 147 Course Notes
designed to have the minimum internal resistance to minimize losses in the power supply.

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NOTES

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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Chapter 09

Capacitance/Capacitor

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

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3.9 CAPACITANCE/CAPACITOR

3.9.1 Operation and Function of Capacitor

A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by an insulator. One of its basic forms is the
parallel-plate capacitor shown in Figure 3.9.1. It consists of two metal plates separated by a non-
conducting material (i.e., an insulator) called a dielectric. The dielectric may be air, oil, mica,
plastic, ceramic, or other suitable insulating material.

Capacitance is a measure of a circuit’s ability to store an electrical charge. A device

manufactured to have a specific amount of capacitance is called a capacitor.

Figure 3.9.1 Parallel Plate Capacitor

Since the plates of the capacitor are metal, they contain huge numbers of free electrons. In their
normal state, however, they are uncharged, that is, there is no excess or deficiency of electrons on
either plate. If a dc source is now connected (Figure 3.9.2), electrons are pulled from the top plate
by the positive potential of the battery and the same number deposited on the bottom plate. This
leaves the top plate with a deficiency of electrons (i.e., positive charge) and the bottom plate with
an excess (i.e., negative charge). In this state, the capacitor is said to be charged. If the amount of
charge transferred during this process is Q coulombs, we say that the capacitor has a charge of Q.

If we now disconnect the source (Figure 3.9.3), the excess electrons that were moved to the EASA – 147 Course Notes
bottom plate remain trapped as they have no way to return to the top plate. The capacitor
therefore remains charged even though no source is present. Because of this, we say that a
capacitor can store charge. Capacitors with little leakage can hold their charge for a considerable
time.

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Figure 3.9.2 Capacitor during charging. When the source is connected, electrons are removed from plate A
and an equal number deposited on plate B. This leaves the top plate positively charged and the bottom plate
negatively charged.

Large capacitors charged to high voltages contain a great deal of energy and can give you a bad
shock. Always discharge capacitors after power has been removed if you intend to handle them.
You can do this by shorting a wire across their leads. Electrons then return to the top plate,
restoring the charge balance and reducing the capacitor voltage to zero.

Figure 3.9.3 Capacitor after charging. When the source is disconnected, electrons are trapped on the bottom
plate. Thus, charge is stored.

The amount of charge Q that a capacitor can store depends on the applied voltage. Experiments
show that for a given capacitor, Q is proportional to voltage. Let the constant of proportionality
be C. Then,

Q = CV
Rearranging terms yields
EASA – 147 Course Notes
C = Q/V (farads)

The term C is defined as the capacitance of the capacitor. As indicated, its unit is the farad. By
definition, the capacitance of a capacitor is one farad if it stores one coulomb of charge when the
voltage across its terminals is one volt. The farad, however, is a very large unit. Most practical
capacitors range in size from picofarads (pF or 10-12 F) to microfarads (µF or 10-6 F). The larger
the value of C, the more charge that the capacitor can hold for a given voltage.

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3.9.2 Factors affecting capacitance

There are three basic factors of capacitor construction determining the amount of capacitance
created. These factors all dictate capacitance by affecting how much electric field flux (relative
difference of electrons between plates) will develop for a given amount of electric field force
(voltage between the two plates):

3.9.2.1 Effect of Plate Area

As shown by Equation above, capacitance is directly proportional to charge. This means that the
more charge you can put on a capacitor’s plates for a given voltage, the greater will be its
capacitance. Consider Figure 3.9.4. The capacitor of (b) has four times the area of (a). Since it has
the same number of free electrons per unit area, it has four times the total charge and hence four
times the capacitance. This turns out to be true in general, that is, capacitance is directly
proportional to plate area.

Figure 3.9.4For a fixed separation, capacitance is proportional to plate area.

3.9.2.2 Effect of Plate Spacing

Now consider Figure 3.9.5. Since the top plate has a deficiency of electrons and the bottom plate
an excess, a force of attraction exists across the gap. For a fixed spacing as in (a), the charges are EASA – 147 Course Notes
in equilibrium. Now move the plates closer together as in (b). As spacing decreases, the force of
attraction increases, pulling more electrons from within the material of plate B to its top surface.
This creates a deficiency of electrons in the lower levels of B. To replenish these, the source
moves additional electrons around the circuit, leaving A with an even greater deficiency and B
with an even greater excess. The charge on the plates therefore increases and hence, so does the
capacitance. We therefore conclude that decreasing spacing increases capacitance, and vice versa.
In fact, as we will show later, capacitance is inversely proportional to plate spacing.

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Figure 3.9.5Decreasing spacing increases capacitance.

3.9.2.3 Effect of Dielectric

Capacitance also depends on the dielectric. Consider Figure 3.9.6(a), which shows an air-
dielectric capacitor. If you substitute different materials for air, the capacitance increases. Table
shows the factor by which capacitance increases for a number of different materials. For example,
if Teflon® is used instead of air, capacitance is increased by a factor of 2.1. This factor is called
the relative dielectric constant or relative permittivity of the material. (Permittivity is a measure
of how easy it is to establish electric flux in a material.) Note that high-permittivity ceramic
increases capacitance by as much as 7500, as indicated in Figure 3.9.6(b).

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.9.6 The factor by which a material increases capacitance is termed its relative dielectric constant.
The ceramic used here has a value of 7500.

"Relative" permittivity means the permittivity of a material, relative to that of a pure vacuum.
The greater the number, the greater the permittivity of the material. Glass, for instance, with a
relative permittivity of 7, has seven times the permittivity of a pure vacuum, and consequently
will allow for the establishment of an electric field flux seven times stronger than that of a
vacuum, all other factors being equal.

The relative permittivities (also known as the "dielectric constant") of various common
substances:

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Table of Dielectric Constant
Material Relative permittivity
(dielectric constant)
Vacuum 1.0000
Air 1.0006
PTFE, FEP ("Teflon") 2.0
Polypropylene 2.20 to 2.28
ABS resin 2.4 to 3.2
Polystyrene 2.45 to 4.0
Waxed paper 2.5
Transformer oil 2.5 to 4
Hard Rubber 2.5 to 4.80
Wood (Oak) 3.3
Silicones 3.4 to 4.3
Bakelite 3.5 to 6.0
Quartz, fused 3.8
Wood (Maple) 4.4
Glass 4.9 to 7.5
Castor oil 5.0
Wood (Birch) 5.2
Mica, muscovite 5.0 to 8.7
Glass-bonded mica 6.3 to 9.3
Porcelain, Steatite 6.5
Alumina 8.0 to 10.0
Distilled water 80.0
Barium-strontium-titanite 7500

An approximation of capacitance for any pair of separated conductors can be found with this
formula:

EASA – 147 Course Notes

A capacitor can be made variable rather than fixed in value by varying any of the physical factors
determining capacitance. One relatively easy factor to vary in capacitor construction is that of
plate area, or more properly, the amount of plate overlap.

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3.9.2.4 Working voltage of Capacitor

The working voltage of a capacitor is the highest voltage that can be applied across it without
undue risk of breaking down the dielectric layer. The working voltage is usually stated on a
capacitor's datasheet and often printed on the capacitor. If not, a minimum necessary working
voltage can be inferred by studying the circuit in which the capacitor is used. Be particularly
careful in circuits with a varying voltage. For example, AC voltages are typically measured in
volts RMS, but their peak voltages are substantially higher, so basing a capacitor's working
voltage on an RMS AC voltage can lead to selection of a capacitor with an inadequate working
voltage and premature failure of the capacitor.

3.9.2.5 Voltage Rating of Capacitor

This rating specifies the maximum potential difference that can be applied across the plates
without puncturing the dielectric. Usually the voltage rating is for temperatures up to about 600C.
Higher temperatures result in a lower voltage rating. Voltage ratings for general purpose paper,
mica, and ceramic capacitors are typically 200 to 500 V. Ceramic capacitors with ratings of 1 to 5
kV are also available.

Electrolytic capacitors are commonly used in 25, 150, and 450V ratings. In addition, 6 and 10V
electrolytic capacitors are often used in transistor circuits. For applications where a lower voltage
rating is permissible, more capacitance can be obtained in a smaller physical size.

The potential difference across the capacitor depends upon the applied voltage and is not
necessarily equal to the voltage rating. A voltage rating higher than the potential difference
applied across the capacitor provides a safety factor for long life in service. With electrolytic
capacitors, however, the actual capacitor voltage should be close to the rated voltage to produce
the oxide film that provides the specified capacitance.

The voltage ratings are for d.c. voltage applied. The breakdown rating is lower for ac voltage
because of the internal heat produced by continuous charge and discharge.
EASA – 147 Course Notes
3.9.3 Capacitor Type

Commercial capacitors are generally classified according to the dielectric. Most common are air,
mica, paper, and ceramic capacitors, plus the electrolytic type. Electrolytic capacitors use a
molecular-thin oxide film as the dielectric, resulting in large capacitance values in little space.
These types are compared in Table below and discussed in the sections that follow.

There is no required polarity, since either side can be the more positive plate, except for
electrolytic capacitors. These are marked to indicate which side must be positive to maintain the
internal electrolytic action that produces the dielectric required to form the capacitance. It should
be noted that it is the polarity of the charging source that determines the polarity of the capacitor
voltage.

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Types of Capacitor
Dielectric Construction Capacitance Breakdown V
Air Meshed Plates 10 – 400 pF 400 (0.02 in. air gap)
Ceramic Tubular 0.5 – 1600 pF 500 – 20,000
Disk 0.002 – 0.1 μF
Electrolytic Aluminium 5 – 1000 μF 10 – 450
Tantalum 0.01 – 300 μF 6 – 50
Mica Stacked Sheet 10 – 5000 pF 500 – 20,000
Paper or Plastic film Rolled foil 0.001 – 1 μF 200 – 1600

3.9.3.1 Electrolytic Capacitor

These capacitors include both aluminum and tantalum electrolytes. They are manufactured by an
electrochemical formation of an oxide film onto a metal (aluminum or tantalum) surface. The
metal on which the oxide film is formed serves as the anode or positive terminal, the oxide film
acts as the dielectric, and a conducting liquid or gel acts as the cathode or negative terminal.
Tantalum electrolytic capacitors have larger capacitance per volume ratios when compared with
aluminum electrolytic. A majority of electrolytic capacitors are polarized

Figure 3.9.7 Electrolytic capacitor

Electrolytic capacitors, when compared with nonelectrolytic capacitors, typically have greater
capacitances but have poor tolerances (as large as +/- 100 percent for aluminum and about +/- 5
to +/-20 percent for tantalum), bad temperature stability, high leakage, and short lives.
EASA – 147 Course Notes
Capacitances range from about 1 μF to 1 F for aluminum and 0.001 to 1000 μF for tantalum,
with maximum voltage ratings from 6 to 450 V.

3.9.3.2 Ceramic Capacitors

This type is very popular nonpolarized capacitor that is small and inexpensive but has poor
temperature stability and poor accuracy. It contains a ceramic dielectric and a phenolic coating.
It is often used for bypass and coupling applications. Tolerances range from +/-5 to +/-100
percent, while capacitances range from 1 pf to 2.2 µF, with maximum voltage rating from 3 V to
6 kV.

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Figure 3.9.8 Ceramic capacitor

3.9.3.3 Mylar Capacitor

This type is a very popular nonpolarized capacitor that is reliable, inexpensive, and has low
leakage current but poor temperature stability. Capacitances range from 0.001 to 10 μF, with
voltage ratings from 50 to 600 V.

Figure 3.9.9 Mylar capacitor

3.9.3.4 Mica Capacitor

This type is an extremely accurate device with very low leakage currents. It is constructed with
alternate layers of metal foil and mica insulation, stacked and encapsulated.

These capacitors have small capacitances and are often used in high frequency circuits (eg. : RF
circuits). They are very stable under variable voltage and temperature conditions. Tolerances EASA – 147 Course Notes
range from +/-0.25 to +/-5 percent. Capacitances range from 1 pF to 0.01 μF, with maximum
voltage ratings from 100 V to 2.5 kV.

Figure 3.9.10 Mica capacitor

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3.9.3.5 Tantalum Capacitor

Tantalum capacitors are similar in size to ceramic but can hold more charge, up to several
hundred µF. Accurate and stable, but relatively expensive. Usually polarized, anode is marked
with a plus sign.

Figure 3.9.11 Tantalum capacitor

3.9.3.6 Variable Capacitors

Variable capacitors are devices that can be made to change capacitance values with the twist of a
knob. These devices come in either air variable or trimmer forms. Air variable capacitors consist
of 2 sets of aluminum plates (stator and rotor) that mesh together but do not touch. Rotating the
rotor plates with respect to the stator varies the capacitor's effective plate surface area, thus
changing the capacitance. Air variable capacitors typically are mounted on panels and are used
in frequently adjusted tuning applications (e.g. fine tuning fixed frequency communications
receivers, crystal frequency adjustments, adjusting filter characteristics). Trimmers may use a
mica, air, ceramic, or glass dielectric and may use either a pair of rotating plates or a
compression like mechanism that forces the plates closer together.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.9.12 Variable Capacitor

3.9.3.7 Construction of Electrolytic Capacitors

These capacitors are commonly used for C values of 5 to 2000 μF, approximately, because
electrolytic provide the most capacitance in the smallest space with least cost.

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Construction

Figure 3.9.13 shows the aluminum foil type. The two aluminum electrodes are in an electrolyte
of borax, phosphate, or carbonate. Between the two aluminum strips, absorbent gauze soaks up
electrolyte to provide the required electrolysis that produces an oxide film. This type is
considered a wet electrolytic, but it can be mounted in any position.

When dc voltage is applied to form the capacitance in manufacture, the electrolytic action
accumulates a molecular-thin layer of aluminum oxide at the junction between the positive
aluminum foil and the electrolyte. The oxide film is an insulator. As a result, capacitance is
formed between the positive aluminum electrode and the electrolyte in the gauze separator. The
negative aluminum electrode simply provides a connection to the electrolyte. Usually, the metal
can itself is the negative terminal of the capacitor, as shown in Figure 3.9.13(c).

Because of the extremely thin dielectric film, very large C values can be obtained. The area is
increased by using long strips of aluminum foil and gauze, which are rolled into a compact
cylinder with very high capacitance. For example, an electrolytic capacitor the same size as a 0.1
μF paper capacitor, but rated at 10V breakdown, may have 1000μF of capacitance or more.
Higher voltage ratings, up to 450V, are used, with typical C values of 8 to 200μF for electrolytic
capacitors.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.9.13 Construction of aluminum electrolytic capacitor. (a) Internal electrodes. (b) Foil rolled into
cartridge. (c) Typical capacitor with multiple sections. Height is about 3 in.

3.9.4 Capacitor Color Coding

Mica and tubular ceramic capacitors are color-coded to indicate their capacitance value. Since
coding is necessary only for very small sizes, the color-coded capacitance value is always in pF
units. The colors used are the same as for resistor coding, from black for 0 up to white for 9.

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Mica capacitors generally use the six-dot system shown in Figure 3.9.14. Read the top row first
from left to right, then the bottom row, in reverse order right to left. White for the first dot
indicates the new BIA coding, but the capacitance value is read from the next three dots. As an
example, if the colors are red, green, and brown for dots 2, 3, and 4, the capacitance is 250 pF. If
the first dot is silver, it indicates a paper capacitor, but the capacitance is still read from dots 2, 3,
and 4. Dot 5 specifies tolerance, while dot 6 gives the EIA class. There are seven classes from A
to G, specifying temperature coefficient, leakage resistance, and additional variable factors.

Figure 3.9.14 Six-dot color code for mica capacitors

For tubular ceramic capacitors, the system shown in Figure 3.9.15 is used with color dots or
bands. The wide color band specifying temperature coefficient indicates the left end, which is the
side connected to the inner electrode. Capacitance is read from the next three colors, in either dots
or stripes. For instance, brown, black and brown for bands or dots 2, 3, and 4 means 100 pF.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.9.15 Color code for ceramic tubular capacitors

Gray and white are used as decimal multipliers for very small values, with gray for 0.01 and
white for 0.1. For instance, green, black, and white in dots 2, 3, and 4 means 50 x 0.1, or 5 pF.

In reading the color-coded capacitance value, keep in mind that mica capacitors generally range
from 10 to 5000 pF. The small tubular ceramic capacitors are usually 0.5 to 1000 pF. With paper
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and ceramic disc capacitors, the capacitance and voltage rating is generally printed on the case.
Where no voltage rating is specified, it is usually about 200 to 600 V. Electrolytic capacitors have
the capacitance, voltage rating, and polarity printed on the case.

3.9.5 Capacitors in series and parallel combination:

3.9.5.1 Capacitors in parallel

For capacitors in parallel, the effective plate area is the sum of the individual plate areas; thus, the
total capacitance is the sum of the individual capacitances. This is easily shown. Consider Figure
3.9.16. The charge on each capacitor is given by Equation Q = CV. Thus, Q1 = C1V and Q2=
C2V.

Figure 3.9.16Capacitors in parallel. Total capacitance is the sum of the individual capacitances.

Since QT = Q1+ Q2, QT = C1V + C2V = (C1+C2)V.

But QT = CTV
Thus CT = C1+C2 and V = QT/CT

For more than two capacitors,

CT = C1+C2+C3+ - - - - - - +CN

That is, the total capacitance of capacitors in parallel is the sum of their individual capacitances. EASA – 147 Course Notes

Example:

A 10-μF, a 15-μF, and a 100-μF capacitor are connected in parallel across a 50V source.
Determine the following:
a. Total capacitance.
b. Total charge stored.
c. Charge on each capacitor.

Solution

a. CT= C1+ C2+ C3 = 10 μF + 15 μF + 100 μF = 125 μF.

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b. QT = CTV = (125 μF)(50 V) = 6.25 mC
c. Q1= C1V = (10 μF)(50 V) = 0.5 mC
Q2 = C2V = (15 μF)(50 V) = 0.75 mC
Q3 = C3V = (100 μF)(50 V) = 5.0 mC

3.9.5.2 Capacitor in Series

For capacitors in series (Figure 3-81), the same charge appears on each.Thus, Q = C1V1, Q =
C2V2, etc. Solving for voltages yields V1 = Q/C1, V2 = Q/C2, and so on.
Applying KVL, we get V = V1+ V2+ . . . . . . .+ VN.

Therefore,
V = Q/C1 + Q/C2+ ………… +Q/CN
= Q (1/C1 + 1/C2 + ……… + 1/CN)

Figure 3.9.17 Capacitor in Series

But V = Q/CT. Equating this with the right side and cancelling Q yields

1/CT = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + ………..+ 1/CN

EASA – 147 Course Notes
For two capacitors in series, this reduces to

CT = C1C2/ (C1 + C2)

For N equal capacitors in series, CT = C/N.

Example:

Refer to Figure 3.9.17 (a):

a. Determine CT.
b. If 50 V is applied across the capacitors, determine Q.
c. Determine the voltage on each capacitor.

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Figure 3.9.18

Solution:
1 1 1 1
= + +
a. CT C1 C2 C3
1 1 1
+ +
= 30 µ F 60 µ F 20 µ F
= 0.0333 x 106 + 0.0167 x 106 + 0.05 x 106 = 0.1 x 106

Therefore as indicated in (b),

1
6
CT = 0.1X 10 = 10 μF.

b. Q = CTV = (10 x 10-6 F) x (50 V) = 0.5 mC

c. V1 = Q/C1 = (0.5 x 10-3 C)/(30 x 10-6 F) = 16.7 V
V2 = Q/C2 = (0.5 x 10-3 C)/(60 x 10-6 F) = 8.3 V
V3 = Q/C3= (0.5 x10-3 C)/(20 x 10-6 F) = 25.0 V

3.9.6 Time Constant, Charging and Discharging of Capacitor

3.9.6.1 Time Constant

All Electrical or Electronic circuits or systems suffer from some form of "time-delay" between its EASA – 147 Course Notes
input and output, when a signal or voltage, either continuous, (DC) or alternating (AC) is firstly
applied to it. This delay is generally known as the time delay or Time Constant of the circuit and
it is the time response of the circuit when a step voltage or signal is applied. The resultant time
constant of any circuit or system will mainly depend upon the reactive components either
capacitive or inductive connected to it and is a measurement of time with units of, Tau - τ

When an increasing DC voltage is applied to a Capacitor the capacitor draws a charging current
and "charges up", and when the voltage is reduced, the capacitor discharges. Because capacitors
store electrical energy they act like small batteries and are able to store or release the energy as
required. This charging (storage) and discharging (release) of a capacitors energy is never instant
but takes a certain amount of time to occur with the time taken for the capacitor to charge or

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discharge to within a certain percentage of its maximum supply value being known as its Time
Constant (τ).

If a resistor is connected in series with the capacitor forming a RC charging circuit, the capacitor
will then charge up gradually through the resistor until the voltage across the capacitor reaches
that of the supply voltage. The time required for this to occur is equivalent to about 5 time
constants or 5T. This time constant T, is measured by τ = R x C, in seconds, where R is the value
of the resistor in ohms and C is the value of the capacitor in Farads. This then forms the basis of
an RC charging circuit where 5T can also be thought of as "5 x RC".

3.9.6.2 Capacitor Charging

Figure 3.9.19 shows a Capacitor, (C) in series with a Resistor, (R) forming a RC Charging Circuit
connected across a DC battery supply (Vs) via a mechanical switch. When the switch is closed,
the capacitor will gradually charge up through the resistor until the voltage across it reaches the
supply voltage of the battery. The manner in which the capacitor charges up is also shown below.

Figure 3.9.19 RC charging circuit

Let us assume that the Capacitor, C is fully "discharged" and the switch is open. When the switch
is closed the time begins at t = 0 and current begins to flow into the capacitor via the resistor.
Since the initial voltage across the capacitor is zero, (Vc = 0) the capacitor appears to be a short
circuit and the maximum current flows through the circuit restricted by resistor R. This current is
called the Charging Current and is found by using the formula: i = Vs/R.
EASA – 147 Course Notes
The capacitor now starts to charge up with the actual time taken for the charge on the capacitor to
reach 63% of its maximum possible voltage, in our curve 0.63Vs is known as the Time Constant,
(T) of the circuit and is given the abbreviation of 1T.

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Figure 3.9.19 RC charging curve

So we can say that the time required for a capacitor to charge up to one time constant is given as:

Where, R is in Ω's and C in Farads.

The value of the voltage across the capacitor, (Vc) at any instant in time during the charging
period is given as:

Where: EASA – 147 Course Notes

Vc is the Voltage across the Capacitor
V is the Supply Voltage
t is the elapsed time since the application of the supply voltage
RC is the Time Constant of the RC Charging Circuit

After a period equivalent to 4 time constants, (4T) the capacitor in this RC charging circuit is
virtually fully charged and the voltage across the capacitor is now approx 99% of its maximum
value, 0.99Vs. The time period taken for the capacitor to reach this 4T point is known as the
Transient Period. After a time of 5T the capacitor is now fully charged and the voltage across the
capacitor, (VC) is equal to the supply voltage, (Vs). As the capacitor is fully charged no more
current flows in the circuit. The time period after this 5T point is known as the Steady State
Period.

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As the voltage across the capacitor Vc changes with time, and is a different value at each time
constant up to 5T, we can calculate this value of capacitor voltage, Vc at any given point, for
example.

Example

Calculate the time constant of the circuit figure 3.9.20.

Figure 3.9.20

The time constant τ is found using the formula T = R x C in seconds. Therefore the time constant
τ is:
T = R x C = 47k X 1000 uF = 47 Secs.

a) What value will be the voltage across the capacitor at 0.7 time constants?
Ans. At 0.7 time constants (0.7T) Vc = 0.5Vs.
Therefore, Vc = 0.5 x 5V = 2.5V

b) What value will be the voltage across the capacitor at 1 time constant?
Ans. At 1 time constant (1T) Vc = 0.63Vs. Therefore, Vc = 0.63 x 5V = 3.15V

c) How long will it take to "fully charge" the capacitor?

Ans. The capacitor will be fully charged at 5 time constants.
1 time constant (1T) = 47 seconds, (from above). EASA – 147 Course Notes
Therefore, 5T = 5 x 47 = 235 secs

d) The voltage across the Capacitor after 100 seconds?

Ans. The voltage formula is given as Vc = V(1 - e-t/RC)
which equals: Vc = 5(1-e-100/47) RC = 47 seconds from above,
Therefore, Vc = 4.4 volts

3.9.6.3 Capacitor Discharging

In the previous RC Charging Circuit tutorial, we saw how a Capacitor, C charges up through the
resistor until it reaches an amount of time equal to 5 time constants or 5T and then remains fully
charged. If this fully charged capacitor was now disconnected from its DC battery supply voltage
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it would store its energy built up during the charging process indefinitely (assuming an ideal
capacitor and ignoring any internal losses), keeping the voltage across its terminals constant. If
the battery was now removed and replaced by a short circuit, when the switch was closed again
the capacitor would discharge itself back through the Resistor, R as we now have a RC
discharging circuit. As the capacitor discharges its current through the series resistor the stored
energy inside the capacitor is extracted with the voltage Vc across the capacitor decaying to zero
as shown below.

Figure 3.9.21RC discharging circuit

In a RC Discharging Circuit, the time constant (T) is now given as the time taken for the
capacitor to discharge down to within 37% of its fully discharged value which will be zero volts,
and in our curve this is 0.37Vc. As with the previous charging circuit the voltage across the
Capacitor, C is equal to 0.5Vc at 0.7T with the steady state fully discharged value being finally
reached at 5T.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.9.22 RC discharge curve

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Then just like the RC Charging circuit, we can say that in a RC Discharging Circuit the time
required for a capacitor to discharge itself down to one time constant is given as:

τ = R.C

Where, R is in Ω's and C in Farads

Example

Calculate the time constant of the following RC discharging circuit shown in figure 3.9.23.

Figure 3.9.23

The time constant, T of the circuit is found using the following formula:

T = R x C given in seconds.

Therefore, the RC circuits time constant T is:

T = R x C = 100k x 22µF = 2.2 Seconds

a) What value will be the voltage across the capacitor at 0.7 time constants?
Ans. At 0.7 time constants (0.7T) Vc = 0.5Vc.
Therefore, Vc = 0.5 x 10V = 5V
EASA – 147 Course Notes
b) What value will be the voltage across the capacitor after 1 time constant?
Ans. At 1 time constant (1T) Vc = 0.37Vc.
Therefore, Vc = 0.37 x 10V = 3.7V

c) How long will it take for the capacitor to "fully discharge" itself (5 time constants)?
Ans. 1 time constant (1T) = 2.2 seconds.
Therefore, 5T = 5 x 2.2 = 11 Seconds

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3.9.7 Capacitors Testing

Capacitors can become open or short-circuited. In either case, the capacitor is useless because it
cannot store charge. A leaky capacitor is equivalent to a partial short circuit where the dielectric
gradually loses its insulating properties under the stress of applied voltage, lowering its
resistance. A good capacitor has very high resistance of the order of megaohms; a short-circuited
capacitor has zero ohms resistance, or continuity; the resistance of a leaky capacitor is lower than
normal.

Checking Capacitors with an Ohmmeter

A capacitor usually can be checked with an ohmmeter. The highest ohms range, such as R x 1
MΩ, is preferable. Also, disconnect one side of the capacitor from the circuit to eliminate any
parallel resistance paths that can lower the resistance. Keep your fingers off the connections,
since the body resistance lowers the reading.

As illustrated in Figure 3.9.24, the ohmmeter leads are connected across the capacitor. For a good
capacitor, the meter pointer moves quickly toward the low-resistance side of the scale and then
slowly recedes toward infinity. The reading when the pointer stops moving is the insulation
resistance of the capacitor, which is normally very high. For paper, mica, and ceramic capacitors,
the resistance can be 500 to 1000 Mill, or more, which is practically infinite resistance.
Electrolytic capacitors, however, have a lower normal resistance of about 0.5 M. In all cases,
discharge the capacitor before checking with the ohmmeter.

When the ohmmeter is initially connected, its battery charges the capacitor. This charging current
is the reason the meter pointer moves away from infinity, since more current through the
ohmmeter means less resistance.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.9.24 Checking a capacitor with an ohmmeter. The R scale is shown right to left, as on a VOM. Use
highest ohms range. (a) Capacitor action as needle is moved by charging current. (b) Practically infinite
leakage-resistance reading after capacitor has charged.

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Maximum current flows at the first instant of charge. Then the charging current decreases as the
capacitor voltage increases toward the applied voltage; therefore, the needle pointer slowly
moves toward infinite resistance. Finally, the capacitor is completely charged to the ohmmeter
battery voltage, the charging current is zero, and the ohmmeter reads just the small leakage
current through the dielectric. This charging effect, called capacitor action, shows that the
capacitor can store charge, indicating a normal capacitor. It should be noted that both the rise
and fall of the meter readings are caused by charging. The capacitor discharges when the meter
leads are reversed.

Ohmmeter Readings

Troubles in a capacitor are indicated as follows:

1. If an ohmmeter reading immediately goes practically to zero and stays there, the capacitor is
short circuited.
2. If the capacitor shows charging, but the final resistance reading is appreciably less than normal,
the capacitor is leaky. Such capacitors are particularly troublesome in high-resistance circuits.
When checking electrolytics, reverse the ohmmeter leads and take the higher of the two
readings.

3. If the capacitor shows no charging action but just reads very high resistance, it may be open.
Some precautions must be remembered, however, since very high resistance is a normal
condition for capacitors. Reverse the ohmmeter leads to discharge the capacitor, and check it
again. In addition, remember that capacitance values of 100 pF, or less, normally have very
little charging current for the low battery voltage of the ohmmeter.

Short-circuited Capacitors

In normal service, capacitors can become short-circuited because the dielectric deteriorates with
age, usually over a period of years under the stress of charging voltage, especially with higher
temperatures. This effect is more common with paper and electrolytic capacitors. The capacitor
EASA – 147 Course Notes
may become leaky gradually, indicating a partial short circuit, or the dielectric may be punctured,
causing a short circuit.

Open Capacitors

In addition to the possibility of an open connection in any type of capacitor, electrolytics develop
high resistance in the electrolyte with age, particularly at high temperatures. After service of a
few years, if the electrolyte dries up, the capacitor will be partially open. Much of the capacitor
action is gone, and the capacitor should be replaced.

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Leaky Capacitors

A leaky capacitor reads R less than normal with an ohmmeter. However, d.c. voltage tests are
more definite. In a circuit, the do voltage at one terminal of the capacitor should not affect the d.c.
voltage at the other terminal.

Shelf Life

Except for electrolytic, capacitors do not deteriorate with age while stored, since there is no
applied voltage. Electrolytic capacitors, however, like dry cells, should be used fresh from
manufacture. The reason is the wet electrolyte.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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NOTES

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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NOTES

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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Chapter 10
Magnetism

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

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3.10 MAGNETISM

Magnetism is defined as the property of an object to attract certain metallic substances. In

general, these substances are ferrous materials; that is, materials composed of iron or iron alloys,
such as soft iron, steel, and alnico. These materials, sometimes called magnetic materials, today
include at least three nonferrous materials: nickel, cobalt, and gadolinium, which are magnetic to
a limited degree. All other substances are considered nonmagnetic, and a few of these
nonmagnetic substances can be classified as diamagnetic since they are repelled by both poles of
a magnet.

Figure 3.10.1 One end of magnetized strip points to the magnetic north pole.

Magnetism is an invisible force, the ultimate nature of which has not been fully determined. It
can best be described by the effects it produces. Examination of a simple bar magnet similar to
that illustrated in Figure 3.10.1 discloses some basic characteristics of all magnets. If the magnet
is suspended to swing freely, it will align itself with the earth’s magnetic poles. One end is
labeled “N,” meaning the north seeking end or pole of the magnet. If the “N” end of a compass or EASA – 147 Course Notes
magnet is referred to as north seeking rather than north, there will be no conflict in referring to
the pole it seeks, which is the north magnetic pole. The opposite end of the magnet, marked “S”
is the south seeking end and points to the south magnetic pole. Since the earth is a giant magnet,
its poles attract the ends of the magnet. These poles are not located at the geographic poles.

3.10.1 Theory of Magnetism

3.10.1.1 The Molecular Theory of Magnetism

A nineteenth-century German physicist, Wilhelm Weber, proposed a molecular theory of

magnetism. According to this theory, the molecules of magnetic material, such as iron, are tiny
magnets, each with a north and south magnetic pole and with a surrounding magnetic field.

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In the unmagnetized piece of iron these magnetic molecules are arranged helter-skelter (Figure
3.10.2 (a)). As a result of this arrangement, the magnetic fields around the molecules cancel each
other out and there is no external magnetic field. But if the iron is magnetized, the molecules line
up in an orderly array, with the north pole of one molecule facing the south pole of another
(Figure 3.10.2 (b)). The result, then, is that all the magnetic fields aid each other and we have a
magnet with an external magnetic field.

Figure 3.10.2 Arrangements of molecules in a piece of magnetic material. (a) Unmagnetized. (b) Magnetized.

This theory explains a number of things we know about magnets. For example, in the magnetized
iron all the north poles of the molecules are facing one way and all the south poles are facing the
opposite way. The result, then, is that we have a magnet whose magnetism is concentrated at the
two opposite poles.
EASA – 147 Course Notes
Further, it was found that if you break a magnet in two, you obtain two magnets, each with a set
of poles, as illustrated in Figure 3.10.3. Also, you can destroy the magnetism of a magnet by any
means that will disarrange the orderly array of the molecules, such as by heating or jarring the
magnet.

Figure 3.10.3 Arrangement of molecules showing why two magnets are formed when a magnet is broken in
two.
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If a piece of unmagnetized magnetic material is placed in the magnetic field of a magnet (as, for
example, a bar of iron is stroked by a magnet), the attraction between the external magnet and the
molecules of the magnetic substance causes these molecules to line up in the necessary orderly
array (Figure 3.10.4). Magnetism produced in this way is called induced magnetism.

Figure 3.10.4 How a piece of magnetic material may be magnetized by stroking with a magnet.

We now can explain why a magnet can attract an unmagnetized piece of iron. Under the
influence of the magnetic field of the magnet, the piece of iron becomes magnetized by
induction, two poles being produced at the ends of the iron. The end nearest the magnet is an unlike
pole. The attraction between unlike poles draws the piece of iron to the magnet.

A nonmagnetic substance, such as glass or copper, resists all attempts to align its molecules in
orderly fashion. Nor do all magnetic substances submit to this lining-up process to the same
degree. In some substances, such as soft iron, the molecules are easily moved and will line up
readily under the influence of the magnetic field of another magnet. However, once the external
magnetic field is removed, the molecules of the soft iron revert to their original, disorderly
condition. The soft iron forms a temporary magnet, which is magnetized only so long as it is
acted on by an external magnetic field.
EASA – 147 Course Notes
On the other hand, the molecules of some substances, such as steel, require a much greater
magnetic force to produce an orderly arrangement. However, when the external magnetic field is
removed, these molecules will retain their positions, and consequently these substances form
permanent magnets. As we have seen, however, heating or jarring the magnet will disarrange its
molecules and thus destroy its magnetic properties.

The greater the number of aligned molecules of a magnetic substance, the stronger will be its
magnetic field. When all the molecules are aligned, the substance is said to be saturated. Then,
increasing the strength of the aligning force will produce no increase in the magnetic field of the
substance.

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3.10.1.2. Modern Theories of Magnetism

Armed with a better understanding of the structure of matter, modern scientists have
modified Weber's molecular theory of magnetism. They believe that a magnetic field is produced
by a moving electric field. And, conversely, that an electric field is produced by a moving
magnetic field.

We have learned that the electrons of an atom rotate in concentric shells around the nucleus. It
was found that, not only do these electrons rotate around the nucleus, but, as they do so, they spin
on their own axis, somewhat as the earth spins on its axis as it rotates around the sun. And it was
further discovered that the phenomenon of magnetism seems to be associated with the spin of the
electrons within the third shell of the atoms of magnetic materials.

The electron carries a negative electrical charge. Hence it is surrounded by an electric field. As
the electron spins, so does its electric field. It is this moving electric field that creates a magnetic
field. The polarity of this magnetic field -that is, the direction of its lines of force-depends upon
whether the electron is spinning clockwise or counterclockwise.

Since the electrons of all atoms spin, why, then, are not all atoms magnetic? The answer lies in
the fact that, in the atoms of most materials, half of the electrons spin in one direction and half in
the other. Thus the opposing polarities of the resulting magnetic fields cancel out and there
remains no external magnetic field.

In the atom of a magnetic material, however, more electrons spin in one direction than in the
other. Hence the magnetic fields do not cancel completely, and a net external magnetic field is
produced.

Consider, for example, the magnetic material iron. Its atom has an atomic number of 26 - that is,
its nucleus contains twenty-six protons surrounded by twenty-six electrons arranged in four
shells. The first shell contains two electrons, one spinning in a clockwise direction and the other
in a counterclockwise direction. The resulting magnetic fields thus cancel out. The second shell
EASA – 147 Course Notes
contains eight electrons, four of which are spinning in one direction and four in the opposite
direction. Again, the magnetic fields cancel out.

The third shell is incomplete, containing fourteen electrons (instead of the eighteen it can hold).
Nine of these electrons spin in one direction and five spin in the opposite direction. The net result,
then, is an external magnetic field due to the four electrons whose magnetic fields are not
canceled.

The fourth shell contains the two valence electrons, one spinning in one direction and the other in
the opposite direction. Hence their magnetic fields cancel. The overall effect, then, is that the
atom has an external magnetic field due to the four uncanceled electrons in the third shell. That is,
the atom becomes a small magnet.

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In magnetic material the interaction between the atoms causes a number of neighboring atoms to
line up parallel to each other in such a way that their magnetic fields aid each other. Such an array
(which, it has been estimated, contains approximately 1015 atoms and occupies a volume of about
10-8 cubic centimeter) is called a domain. The magnetic material, then, contains a large number of
domains, each of which is a tiny magnet.

In the unmagnetized material these domains are arranged in a random pattern. Hence their
magnetic fields cancel out and there is no external magnetic field around the material. But if this
material is placed in an external magnetic field, the domains are forced to line up in the direction
of the lines of force of that field. Hence the domains' fields aid each other and, as a result, the
magnetic material has an external magnetic field. That is, it becomes magnetized.

3.10.2 Properties of magnets

Magnets are made of iron, cobalt, or nickel materials, usually in an alloy combination. An alloy is
a mixture of these materials. Each end of the magnet is called a pole. If a magnet were broken,
each part would become a magnet. Each magnet would have two poles. Magnetic poles are
always in pairs. When a magnet is suspended in air so that it can turn freely, one pole will point to
the North Pole of the earth. The earth is like a large permanent magnet. This is why compasses
can be used to determine direction. The north pole of a magnet will attract the south pole of
another magnet. A north pole repels another north pole and a south pole repels another south pole.
The two laws of magnetism are:

(1) like poles repel, and

(2) unlike poles attract.

The magnetic field patterns when two permanent magnets are placed end to end are shown in
Figure 3.10.5. When the magnets are farther apart, a smaller force of attraction or repulsion exists.
This type of permanent magnet is called a bar magnet.
EASA – 147 Course Notes
Some materials retain magnetism longer than others. Hard steel holds its magnetism much longer
than soft steel. A magnetic field is set up around any magnetic material. The field is made up of
lines of force or magnetic flux. These magnetic flux lines are invisible. They never cross one
another, but they always form individual closed loops around a magnetic material. They have a
definite direction from north to south pole along the outside of a magnet. When magnetic flux
lines are close together, the magnetic field is strong. When magnetic flux lines are farther apart,
the field is weaker. The magnetic field is strongest near the poles. Lines of force pass through all
materials. It is easy for lines of force to pass through iron and steel. Magnetic flux passes through
a piece of iron as shown in Figure 3.10.6.

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Figure 3.10.5 Magnetic field patterns when magnets are placed end to end.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.10.6 Magnetic flux lines distorted while passing through a piece of iron.

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When magnetic flux passes through a piece of iron, the iron acts like a magnet. Magnetic poles
are formed due to the influence of the flux lines. These are called induced poles. The induced
poles and the magnet's poles attract and repel each other. Magnets attract pieces of soft iron in
this way. It is possible to temporarily magnetize pieces of metal by using a bar magnet. If a
magnet is passed over the top of a piece of iron several times in the same direction, the soft iron
becomes magnetized. It will stay magnetized for a short period of time.

When a compass is brought near the north pole of a magnet, the north-seeking pole of the
compass is attracted to it. The polarities of the magnet may be determined by observing a
compass brought near each pole. Compasses detect the presence of magnetic fields.

3.10.3 Earth Magnetism

The surface of the earth is surrounded by a weak magnetic field which culminates in two internal
magnetic poles, situated near the North and South true or geographic poles. That this is so is
obvious from the fact that a magnet freely suspended at various parts of the earth's surface will be
found to settle in a definite direction, which varies with locality. A plane passing through the
magnet and the centre of the earth would trace on the earth's surface an imaginary line called the
magnetic meridian as shown in Figure 3.10.7.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.10.7 Earth Magnetism

It would thus appear that the earth's magnetic field is similar to that which would be expected at
the surface if a short but strongly magnetized bar magnet were located at the centre. This partly
explains the fact that the magnetic poles are relatively large areas, due to the spreading out of the
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lines of force and it also gives a reason for the direction of the field being horizontal in the
vicinity of the equator. However, the origin of the field is still not exactly known, but for
purposes of explanation, the supposition of a bar magnet at the earth's centre is useful in
visualizing the general form of the magnetic field as it is known to be.

The earth's magnetic field differs from that of an ordinary magnet in several respects. Its points of
maximum intensity, or strength, are not at the magnetic poles (theoretically they should be) but
occur at four other positions, two near each pole, known as magnetic foci. Moreover, the poles
themselves are continually changing their positions, and at any point on the earth's surface the
field is not symmetrical and is subject to changes both periodic and irregular.

3.10.4 Terms use in Earth Magnetism

Magnetic Meridian

A plane passing through the magnet and the centre of the earth would trace on the earth's surface
an imaginary line called the magnetic meridian.

Magnetic Variation

The horizontal angle contained between the true and magnetic meridian at any place is known as
the magnetic variation or declination.

Isogonal Lines & Agonic Lines

Information regarding magnetic variation and its changes is given on special charts of the world
which are issued every few years. Lines are drawn on the charts, and those which join places
having equal variation are called isogonal lines, while those drawn through places where the
variation is zero are called agonic lines.

Angle of Dip
EASA – 147 Course Notes

The angle the lines of force make with the earth's surface at any given place is called the angle of
dip or magnetic inclination, and varies from 0° at the magnetic equator to 90° at the magnetic
poles.

Isoclinials and Aclinic Line

The angle of dip at all places undergoes changes similar to those described for variation and is
also shown on charts of the world. Places on these charts having the same magnetic dip are joined
by lines known as isoclinals, while those at which the angle is zero are joined by a line known as
the aclinic line or magnetic equator, of which mention has already been made.

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3.10.5 Action of a Magnet suspended in the Earth’s Magnetic Field

When a magnet needle freely suspended in the earth's field comes to rest, it does so under the
influence of the total force of the earth's magnetism. The value of this total force at a given place
is difficult to measure, but seldom needs to be known. It is usual, therefore, to resolve this total
force into its horizontal and vertical components, termed H and Z respectively; if the angle of dip
θ is known, the total force can be calculated.

A knowledge of the values of the horizontal and vertical components is of great practical value,
particularly in connection with compass deviation and adjustment. Both components are
responsible for the magnetization of any magnetic parts of the aircraft which lie in their
respective planes, and may therefore fluctuate at any place for different aircraft or for different
compass positions in the same aircraft. The relationship between dip, horizontal force, vertical
force and total force is shown in Figure 3.10.8.

Figure 3.10.8 Earth magnetism action on suspended bar magnet.

As in the case of variation and dip, charts of the world are published showing the values of H and EASA – 147 Course Notes
Z for all places on the earth's surface, together with the mean annual change. Lines of equal
horizontal and vertical force are referred to as isodynamic lines.

The earth's magnetic force may be stated either as a relative value or an absolute value. If stated
as a relative value and in connection with aircraft compasses this is the case; it is given relative to
the horizontal force at Greenwich.

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3.10.6 Magnetization and Demagnetization

3.10.6.1 Magnetization

The magnetization of a magnetized material is the local value of its magnetic moment per unit
volume, usually denoted M, with units A/m. It is a vector field, rather than just a vector (like the
magnetic moment), because different areas in a magnet can be magnetized with different
directions and strengths (for example, because of domains, see below). A good bar magnet may
have a magnetic moment of magnitude 0.1 A·m² and a volume of 1 cm³, or 0.000001 m³, and
therefore an average magnetization magnitude is 100,000 A/m. Iron can have a magnetization of
around a million A/m. Such a large value explains why magnets are so effective at producing
magnetic fields.

Ferromagnetic materials can be magnetized in the following ways:

• Heating the object above its Curie temperature, allowing it to cool in a magnetic field and
hammering it as it cools. This is the most effective method, and is similar to the industrial
processes used to create permanent magnets.

• Placing the item in an external magnetic field will result in the item retaining some of the
magnetism on removal. Vibration has been shown to increase the effect. Ferrous
materials aligned with the earth's magnetic field and which are subject to vibration (e.g.
frame of a conveyor) have been shown to acquire significant residual magnetism. A
magnetic field much stronger than the earth's can be generated inside a solenoid by
passing direct current through it.

• Stroking - An existing magnet is moved from one end of the item to the other repeatedly
in the same direction.

3.10.6.2 Demagnetization
EASA – 147 Course Notes
In order to demagnetize a magnetic material completely, the residual induction BR must be
reduced to zero. This usually cannot be accomplished by a reversed do magnetizing force,
because the material then would just become magnetized with opposite polarity. The practical
way is to magnetize and demagnetize the material with a continuously decreasing hysteresis loop.
This can be done with a magnetic field produced by alternating current. Then as the magnetic
field and the material are moved away from each other, or the current amplitude is reduced, the
hysteresis loop becomes smaller and smaller. Finally, with the weakest field, the loop collapses
practically to zero, resulting in zero residual induction.

This method of demagnetization is also called degaussing. One application is degaussing the
metal electrodes in a color picture tube, with a degaussing coil providing alternating current from

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the power line. Another example is erasing the recorded signal on magnetic tape by
demagnetizing with an a.c bias current.

Magnetized materials can be demagnetized in the following ways:

• Heating a magnet past its Curie temperature - the molecular motion destroys the alignment
of the magnetic domains. This always removes all magnetization

• Hammering or jarring - the mechanical disturbance tends to randomize the magnetic

domains. Will leave some residual magnetization.

• Placing the magnet in an alternating magnetic field with intensity above the materials
coercivity and then either slowly drawing the magnet out or slowly decreasing the
magnetic field to zero. This is the principle used in commercial demagnetizers to
demagnetize tools and erase credit cards and hard disks, and degaussing coils used to
demagnetize CRTs.

3.10.7 Magnetic shielding

The idea of preventing one component from affecting another through their common electric or
magnetic field is called shielding. Examples are the braided copper-wire shield around the inner
conductor of a coaxial cable, a metal shield can that encloses an RF coil, or a shield of magnetic
material enclosing a cathode-ray tube.

The problem in shielding is to prevent one component from inducing an effect in the shielded
component. The shielding materials are always metals, but there is a difference between using
good conductors with low resistance like copper and aluminum and using good magnetic
materials like soft iron.

A good conductor is best for two shielding functions. One is to prevent induction of static electric
charges. The other is to shield against the induction of a varying magnetic field. For static EASA – 147 Course Notes
charges, the shield provides opposite induced charges, which prevent induction inside the shield.
For a varying magnetic field, the shield has induced currents that oppose the inducing field. Then
there is little net field strength to produce induction inside the shield.

The best shield for a steady magnetic field is a good magnetic material of high permeability. A
steady field is produced by a permanent magnet, a coil with steady direct current, or the earth's
magnetic field. A magnetic shield of high permeability concentrates the magnetic flux. Then there
is little flux to induce poles in a component inside the shield. The shield can be considered as a
short circuit for the lines of magnetic flux.

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3.10.8 Classification of Magnetic Materials

When we consider materials simply as either magnetic or non-magnetic, this division is really
based on the strong magnetic properties of iron. However, weak magnetic materials can be
important in some applications. For this reason, a more exact classification includes the following
three groups:

1. Ferromagnetic materials. These include iron, steel, nickel, cobalt, and commercial alloys
such as alnico and Permalloy. They become strongly magnetized in the same direction as the
magnetizing field, with high values of permeability from 50 to 5000. Permalloy has μr of 100,000
but is easily saturated at relatively low values of flux density.

2. Paramagnetic materials. These include aluminum, platinum, manganese, and chromium. The
permeability is slightly more than 1. They become weakly magnetized in the same direction as
the magnetizing field.

3. Diamagnetic materials. These include bismuth, antimony, copper, zinc, mercury, gold, and
silver. The permeability is less than 1. They become weakly magnetized, but in the opposite
direction from the magnetizing field.

3.10.9 Electromagnet

A wire with an electric current passing through it, generates a magnetic field around it, this is a
simple electromagnet. The strength of magnetic field generated is proportional to the amount of
current.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.10.9 Current (I) through a wire produces a magnetic field (B).

In order to concentrate the magnetic field generated by a wire, it is commonly wound into a coil,
where many turns of wire sit side by side. The magnetic field of all the turns of wire passes
through the center of the coil. A coil forming the shape of a straight tube, a helix (similar to a
corkscrew) is called a solenoid; a solenoid that is bent into a donut shape so that the ends meet is
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a toroid. Much stronger magnetic fields can be produced if a "core" of ferromagnetic material,
such as soft iron, is placed inside the coil. The ferromagnetic core magnifies the magnetic field to
thousands of times the strength of the field of the coil alone, due to the high magnetic
permeability μ of the ferromagnetic material. This is called a ferromagnetic-core or iron-core
electromagnet.

The direction of the magnetic field through a coil of wire can be found from a form of the right-
hand rule. If the fingers of the right hand are curled around the coil in the direction of current
flow (conventional current, flow of positive charge) through the windings, the thumb points in the
direction of the field inside the coil. The side of the magnet that the field lines emerge from is
defined to be the north pole.

The main advantage of an electromagnet over a permanent magnet is that the magnetic field can
be rapidly manipulated over a wide range by controlling the amount of electric current. However,
a continuous supply of electrical energy is required to maintain the field.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.10.10 Electromagnet

How electromagnets work

The material of the core of the magnet (usually iron) is composed of small regions called
magnetic domains that act like tiny magnets (see ferromagnetism). Before the current in the
electromagnet is turned on, the domains in the iron core point in random directions, so their tiny
magnetic fields cancel each other out, and the iron has no large scale magnetic field. When a
current is passed through the wire wrapped around the iron, its magnetic field penetrates the iron,
and causes the domains to turn, aligning parallel to the magnetic field, so their tiny magnetic
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fields add to the wire's field, creating a large magnetic field that extends into the space around the
magnet. The larger the current passed through the wire coil, the more the domains align, and the
stronger the magnetic field is. Finally all the domains are aligned and further increases in current
only cause slight increases in the magnetic field: this phenomenon is called saturation.

When the current in the coil is turned off, most of the domains lose alignment and return to a
random state and the field disappears. However in some materials some of the alignment persists,
because the domains have difficulty turning their direction of magnetization, leaving the core a
weak permanent magnet. This phenomenon is called hysteresis and the remaining magnetic field
is called remnant (residual) magnetism. The residual magnetization of the core can be removed by
degaussing.

3.10.10 Determination of Direction of Magnetic Field around Current Carrying Conductor

3.10.10.1 Direction of Magnetic Field of Current Carrying Straight Conductor

The direction of the magnetic field produced by a current-carrying conductor is given by

Maxwell’s right hand thumb rule.

It states that if you holding the current-carrying conductor in your right hand such that the thumb
points in direction of the current, then the direction in which the fingers encircle, gives the
direction of magnetic lines. This rule is also called Maxwell’s Corkscrew Rule.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.10.11 Maxwell’s Right Hand Thumb Rule

This rule can also be stated as if we consider ourselves driving a corkscrew in the direction of the
current, then the direction in which we rotate the screw is the direction of the magnetic field.

Although it has been stated that the lines of force have direction, this should not be understood to
mean that the lines have motion in a circular direction around the conductor. Although the lines of
force tend to act in a clockwise or counterclockwise direction, they are not revolving around the
conductor.
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Figure 3.10.12 Maxwell’s Corkscrew Rule

3.10.10.2 Direction of Magnetic Field of Solenoid

The magnetic field for a solenoid has a similar pattern to the magnetic field of a bar magnet, as
shown in figure 3.10.13. One end of the solenoid is a North pole while the other end is a South
pole. Using the right-hand grip rule the polarity at the ends of the solenoid can be determined.
Hold the solenoid using your right hand with your four fingers curled around the solenoid along
the direction of the current. The thumb will point to the end that is the North pole. It can also be
done by looking at the end of the solenoid. A clockwise current indicates a South pole while an
anticlockwise current indicates a North pole.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.10.13 Determination of polarity of a solenoid

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3.10.11 Magnetic Quantities

3.10.11.1 Magneto Motive Force (mmf).

Magneto motive force (mmf) is the strength of a magnetic field in a coil of wire. This is
dependent on how much current flows in the turns of coil: the more current, the stronger the
magnetic field; the more turns of wire, the more concentrated the lines of force. The unit
of m.m.f is sometimes expressed as ‘ampere-turns’. However since ‘turns’ have no dimensions,
the S.I. unit of m.m.f. is the ampere. The following is the mathematical representation for
ampere-turns (At).

Fm = ampere-turns = NI

where, Fm=magnetomotive force (mmf), N=number of turns, I=current

3.10.11.2 Magnetic Field Strength H

When a substance is placed in an external magnetic field, the substance experiences a torque due
to the field and aligns in the same direction as the field. The magnetization so produced in the
substance is called Induced magnetization. It is denoted by symbol M.

The magnetic field in "empty" space is denoted by the symbol B. It is calculated from Ampere's
Law or Biot-Savart’s Law and measured in Tesla. However, when the magnetic field passes
through a magnetically responsive material, such as iron, the material itself contributes its internal
magnetic field. Then a second quantity, H called as magnetic field intensity is used to characterize
the strength of external field i.e. the magnetic field due to the external sources (electric current)
only, excluding the contribution due to material’s internal magnetic field. H is related to B
through permeability μ as:

B=μ×H

Magnetic field Intensity H is also called as Magnetizing force or Auxiliary Magnetic field. H is EASA – 147 Course Notes
also expressed in terms of M as follows:

H = B/μ0 – M.

Or in the equivalent form as:

B = μ0 (H + M)

H and M have the same units, amperes/meter.

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Figure 3.10.14 B-H magnetization curve.

3.10.11.3 Flux Density B

The number of flux lines per unit area is called the flux density, denoted by the letter B. This
relationship is mathematically stated by the formula:

𝐵𝐵 = 𝜙𝜙/𝐴𝐴.

The flux density is expressed either in teslas, gausses, or lines per square inch.

tesla = webers per m2 (mks)

EASA – 147 Course Notes
gauss = maxwell per cm2 (cgs)

3.10.11.4 Permeability

The word permeability, as has been mentioned earlier, refers to the ability of a substance to
conduct and concentrate lines of magnetic flux. In this respect, permeability, denoted by the
Greek letter μ (mu), is to magnetism what the word conductivity is to electricity.

Permeability is a pure number (without units) indicating how much better a material can establish
magnetic flux within itself as compared to the permeability of a vacuum (or air).

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For practical purposes, the permeability of nonmagnetic materials, such as wood, aluminum, and
plastic, is the same as the permeability of a vacuum (or air). (By contrast, the ferromagnetic
substances and alloys have permeability numbers ranging in the thousands.)

But, strictly speaking, even some of those nonmagnetic substances can become slightly
magnetized under the influence of strong magnetic fields. Such substances are classified as being
either paramagnetic or diamagnetic.

Paramagnetic substances have permeability ratings slightly greater than that of air. Aluminum is
an example of a paramagnetic substance.

Diamagnetic substances have a permeability rating slightly less than that of air. Diamagnetic
materials are characterized by the fact that their magnetization is in opposite direction to that of
the external, magnetizing force. (Copper is an example.)

3.10.11.5 Reluctance and Permeance

The opposition to magnetic field flux through a given volume of space or material. SI unit of
reluctance is inverse Henry. It is analogous to resistance in an electrical circuit, but rather than
dissipating electric energy it stores magnetic energy.

Reluctance is given by:

𝑙𝑙
𝑅𝑅 =
𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇

where

l is the length of the circuit in metres

μ0 is the permeability of free space, equal to 4π×10-7 Henry per meter

μr is the relative magnetic permeability of the material (dimensionless)

EASA – 147 Course Notes
A is the cross-sectional area of the circuit in square meters

The inverse of reluctance is called permeance. Its SI derived unit is the Henry (the same as the
unit of inductance, although the two concepts are distinct).

The symbol is “S” and is measured in Amperes per Weber.

𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑆𝑆 =
𝜑𝜑

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3.10.11.5 Saturation

Note that the permeability decreases for the highest values of H. With less μ, the iron core cannot
provide proportional increases in B for increasing values of H. In the graph, for values of H
above 4000 A - t/m, approximately, the values of B increase at a much slower rate, making the
curve relatively flat at the top. The effect of little change in flux density when the field intensity
increases is called saturation.

The reason is that the iron becomes saturated with magnetic lines of induction. After most of the
molecular dipoles and the magnetic domains are aligned by the magnetizing force, very little
additional induction can be produced. When the value of B, is specified for a magnetic material,
it is usually the highest value before saturation.

3.10.11.6 Magnetic Hysteresis

Hysteresis means "a lagging behind." With respect to the magnetic flux in an iron core of an
electromagnet, the flux lags the increases or decreases in magnetizing force. The hysteresis results
from the fact that the magnetic dipoles are not perfectly elastic. Once aligned by an external
magnetizing force, the dipoles do not return exactly to their original positions when the force is
removed. The effect is the same as if the dipoles were forced to move against an internal friction
between molecules. Furthermore, if the magnetizing force is reversed in direction by reversal of
the current in an electromagnet, the flux produced in the opposite direction lags behind the
reversed magnetizing force.

3.10.11.7 Hysteresis Loss

When the magnetizing force reverses thousands or millions of times per second, as with rapidly
reversing alternating current, the hysteresis can cause a considerable loss of energy. A large part
of the magnetizing force is then used just to overcome the internal friction of the molecular
dipoles. The work done by the magnetizing force against this internal friction produces heat. This
energy wasted in heat as the molecular dipoles lag the magnetizing force is called hysteresis loss.
EASA – 147 Course Notes
For steel and other hard magnetic materials, the hysteresis losses are much higher than in soft
magnetic materials like iron.

When the magnetizing force varies at a slow rate, the hysteresis losses can be considered
negligible. An example is an electromagnet with direct current that is simply turned on and off, or
the magnetizing force of an alternating current that reverses 60 times per second or less. The
faster the magnetizing force changes, however, the greater the hysteresis effect.

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3.10.11.8 Hysteresis Loop

To show the hysteresis characteristics of a magnetic material, its values of flux density B are
plotted for a periodically reversing magnetizing force. See Figure 3.10.15. This curve is the
hysteresis loop of the material. The larger the area enclosed by the curve, the greater the
hysteresis loss. The hysteresis loop is actually a B-H curve with an ac magnetizing force.

On the vertical axis, values of flux density B are indicated. The units can be gauss or Teslas. The
horizontal axis indicates values of field intensity H. On this axis the units can be Oersteds,
ampere-turns per meter, ampere-turns, or just magnetizing current, as all factors are constant
except I.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.10.15 Hysteresis loop for magnetic materials.

Opposite directions of current result in the opposite directions of +H and -H for the field lines.
Similarly, opposite polarities are indicated for flux density as +B or -B.

The current starts from zero at the center, when the material is unmagnetized. Then positive H
values increase B to saturation at +Bmax. Next H decreases to zero, but B drops to the value BR,
instead of to zero, because of hysteresis. When H becomes negative, B drops to zero and
continues to -Bmax, which is saturation in the opposite direction from +Bmax because of the
reversed magnetizing current.

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Then, as the -H values decrease, the flux density is reduced to -BR. Finally, the loop is completed,
with positive values of H producing saturation at Bmax again. The curve does not return to the zero
origin at the center because of hysteresis. As the magnetizing force periodically reverses, the
values of flux density are repeated to trace out the hysteresis loop.

3.10.11.9 Retentivity

The value of either +BR or -BR, which is the flux density remaining after the magnetizing force
has been reduced to zero, is the residual induction of a magnetic material, also called its
retentivity. In Figure 3.10.15, the residual induction is 0.6 T, in either the positive or negative
direction.

3.10.11.10 Coercivity

This refers to the amount of negative magnetizing force (coercive force) necessary to completely
demagnetize a material. The value of -Hc, which equals the magnetizing force that must be
applied in the reverse direction to reduce the flux density to zero, is the coercive force of the
material. In Figure 3.10.15, the coercive force -Hc is 300 A. t/m.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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3.10.12 Eddy Current

Eddy currents occur when a solid metallic mass is rotated in a magnetic field, because the outer
portion of the metal cuts more lines of force than the inner portion, hence the induced
electromotive force not being uniform, tends to set up currents between the points of greatest and
least potential. The term eddy current comes from analogous currents seen in water when
dragging an oar (a long, thin, usually wooden pole with a blade at one end, used to row or steer a
boat) breadthwise: localized areas of turbulence known as eddies give rise to persistent vortices.
Eddy currents consume a considerable amount of energy and often cause a harmful rise in
temperature and lower its efficiency.

Figure 3.10.16 Eddy Current produced in rotating core

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.10.17 Laminated core to minimize eddy current loss

If a continuous solid iron core is used, the resistance to eddy current path will be small due to
large cross-sectional area of the core. Consequently, the magnitude of eddy current and hence
eddy current loss will be large. The magnitude of eddy current can be reduced by making core
resistance as high as practical. The iron sheets called laminations shown in figure 3.10.17. The
laminations are insulated from each other with a coating of varnish. The insulating coating has a
high resistance, so very little current flows from one lamination to the other. Also,
because each lamination is very thin, the resistance to current flowing through the width of a
lamination is also quite large. Thus laminating a core increases the core resistance which
decreases the eddy current and hence the eddy current loss.
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3.10.13 Storage of Magnets

Any vibration or rough treatment such as dropping or hammering will cause weakening of the
magnetism, also excessive heat can destroy the magnetism. A bar magnet tends to become
weaker with age due to self demagnetization, the magnetic domains at the poles tends to reverse
polarity. To prevent this, bar magnets are stored with care as follows.

The principle of the closed magnetic ring is used to protect permanent magnets in storage. In
Figure 3.10.18(a), four PM bar magnets are in a closed loop, while Figure 3-10.18(b) shows a
stacked pair. Additional even pairs can be stacked this way, with opposite poles touching. The
closed loop in Figure 3.10.18(c) shows one permanent horseshoe magnet with a soft-iron keeper
across the air gap. The keeper maintains the strength of the permanent magnet as it becomes
magnetized by induction to form a closed loop. Then any external magnetic 'field is concentrated
in the closed loop without inducing opposite poles in the permanent magnet. If permanent
magnets are not stored this way, the polarity can be reversed with induced poles produced by a
strong external field from a do source; an alternating field can demagnetize the magnet.

Figure 3.10.18 Storing permanent magnets in a closed loop, with opposite poles touching. (a) Four bar
magnets. (b) Two bar magnets. (c) Horseshoe magnet with iron keeper across air gap.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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NOTES

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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Chapter 11
Inductance

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INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

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3.11 INDUCTANCE/INDUCTOR

Inductance is the ability of a conductor to produce induced voltage when the current varies. A
long wire has more inductance than a short wire, since more conductor length cut by magnetic
flux produces more induced voltage. Similarly, a coil has more inductance than the equivalent
length of straight wire because the coil concentrates magnetic flux. Components manufactured to
have a definite value of inductance are just coils of wire, therefore, called inductors. Coils can be
wound around hollow forms so that air is part of the magnetic circuit. Other coils are wound
around iron cores.

Induced voltage is the result of flux cutting across a conductor. This action can be produced by
physical motion of either the magnetic field or the conductor. When the current in a conductor
varies in amplitude, however, the variations of current and its associated magnetic field are
equivalent to motion of the flux. As the current increases in value, the magnetic field expands
outward from the conductor. When the current decreases, the field collapses into the conductor.
As the field expands and collapses with changes of current, the flux is effectively in motion.
Therefore, a varying current can produce induced voltage without the need for motion of the
conductor

3.11. 1 Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction

If a conductor is moved through a magnetic field so that it cuts magnetic lines of flux, a voltage
will be induced across the conductor, as shown in Figure 3.11.1.

The greater the number of flux lines cut per unit time (by increasing the speed with which the
conductor passes through the field), or the stronger the magnetic field strength (for the same
traversing speed), the greater will be the induced voltage across the conductor. If the conductor is
held fixed and the magnetic field is moved so that its flux lines cut the conductor, the same effect
will be produced.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.11.1 Generating an induced voltage by moving a conductor through a magnetic field.

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Figure 3.11.2 Demonstrating Faraday’s law.

If a coil of N turns is placed in the region of a changing flux, as in Figure 3.11.2, a voltage will be
induced across the coil as determined by Faraday’s law:
dφ
e=N
dt
where N represents the number of turns of the coil and dφ/dt is the instantaneous change in flux
(in webers) linking the coil. The term linking refers to the flux within the turns of wire. The term
changing simply indicates that either the strength of the field linking the coil changes in
magnitude or the coil is moved through the field in such a way that the number of flux lines
through the coil changes with time. If the flux linking the coil ceases to change, such as when the
coil simply sits still in a magnetic field of fixed strength, dφ/dt = 0, and the induced voltage is:
dφ
= e N= N= (0) 0
dt

3.11.2 Action of induced voltage on a conductor moving in a magnetic field

When a conductor is moved across a magnetic field so as to cut through the lines of force (or
flux), an electromotive force (e.m.f.) is produced in the conductor. If the conductor forms part of
a closed circuit then the e.m.f. produced causes an electric current to flow round the circuit.
Hence an e.m.f. (and thus current) is ‘induced’ in the conductor as a result of its movement across
EASA – 147 Course Notes
the magnetic field. This effect is known as ‘electromagnetic induction’.

Figure 3.11.3(a) shows a coil of wire connected to a centre-zero galvanometer, which is a

sensitive ammeter with the zero-current position in the centre of the scale

a) When the magnet is moved at constant speed towards the coil (Figure 3.11.3(a)), a deflection
is noted on the galvanometer showing that a current has been produced in the coil.

(b) When the magnet is moved at the same speed as in (a) but away from the coil the same
deflection is noted but is in the opposite direction (see Figure 3.11.3(b))

(c) When the magnet is held stationary, even within the coil, no deflection is recorded.

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Figure 3.11.3a coil of wire connected to a centre-zero galvanometer

(d) When the coil is moved at the same speed as in (a) and the magnet held stationary the same
galvanometer deflection is noted.

(e) When the relative speed is, say, doubled, the galvanometer deflection is doubled.

(f) When a stronger magnet is used, a greater galvanometer deflection is noted.

(g) When the number of turns of wire of the coil is increased, a greater galvanometer deflection is
noted.

3.11.3 Induction Principle

EASA – 147 Course Notes
Electromagnetic induction is the production of voltage across a conductor situated in a changing
magnetic field or a conductor moving through a steady magnetic field, found that the
electromotive force (EMF) produced around a closed path is proportional to the rate of change of
the magnetic flux through any surface bounded by that path.

In practice, this means that an electrical current will be induced in any closed circuit when the
magnetic flux through a surface bounded by the conductor changes. This applies whether the
field itself changes in strength or the conductor is moved through it.

Electromagnetic induction underlies the operation of generators, induction motors, transformers,

and most other electrical machines.

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Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction states that:
dϕ
ε =− B
dt
Thus:
ε is the electromotive force (emf) in volts
ϕ B is the magnetic flux in webers

For the common but special case of a coil of wire, composed of N loops with the same area,
Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction states that:
dϕ
ε = −N B
dt
where
ε is the electromotive force (emf) in volts
N is the number of turns of wire
ϕ B is the magnetic flux in webers through a single loop.

A corollary of Faraday's Law, together with Ampere's and Ohm's laws is Lenz's law:

The emf induced in an electric circuit always acts in such a direction that the current it drives
around the circuit opposes the change in magnetic flux which produces the emf. The direction
mentioned in Lenz's law can be thought of as the result of the minus sign in the above equation.

3.11.4 Factors affecting magnitude of induced voltage

According to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction we get,

dφ
E=N B
dt
Where we find that the induced voltage on a conductor moving into the magnetic field depends
on number of turns of the conductor (N), magnetic field strength (B) and rate of change of flux.
EASA – 147 Course Notes
3.11.4.1 Magnetic Field Strength

From the definition of magnetic flux we can see that:

ϕ B = B. A
where, B is the magnetic field strength, or magnetic flux density, and A is the area.

The magnetic flux density B is related to the magnetic field strength or magnetic field intensity
by a coefficient μ which is known as permeability of the material through which magnetic flux
pass through. Therefore, magnetic flux density can be expressed as:

𝐵𝐵 = 𝜇𝜇 𝐻𝐻

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Figure 3.11.4 Magnetic flux and flux density

So it is apparent that the magnitude of the induced voltage is proportional to magnetic field
strength.

Figure 3.11.5 Self-induced voltage due to a coil’s own current. The induced voltage opposes the current
change. Note carefully the polarities in (b) and (c) EASA – 147 Course Notes

3.11.4.2 Rate of Change of Flux

In figure 3.11.5(a) the current is constant, and since the magnetic field is due to this current, the
magnetic field is also constant. Applying Faraday’s law, we note that, because the flux linking the
coil is not changing, the induced voltage is zero. Now consider (b). Here, the current (and hence
the field) is increasing. According to Faraday’s law, a voltage is induced that is proportional to
how fast the field is changing and according to Lenz’s law, the polarity of this voltage must be
such as to oppose the increase in current. Thus, the polarity of the voltage is as shown. Note that
the faster the current increases, the larger the opposing voltage. Now consider (c). Since the
current is decreasing, Lenz’s law shows that the polarity of the induced voltage reverses, that is,

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the collapsing field produces a voltage that tries to keep the current going. Again, the faster the
rate of change of current, the larger is this voltage.

3.11.4.3 Number of Turns

As we can see from Faraday’s law, induced emf is directly proportional to the number of turns of
the coil. A greater number of turns of wire in the coil results in greater induced voltage as the
cutting of magnetic flux lines would be higher.

3.11.5 Mutual Induction

In Faraday's experiment with two coils on a conducting iron ring, he discovered that a changing
magnetic field in one coil induces an electromotive force, or voltage, in the second coil. This
phenomenon is called mutual inductance. Mutual inductance occurs when a changing magnetic
field in one circuit induces voltage in a nearby circuit.

Consistent with Lenz's law, the direction of the induced electromotive force, or voltage, is in the
opposite direction of the current flow that generated it. Looking at Faraday's experiment again
below, we find that when voltage is applied to the coil on the right, a magnetic field is induced in
the iron ring. As the field is expanding, a voltage is generated in the second coil on the left. This
secondary voltage causes a current flow in the second coil. This secondary current flow is in the
opposite direction of the current flow of the first coil. When the induced magnetic field in the ring
becomes steady, current ceases to flow in the second coil.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.11.6 Mutual Inductance

When the current in the first coil is switched off, the induced magnetic field in the ring begins to
collapse. As the field is collapsing, it again generates voltage in the second coil. The resulting
current flow in the second coil is in the opposite direction of the previously induced current.
When the magnetic field in the ring is fully collapsed, the induced voltage and current flow in the
secondary coil ceases.

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3.11.6. Effect of change of primary current and mutual inductance on induced voltage

Let the two coils be so joined in series that their fluxes (or mmf) are additive i.e., in the same
direction (figure 3.11.7 (a))

Let M = coefficient of mutual inductance

L1 = coefficient of self-inductance of 1st coil
L2 = coefficient of self-inductance of 2nd coil.

Figure 3.11.7 Mutual Inductance

Then, self-induced e.m.f. in A is

e1 = - L1. di/dt
Mutually-induced e.m.f. in A due to change of current in Bis
e1'= -M. di/dt
Self-induced e.m.f. in B is
e2 = -L2 di/dt
Mutually-induced e.m.f. in B due to change of current in A is
e2'=-M. di/dt
(All have -ve sign, because both self and mutally induced e.m.fs. are in oppositione.m.f).
EASA – 147 Course Notes
Total induced e.m.f. in the combination
= - di/dt (Ll + L2 + 2M)………….. (i)

When the coils are so joined that their fluxes are in opposite directions (figure 3.11.7(b)).

As before
e1= - L1di/dt
e1'= + M. di/dt(mark this direction)
e2 = - L2 di/dtand
e2' = + M. di/dt
Total induced e.m.f.
= -di/dt (L1+L2-2M)….(ii)

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From equation (i) & (ii) we see the effect the rate of change of primary current and mutual
inductance has on induced voltage.

3.11.7 Factors Affecting mutual Inductance

The mutual inductance of two adjacent coils is dependent upon the physical dimensions of the
two coils, the number of turns in each coil, the distance between the two coils, the relative
positions of the axes of the two coils, and the permeability of the cores.

3.11.7.1 Coefficient of Coupling

Co-efficient of coupling between two coils is equal to the ratio of the flux cutting one coil to the
flux originated in the other coil. If the two coils are so positioned with respect to each other so
that all of the flux of one coil cuts all of the turns of the other, the coils are said to have a unity
coefficient of coupling. It is never exactly equal to unity (1), but it approaches this value in
certain types of coupling devices. If all of the flux produced by one coil cuts only half the turns of
the other coil, the coefficient of coupling is 0.5. The coefficient of coupling is designated by the
letter K. Specifically, the coefficient of coupling is

K = (flux linkages between L1and L2) / (flux produced by L1)

There are no units for k, as it is just a ratio of two values of magnetic flux. The value of k is
generally stated as a decimal fraction, like 0.5, rather than as a percent.

The coefficient of coupling is increased by placing the coils close together, possibly with one
wound on top of the other, by placing them parallel rather than perpendicular to each other, or by
winding the coils on a common iron core. Several examples are shown in Figure 3.11.8.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.11.8 Examples of coupling between two coils linked by LM. (a) Inductances L1and L2on paper or
plastic form with air core; k is 0.1. (b) Inductance L1wound over L2for tighter coupling; k is 0.3. (c)
Inductances L1and L2on the same iron core; k is 1. (d) Zero coupling between perpendicular air-core coils.

A high value of k, called tight coupling, allows the current in one coil to induce more voltage in
the other coil. Loose coupling, with a low value of k, has the opposite effect. In the extreme case
of zero coefficient of coupling, there is no mutual inductance. Two coils may be placed
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perpendicular to each other and far apart for essentially zero coupling when it is desired to mini-
mize interaction between the coils.

3.11.7.2 Permeability

The permeability of a material is a measure of the ease with which magnetic flux lines can be
established in the material. It is similar in many respects to conductivity in electric circuits.

If cores of different materials with the same physical dimensions are used in the electromagnet
the strength of the magnet will vary in accordance with the core used. This variation in strength is
due to the greater or lesser number of flux lines passing through the core. Materials in which flux
lines can readily be set up are said to be magnetic and to have high permeability. High permeable
material offer high mutual induction.

3.11.7.3 Number of Turns in Coil

If number of turns of coil increased that will affect mutual inductance proportionately. For
carrying high current on low tension (low voltage) side the physical dimension of coil needs to be
thick.

3.11.8 Lenz’s Law and Polarity Determine

The direction of the induced current may be found by Lenz’s law which was formulated by Lenz
in 1835. This law states, in effect, that electromagnetically induced current always flows in such

direction that the action of the magnetic field set up by it tends to oppose the very cause which EASA – 147 Course Notes
produces it.
Figure 3.11.9 Direction of induced emf and current

This statement will be clarified with reference to Fig. 3.11.9. It is found that when N-pole of the
bar magnet approaches the coil, the induced current set up by induced e.m.f. flows in the
anticlock wise direction in the coil as seen from the magnet side. The result is that face of the coil
becomes a N-pole and so tends to oppose the onward approach of the N-Pole of the magnet (like
poles repel each other). The mechanical energy spent in overcoming this repulsive force is
converted into electrical energy which appears in the coil.

When the magnet is withdrawn as in Fig. 3.11.9(b), the induced current flows in the clockwise
direction thus making the face of the coil (facing the magnet) a S-pole. Therefore, the N-pole of
the magnet has to withdrawn against this attractive force of the S-pole of coil. Again, the
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mechanical energy required to overcome this force of attraction is converted into electric energy.
It can be shown that Lenz’s law is a direct consequence of Law of Conservation of Energy.
Imagine for a moment that when N-pole of the magnet (Fig. 3.11.9(a)) approaches the coil,
induced current flows in such a direction as to make the coil face aS-pole. Then, due to inherent
attraction between unlike poles, the magnet would be automatically pulled towards the coil
without the expenditure of any mechanical energy. It means that we would be able to create
electric energy out of nothing, which is denied by the inviolable Law of Conservation of Energy.
In fact, to maintain the sanctity of this law, it is imperative for the induced current to flow in such
a direction that the magnetic effect produced by it tends to oppose the very cause which produces
it. In the present case, it is relative motion of the magnet with magnet with respect to the coil
which is the cause of the production of the induced current. Hence, the induced current always
flows in such a direction to oppose this relative motion i.e., the approach or withdrawal of the
magnet.

3.11.9.1 Self Induction

Self-induced e.m.f.: This is the e.m.f. induced in a coil due to the change of its own flux linked
with it. If current through the coil (Fig. 3.11.10 (a)) is changed, then the flux linked with its own
turns will also change, which will produce in it what is called self-induced e.m.f. The direction of
this induced e.m.f. (as given by Lenz’s law) would be such as to oppose any change of flux which
is, in fact, the very cause of its production. Hence, it is also known as the opposing or counter
e.m.f. of self-induction.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.11.10 Self induction

Self-inductance: Imagine a coil of wire connected to a battery through a rheostat (fig.

3.11.10(b)). It is found that whenever an effort is made to increase current (and hence flux)
through it, itis always opposed by the instantaneous production of counter e.m.f. of self-
induction. Energy required to overcome this opposition is supplied by the battery. As will be fully
explained later on, this energy is stored in the additional flux produced.

If, now an effort is made to decrease the current (and hence the flux), then again it is delayed due
to the production of self-induced e.m.f., this time in the opposite direction. This property of the
coil due to which it opposes any increase or decrease or current of flux through it, is known as
self inductance. It is quantitatively measured in terms of coefficient of self induction L. This

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property is analogous to inertia in a material body. We know by experience that initially it is
difficult to set a heavy body into motion, but once in motion, it is equally difficult to stop it.
Similarly, in a coil having large self-induction, it is initially difficult to establish a current through
it, but once established, it is equally difficult to withdraw it. Hence, self-induction is sometimes
analogously called electrical inertia or electromagnetic inertia.

The coefficient of self-induction of a coil is defined as the weber-turns per ampere in the coil. By
‘weber-turns’ is meant the product of flux in webers and the number of turns with which the
flux is linked. In other words, it is the flux-linkages of the coil.

Consider a solenoid having N turns and carrying a current of I amperes. If the flux produced is Φ
webers, the weber-turns are NF. Hence, weber-turns per ampere are NΦ/I.
Nϕ
By definition, L = . The unit of self-induction is henry.
I

3.11.9.2 Back EMF

Whenever a time varying current flows through any conductor it creates a "back-emf" that either
opposes or sustains the current flow (Faraday's Law and Lenz's Law).The "back-emf" is produced
because the changing current in any small section of the conductor creates a magnetic field at all
points in space around this small section. Some of the magnetic field will intersect the other parts
of the conductor. Thus the changing magnetic field produced by one part of the conductor induces
an additional current in the other parts of the conductor that add or subtract from the "original
current" in the wire. If I is increasing then the induced current produced substracts from the
"original current" in that the measured current is smaller than it would be in no self-induced
magnetic field was produced in the conductor. This process is called self-inductance since the
changing circuit creates a "back-emf" in itself. A circuit component that produces a large "back-
emf'" are called inductors

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.11.11 Back-EMF

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3.11.10 Saturation Point

Saturation current only applies to non-air cored inductors or transformers. Basically the core
material (iron or ferrite) can no longer linearly increase the amount of magnetic flux with an
incremental increase in current. A flux-current curve is shown in figure 3.11.12. In the linear
portion of the curve, as the current increases, the magnetic-flux density increases. However, a
point is reached where further increases in current yield smaller and smaller increases in flux
density. This point is called the saturation point and is characterized by a dramatic reduction in
the slope of the curve. In fact, the curve is no longer linear. Because the slope of the flux-current
curve is proportional to the inductance of the coil, the reduction in the slope causes reduction in
the inductance. The new inductance may be 100 times less than the inductance in the linear
portion of the curve.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.11.12 Flux-Current Curve with Hysteresis Curve

3.11.11 Principal Uses of Inductors

The properties of inductors make them very useful in various applications. For example,
inductors oppose any changes in current. Therefore, inductors can be used to protect circuits from
surges of current. Inductors are also used to stabilize direct current and to control or eliminate
alternating current. Inductors used to eliminate alternating current above a certain frequency are
called chokes.

Generators
One of the most common uses of electromagnetic inductance is in the generation of electric
current.
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Radio Receivers
Inductors can be used in circuits with capacitors to generate and isolate high-frequency currents.
For example, inductor coils are used with capacitors in tuning circuits of radios. In figure 3.11.13,
a variable capacitor is connected to an antenna-transformer circuit. Transmitted radio waves
cause an induced current to flow in the antenna through the primary inductor coil to ground.

A secondary current in the opposite direction is induced in the secondary inductor coil. This
current flows to the capacitor. The surge of current to the capacitor induces a counter
electromotive force. This counter electromotive force is call capacitive reactance. The induced
flow of current through the coil also induces a counter electromotive force. This is called
inductive reactance. So we have both capacitive and inductive reactances in the circuit.

At higher frequencies, inductive reactance is greater and capacitive reactance is smaller. At lower
frequencies the opposite is true. A variable capacitor is used to equalize the inductive and
capacitive reactances. The condition in which the reactances are equalized is called resonance.
The particular frequency that is isolated by the equalized reactances is called the resonant
frequency.

Figure 3.11.13 Inductor uses in Radio receiver.

A radio circuit is tuned by adjusting the capacitance of a variable capacitor to equalize the EASA – 147 Course Notes
inductive and capacitive reactance of the circuit for the desired resonant frequency, or in other
words, to tune in the desired radio station.

Metal Detectors
The operation of a metal detector is based upon the principle of electromagnetic induction. Metal
detectors contain one or more inductor coils. When metal passes through the magnetic field
generated by the coil or coils, the field induces electric currents in the metal. These currents are
called eddy currents. These eddy currents in turn induce their own magnetic field, which
generates current in the detector that powers a signal indicating the presence of the metal.

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NOTES

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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Chapter 12
DC Motor/Generator Theory

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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3.12 DC MOTOR/GENERATOR THEORY

3.12.1 Basic Motor and Generator Theory

DC generator is a machine which converts mechanical energy to electrical energy. This

conversion of energy is based on the principle of the production of dynamically induced emf. In a
DC generator the field is on the stator whereas the armature is on the rotor. The field coil is
excited by a DC supply. With the help of a prime mover, the rotor is rotated thereby cutting the
flux produced by the field coil and alternating emf is induced in the rotor coil which is converted
into unidirectional emf with the help of the commutator.

Figure 3.12.1 Energy conversion in electric generators

An electric motor is a machine which converts electric energy into mechanical energy. Its action
is based on the principle that when a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field it
experiences a mechanical force whose direction is given by Fleming's Left-hand Rule and whose
magnitude is given by F = BlI newton.

Figure 3.12.2 Energy conversion in electric motors

EASA – 147 Course Notes
Constructionally, there is no basic difference between a d.c. generator and a d.c. motor. In fact
the same d.c. machine can be used interchangeably as a generator or as a motor. D.C. motors are
also like generators, shunt-wound or series-wound or compound-wound.

3.12.2 Simple Single Loop DC Generator

3.12.2.1 Construction

In Fig. 3.12.3 is shown a single-turn rectangular copper coil ABCD rotating about its own axis in
a magnetic field provided by either permanent magnet is or electromagnets. The two ends of the
coil are joined to two slip-rings ‘a’ and ‘b’ which are insulated from each other and from the
central shaft.
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Two collecting brushes (of carbon or copper) press against the slip-rings. Their function is to
collect the current induced in the coil and to convey it to the external load resistance R. The
rotating coil may be called ‘armature’ and the magnets as ‘field magnets’.

Figure 3.12.3 Simple Single Loop DC Generator

3.12.2.2 Working

Imagine the coil to be rotating in clock-wise direction (Fig. 3.12.4). As the coil assumes
successive positions in the field, the flux linked with it changes. Hence, an e.m.f. is induced in it
which is proportional to the rate of change of flux linkages (e = N.dΦ/dt). When the plane of the
coil is at right angles to lines of flux i.e. when it is in position, 1, then flux linked with the coil is
maximum but rate of change of flux linkages is minimum.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.12.4 Induced EMF in a Simple Single Loop Generator

It is so because in this position, the coil sides AB and CD do not cut or shear the flux, rather they
slide along them i.e. they move parallel to them. Hence, there is no induced e.m.f. in the coil.

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Let us take this no-e.m.f. or vertical position of the coil as the starting position. The angle of
rotation or time will be measured from this position.

Figure 3.12.5 Spit-ring and Brushes

As the coil continues rotating further, the rate of change of flux linkages (and hence induced
e.m.f. in it) increases, till position 3 is reached where θ = 90º. Here, the coil plane is horizontal
i.e. parallel to the lines of flux. As seen, the flux linked with the coil is minimum but rate of
change of flux linkages is maximum. Hence, maximum e.m.f. is induced in the coil when in this
position (Fig. 3.12.4).

In the next quarter revolution i.e. from 90º to 180º, the flux linked with the coil gradually
increases but the rate of change of flux linkages decreases. Hence, the induced e.m.f. decreases
gradually till in position 5 of the coil, it is reduced to zero value. So, we find that in the first half
revolution of the coil, no (or minimum) e.m.f. is induced in it when in position 1, maximum
when in position 3 and no e.m.f. when in position 5. The direction of this induced e.m.f. can be
found by applying Fleming’s Right-hand rule which gives its direction from A to B and C to D.
Hence, the direction of current flow is ABMLCD (Fig. 3.12.3). The current through the load
resistance R flows from M to L during the first half revolution of the coil.
EASA – 147 Course Notes
In the next half revolution i.e. from 180º to 360º, the variations in the magnitude of e.m.f. are
similar to those in the first half revolution. Its value is maximum when coil is in position 7 and
minimum when in position 1. But it will be found that the direction of the induced current is
from D to C and B to A as shown in Fig. 3.12.3(b). Hence, the path of current flow is along
DCLMBA which is just the reverse of the previous direction of flow.

Therefore, we find that the current which we obtain from such a simple generator reverses its
direction after every half revolution. Such a current undergoing periodic reversals is known as
alternating current. It is, obviously, different from a direct current which continuously flows in
one and the same direction. It should be noted that alternating current not only reverses its
direction, it does not even keep its magnitude constant while flowing in any one direction. The
two half-cycles may be called positive and negative half-cycles respectively (Fig. 3.12.4).
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For making the flow of current unidirectional in the external circuit, the slip-rings are replaced
by split-rings (Fig. 3.12.5). The split-rings are made out of a conducting cylinder which is cut
into two halves or segments insulated from each other by a thin sheet of mica or some other
insulating material (Fig. 3.12.5).

Figure 3.12.6 Current through the external circuit

As before, the coil ends are joined to these segments on which rest the carbon or copper brushes.
It is seen (Fig. 3.12.6(a)) that in the first half revolution current flows along (ABMNLCD) i.e.
the brush No. 1 in contact with segment ‘a’ acts as the positive end of the supply and ‘b’ as the
negative end. In the next half revolution (Fig. 3.12.6(b)), the direction of the induced current in
the coil has reversed. But at the same time, the positions of segments ‘a’ and ‘b’ have also
reversed with the result that brush No. 1 comes in touch with the segment which is positive i.e.
segment ‘b’ in this case. Hence, current in the load resistance again flows from M to L. The
waveform of the current through the external circuit is as shown in Fig. 3.12.6. This current is
unidirectional but not continuous like pure direct current. EASA – 147 Course Notes

It should be noted that the position of brushes is so arranged that the changeover of segments ‘a’
and ‘b’ from one brush to the other takes place when the plane of the rotating coil is at right
angles to the plane of the lines of flux. It is so because in that position, the induced e.m.f. in the
coil is zero. Another important point worth remembering is that even now the current induced in
the coil sides is alternating as before. It is only due to the rectifying action of the split-rings
(also called commutator) that it becomes unidirectional in the external circuit. Hence, it should
be clearly understood that even in the armature of a d.c. generator, the induced voltage is
alternating.

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3.12.3 Construction and Purpose of Components in DC Generator

Generators used on aircraft may differ somewhat in design, since various manufacturers make
them. All, however, are of the same general construction and operate similarly. Practical
generator is consists of following essential parts as shown in figure 3.12.7:

1. Magnetic Frame or Yoke

2. Pole-Cores and Pole-Shoes
3. Pole Coils or Field Coils
4. Armature Core
5. Commutaror
6. Brushes and Bearings
7. Armature Winding or Conductors

Figure 3.12.7 DC Generator components

Yoke

The field frame is also called the yoke, which is the foundation or frame for the generator. The
frame has two functions: It completes the magnetic circuit between the poles and acts as a
mechanical support for the other parts of the generator. It is the outer frame of the generator.
EASA – 147 Course Notes
In small generators where cheapness rather than weight is main consideration, yokes are made of
cast iron. But for large machines usually cast steel or rolled steel is employed.

Pole Cores and Pole Shoes

The field magnets consist of pole cores and pole shoes. The pole shoes serve two purposes: They
spread out the flux in the air gap and also, being of large cross-section, reduced the reluctance of
the magnetic path and they support the exciting coils ( or field coils).

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Figure 3.12.8 Pole Cores and Pole Shoes

Poles
The poles are usually laminated to reduce eddy current losses and serve the same purpose as the
iron core of an electromagnet; that is, they concentrate the lines of force produced by the field
coils. The entire frame including field poles, is made from high quality magnetic iron or sheet
steel. A practical DC generator uses electromagnets instead of permanent magnets. To produce a
magnetic field of the necessary strength with permanent magnets would greatly increase the
physical size of the generator.

The field coils are made up of many turns of insulated wire and are usually wound on a form that
EASA – 147 Course Notes
fits over the iron core of the pole to which it is securely fastened. [Figure 3.12.9] The exciting
current, which is used to produce the magnetic field and which flows through the field coils, is
obtained from an external source or from the generated DC of the machine. No electrical
connection exists between the windings of the field coils and the pole pieces.

Most field coils are connected so that the poles show alternate polarity. Since there is always one
north pole for each south pole, there must always be an even number of poles in any generator.

Note that the pole pieces in Figure 3.12.9 project from the frame. Because air offers a great
amount of reluctance to the magnetic field, this design reduces the length of the air gap between
the poles and the rotating armature and increases the efficiency of the generator. When the pole
pieces are made to project as shown in Figure 3.12.9, they are called salient poles.

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Figure 3.12.9 A four pole frame assembly

Figure 3.12.10 A filed coil removed from a field pole.

Armature Core

It houses the armature conductors and coils and causes them to rotate and hence cut the magnetic
flux of the field magnets. In addition to this, it’s most important function is to provide a path of EASA – 147 Course Notes
very low reluctance to the flux through the armature from a N-pole to a S-pole.

It is cylindrical or drum-shape and is built up of usually circular sheet steel disc or laminations
approximately 0.5mm thick. It is keyed to the shaft. The slots are either die cut or punched on the
outer periphery of the disc and the key way is located on the inner diameter. In small machines,
the armature stampings are keyed directly to the shaft. Usually, these laminations are perforated
of air ducts which permit axial flow of air through the armature for cooling purpose.

A complete circular lamination is made up of four or six or even segmental laminations. Usually
two keyways are notched in each segment are dove-tailed or wedge shaped to make the
laminations self-locking in position.

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The purpose of using laminations is to reduce the loss due to eddy currents. Thinner the
laminations, lesser the loss.

Figure 3.12.11 Armature core

Commutator
EASA – 147 Course Notes
Commutator of DC machines serve dual functions:

• Providing an electrical connection between the rotating armature winding and the
stationary terminals in combination with brushes
• Permitting the reversal of the current in the armature windings.

A commutator (see illustration in figure 3.12.12) is composed of copper bars assembled to form a
drum like cylinder which is concentric with the axis of rotation. Insulation, commonly mica, to
provide exceptional mechanical and electrical stability, is placed between commutator bars and
between the bars and the shaft. Conducting brushes, commonly carbon, sufficient in size and
number to carry the current, are spaced at intervals of 180 electrical degrees about the surface of
the commutator and held in contact with the surface of the commutator by spring tension.

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Figure 3.12.12 Commutator

Brushes and Bearing:

The brushes whose function is to collect current from commutator, are usually made of carbon or
graphite and are in the shape of rectangular block. These brushes are housed in brush holders
usually in the brush type variety. As shown in the figure, the brush holder is mounted on a spindle
and the brushes can slide in the rectangular box open at both ends.A flexible copper pigtail
mounted at the top of the brush conveys current from the brushes to the holder. The number of
brushes per spindle depends on the magnitude of the current to be collected from the commutator.
Because of their reliability, ball-bearing are frequently employed, though for heavy duties, roller
bearing are preferable. The ball and roller are generally packed in hard oil for quick operation and
for reduced bearing wear, sleeve bearings are used which are lubricated by ring oilers fed from oil
reservoir in the bearing bracket.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.12.13 Brushes and Bearing Commutator

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Armature Winding or Conductors

In armature windings voltage is induced. It is then carried out by commutator and brush. Two
types of windings are mostly employed in the drum type armatures are known as Lap Winding
and Wave Winding. The difference between the two is merely dye to the difference arrangement
of the end connection at the front or commutator end of armature.

3.12.4Classification of DC Generator

Classification of DC generators, depending upon their field excitation, is given below:

(a) Separately-excited generator: In this type of generator the field coils are energized from an
independent external source.

(b) Self-excited generator: In this type of generator the field coils are energized by the current
produced by the generator itself. These type of generators are classified into the following
categories depending upon their field connections:

(i) Shunt wound: The field winding is connected in parallel to the armature. So the full
terminal voltage of the generator is applied across the field winding. The resistance of the
field coil is very high.

(ii) Series wound: The field winding is connected in series with the armature. Since the field
carries the full-load current, it consists of relatively few turns of thick wires. The
resistance of the field coil is very low.

(iii)Compound wound: This type of generator is actually a combination of a few series

wound and a few shunt wound generators. It can be either long shunt or short shunt. If the
series field aids the shunt field, the generator is said to be commutatively compounded. If
the series field opposes the shunt field, the generator is said to be differentially
compounded.
EASA – 147 Course Notes

3.12.3.1 Separately Excited DC Generator

A typical separately-excited generator circuit is shown in Figure 3.12.14. When a load is

connected across the armature terminals, a load current Ia will flow. The terminal voltage V will
fall from its open-circuit e.m.f. E due to a volt drop caused by current flowing through the
armature resistance, shown as Ra, i.e.,

Terminal Voltage, V = E – IaRa

or Generated EMF, E = V + IaRa

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Figure 3.12.14 Separately-excited DC generator

3.12.3.2 Series Wound DC Generators

The field winding of a series generator is connected in series with the external circuit, called the
load. [Figure 3.12.15].

Figure 3.12.15 Diagram and schematic of a series wound generator

EASA – 147 Course Notes
The field coils are composed of a few turns of large wire; the magnetic field strength depends
more on the current flow rather than the number of turns in the coil. Series generators have very
poor voltage regulation under changing load, since the greater the current through the field coils
to the external circuit, the greater the induced emf and the greater the terminal or output voltage.
Therefore, when the load is increased, the voltage increases; likewise, when the load is decreased,
the voltage decreases. The output voltage of a series wound generator may be controlled by a
rheostat in parallel with the field windings, as shown in Figure 3.12.14

Since the series wound generator has such poor regulation, it is never employed as an airplane
generator. Generators in airplanes have field windings, which are connected either in shunt or in
compound.

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3.12.3.3 Shunt Wound DC Generators

A generator having a field winding connected in parallel with the external circuit is called a shunt
generator, as shown in views A and B of Figure 3.12.16. The field coils of a shunt generator
contain many turns of small wire; the magnetic strength is derived from the large number of turns
rather than the current strength through the coils. If a constant voltage is desired, the shunt wound
generator is not suitable for rapidly fluctuating loads. Any increase in load causes a decrease in
the terminal or output voltage, and any decrease in load causes an increase in terminal voltage;
since the armature and the load are connected in series, all current flowing in the external circuit
passes through the armature winding. Because of the resistance in the armature winding, there is a
voltage drop (IR drop = current × resistance). As the load increases, the armature current
increases and the IR drop in the armature increases. The voltage delivered to the terminals is the
difference between the induced voltage and the voltage drop; therefore, there is a decrease in
terminal voltage. This decrease in voltage causes a decrease in field strength, because the current
in the field coils decreases in proportion to the decrease in terminal voltage; with a weaker field,
the voltage is further decreased. When the load decreases, the output voltage increases
accordingly, and a larger current flows in the windings. This action is cumulative, so the output
voltage continues to rise to a point called field saturation, after which there is no further increase
in output voltage.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.12.16 Shunt wound generator

The terminal voltage of a shunt generator can be controlled by means of a rheostat inserted in
series with the field windings as shown in Figure 3.12.16A. As the resistance is increased, the
field current is reduced; consequently, the generated voltage is reduced also. For a given setting
of the field rheostat, the terminal voltage at the armature brushes will be approximately equal to
the generated voltage minus the IR drop produced by the load current in the armature; thus, the
voltage at the terminals of the generator will drop as the load is applied. Certain voltage sensitive
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devices are available which automatically adjust the field rheostat to compensate for variations in
load. When these devices are used, the terminal voltage remains essentially constant.

3.12.3.4 Compound Wound DC Generators

A compound wound generator combines a series winding and a shunt winding in such a way that
the characteristics of each are used to advantage. The series field coils are made of a relatively
small number of turns of large copper conductor, either circular or rectangular in cross section,
and are connected in series with the armature circuit. These coils are mounted on the same poles
on which the shunt field coils are mounted and, therefore, contribute a magneto motive force
which influences the main field flux of the generator. A diagrammatic and a schematic
illustration of a compound wound generator is shown in A and B of Figure 3.12.17.

If the ampere turns of the series field act in the same direction as those of the shunt field, the
combined magneto motive force is equal to the sum of the series and shunt field components.
Load is added to a compound generator in the same manner in which load is added to a shunt
generator, by increasing the number of parallel paths across the generator terminals. Thus, the
decrease in total load resistance with added load is accompanied by an increase in armature
circuit and series field circuit current. The effect of the additive series field is that of increased
field flux with increased load. The extent of the increased field flux depends on the degree of
saturation of the field as determined by the shunt field current. Thus, the terminal voltage of the

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.12.17 Compound wound generator

generator may increase or decrease with load, depending on the influence of the series field coils.
This influence is referred to as the degree of compounding. A flat compound generator is one in
which the no load and full load voltages have the same value; whereas an under compound
generator has a full load voltage less than the no load value, and an over compound generator has
a full load voltage which is higher than the no load value. Changes in terminal voltage with

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increasing load depend upon the degree of compounding. If the series field aids the shunt field,
the generator is said to be cumulative compounded. If the series field opposes the shunt field, the
machine is said to be differentially compounded, or is called a differential generator. Compound
generators are usually designed to be over compounded. This feature permits varied degrees of
compounding by connecting a variable shunt across the series field. Such a shunt is sometimes
called a diverter. Compound generators are used where voltage regulation is of prime importance.

Differential generators have somewhat the same characteristics as series generators in that they
are essentially constant current generators. However, they generate rated voltage at no load, the
voltage dropping materially as the load current increases. Constant current generators are ideally
suited as power sources for electric arc welders and are used almost universally in electric arc
welding. If the shunt field of a compound generator is connected across both the armature and the
series field, it is known as a long shunt connection, but if the shunt field is connected across the
armature alone, it is called a short shunt connection. These connections produce essentially the
same generator characteristics. A summary of the characteristics of the various types of
generators discussed is shown graphically in Figure 3.12.18.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.12.18 Generator characteristics

3.12.3.5 Calculation of EMF for DC Generator

Let V, be the terminal voltage

Iabe the armature current
Ra be the armature resistance
Eg be the generated voltage in armature and
I be the terminal current

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Shunt Generator:

Let Rshbe the resistance of the field coil and Ish be the field current. The following equations are
valid:
Ia = I + Ish
Eg = Vt + IaRa

Series Generator:

Let Rse be the series field resistance and Ise be the field current. The following equations are valid:

Ia =Ise =I
Eg = Vt + Ia (Ra + Rse)

Similarly, we can derive the emf equation for compound generators depending on their field
winding connections. From the emf equation, we can conclude that Egis always greater than Vt .
The expressions for Egare derived in the next section.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.12.19 DC Series and Shunt Generator

3.12.4 Factor Affecting Induced EMF

Let, P be the number of generator poles, Z be the total number of armature conductors, A be the
number of Parallel paths, and N be the speed of armature in rpm. Then the generated voltage of a
DC generator can be expressed as:
ΦNZ P
Eg = ( )
60 A
Therefore, the generated voltage depends upon the following factors:

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(a) Speed of conductor through magnetic field.

(b) The strength of the magnetic field.
(c) The number of inductors (or turns).
(d) The direction of relative motion determines polarity.

Speed of Conductor

It is found that the speed of armature i.e. the speed of the conductor through the magnetic field is
directly proportional with the induced voltage.

The Strength of Magnetic Field

The field circuit current which in turn controls the flux density of a DC generator. If the
resistance of the field increases, less current flows through the field winding and the strength of
the magnetic field in which the armature rotates decreases. Consequently, the voltage output of
the generator decreases. If the resistance in the field circuit is decreased, more current flows
through the field windings, the magnetic field becomes stronger, and the generator produces a
greater voltage.

The Number of Inductor (or turns)

If the number of conductor or number of turn on the armature is increased then the induced
voltage will be higher, i.e. number of conductor is directly proportional with the induced voltage.

The Direction of Relative Motion

The polarity of the induced voltage of a DC generator depends on the direction of relative
motion of the stator field i.e. magnetic field and the armature field.

3.12.5 Uses of DC Generators

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Separately-excited generators
This type of generators have special applications like electro-plating, electro-refining of materials
and soon because separate supply is required for field excitation.

Shunt generators
This type of generators is used in battery charging and ordinary lighting purposes.

Series generators
This type of generators is used commonly as boosters on DC feeders, as current generators for
welding and arc lamp.

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Cumulatively compounded generators
This type of generators is used for domestic lighting purposes and to transmit energy over long
distances.

Differential compound generators

This type of generators is rarely used. They are used for special applications like electric arc
welding.

3.12.6 Operation of a Basic Motor

Consider the single loop motor in figure 3.12.20. Current in the armature loop is supplied through the
brush and commutator section. If we apply Flemings left-hand rule to the conductor near north pole we
find that the conductor feels a downward force (i.e. ccw). Now apply the left hand rule to the conductor
near the south pole. Here we find that the conductor feels a force upward (i.e. ccw). So the whole loop
as well as the core rotates in ccw direction.

In Figure 3.12.21 is shown a part of multi-polar d.c. motor. When its field magnets are excited and its
armature conductors are supplied with current from the supply mains, they experience a force tending
to rotate the armature. Armature conductors under N-pole are assumed to carry current downwards

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.12.20 A simple single loop motor

(crosses) and those under S-poles, to carry current upwards (dots). By applying Fleming's Left-hand
Rule, the direction of the force on each conductor can be found. It is shown by small arrows placed
above each conductor. It will be seen that each conductor experiences a force F which tends to
rotate the armature in anticlockwise direction. These forces collectively produce a driving torque
which sets the armature rotating.

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Figure 3.12.21 Part of multi-polar motor

It should be noted that the function of a commutator in the motor is the same as in a generator. By
reversing current in each conductor as it passes from one pole to another, it helps to develop a
continuous and unidirectional torque.

3.12.7 Factor Affecting Output of DC Motor

If E is the e.m.f. generated in armature, V the terminal voltage, Ra the resistance of armature
circuit and Ia the armature current, then, the relationship between the current, the e.m.f., etc. for
the DC motor (fig. 3.12.22) is:

E = V − I a Ra
hence, V = E + I a Ra

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.12.22 DC Motor

Since the e.m.f. generated in the armature of a motor is in opposition to the applied voltage, it is
sometimes referred to as a back e.m.f.

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3.12.7.1 Speed of a motor

The relationship between the generated e.m.f, speed, flux, etc is represented by

ΦNZ P
E = ( )
60 A

For a given machine, Z, A and P are fixed; in such a case we can write E = kNΦ

ZP
Where k =
60 × A

Substituting for E in expression we have:

V = kNΦ + I a Ra
V − I a Ra
∴ N=
kΦ
The value of I a Ra is usually less than 5% of the terminal voltage V, therefore
V
N∝
Φ

In words, this expression means that the speed of an electric motor is approximately proportional
to the voltage applied to the armature and inversely proportional to the flux; all methods of
controlling the speed involve the use of either or both of these relationships.

3.12.7.2 Torque of an electric Motor

If E is the e.m.f. generated in armature, V the terminal voltage, Ra the resistance of armature
circuit and Ia the armature current, then
EASA – 147 Course Notes
V = E + I a Ra

Multiplying each term by Ia namely the motor total armature current, we have

=
VI a EI a + I a 2 Ra

But IaRa represents the total electrical power supplied to the armature, and Ia2Ra represents the
loss due to the resistance of the armature circuit. The difference between these two quantities,
namely EIa, therefore represents the mechanical power developed by the armature. All of this
mechanical power is not available externally, since some of it is absorbed as friction loss at the

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bearings and at the brushes and some is wasted as hysteresis loss and in circulating eddy currents
in the ferromagnetic core.
If T is the torque, in newton-metres, exerted on the armature to develop the mechanical power
just referred to, and if N, is the speed in revolutions per minute, ω is speed in rad/sec then
ΦNZ P
Mechanical power developed =T.ω watts= E.Ia= ( ).I a
60 A
ΦNZ P 2πN
Hence, T= [ ( ).I a ] ÷ [ ]
60 A 60
ZP
∴T= ( ).Φ.I a
2πA

For a given machine, Z, A and P are fixed, in which case

Tα I a × Φ
Or, in words, the torque of a given D.C. motor is proportional to the product of the armature
current and the flux per pole.

3.12.8 Types of DC motor

Depending on the type of winding DC motor are classified as follows:

(a) Shunt-wound motor.
(b) Series-wound motor.
(c) Compound-wound motor.
(i) Cumulative compound
(ii) Differential compound

3.12.8.1 Shunt-wound motor

In the shunt wound motor the field winding is in parallel with the armature across the supply as
shown in Figure 3.12.23.
EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.12.23 Shunt-wound DC motor

Supply voltage, V = E + IaRa

or generated e.m.f., E = V − IaRa
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Supply current, I = Ia+ If

Characteristics

The two principal characteristics are the torque/armature current and speed/armature current
relationships. From these, the torque/speed relationship can be derived.

(i) The theoretical torque/armature current characteristic can be derived from the expression T α
ΦIa. For a shunt-wound motor, the field winding is connected in parallel with the armature circuit
and thus the applied voltage gives a constant field current, i.e. a shunt-wound motor is a constant
flux machine. Since Φ is constant, it follows that T α Ia, and the characteristic is as shown in
Figure 3.12.24.

Figure 3.12.24 DC shunt wound motor Torque/armature current characteristics

(ii) The armature circuit of a d.c. motor has resistance due to the armature winding and brushes,
Ra ohms, and when armature current Ia is flowing through it, there is a voltage drop of IaRa volts.
In Figure 3.12.23 the armature resistance is shown as a separate resistor in the armature circuit to
help understanding. Also, even though the machine is a motor, because conductors are rotating in
a magnetic field, a voltage, E αΦN, is generated by the armature conductors. From equation,

V =E +IaRa EASA – 147 Course Notes

or E =V −IaRa

However, E α ΦN,
Hence N α E/Φ,
i.e. speed of rotation, Nα E/Φ α (V –IaRa)/Φ

For a shunt motor, V, Φ and Ra are constants, hence as armature current Ia increases, IaRa
increases and (V −IaRa) decreases, and the speed is proportional to a quantity which is decreasing
and is as shown in Figure 3.12.25. As the load on the shaft of the motor increases, Ia increases
and the speed drops slightly. In practice, the speed falls by about 10% between no-load and full-
load on many d.c. shunt-wound motors. Due to this relatively small drop in speed, the d.c. shunt-

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wound motor is taken as basically being a constant-speed machine and may be used for driving
lathes, lines of shafts, fans, conveyor belts, pumps, compressors, drilling machines and so on.

Figure 3.12.25 DC shunt wound motor Speed /armature current characteristics

Since torque is proportional to armature current, the theoretical speed/torque characteristic is as

shown in Figure 3.12.26.

Figure 3.12.26 DC shunt wound motor Speed /torque characteristics

3.12.8.2 Series-wound motor

EASA – 147 Course Notes
In the series-wound motor the field winding is in series with the armature across the supply as
shown in Figure 3.12.27.

For the series motor shown in Figure 3.12.26,

Supply voltage V = E + I(Ra+ Rf)

or generated e.m.f. E =V −I(Ra+ Rf)

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Figure 3.12.27 Series Motor

Characteristics

In a series motor, the armature current flows in the field winding and is equal to the supply
current, I.

(i) The torque/current characteristic

It is shown that torque T α ΦIa. Since the armature and field currents are the same current, I, in a
series machine, then T α ΦI over a limited range, before magnetic saturation of the magnetic
circuit of the motor is reached, (i.e. the linear portion of the B–H curve for the yoke, poles, air
gap, brushes and armature in series). Thus Φ α I and T α I2. After magnetic saturation, Φ almost
becomes a constant and T α I. Thus the theoretical torque/current characteristic is as shown in
Figure 3.12.28.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.12.28 DC series motor torque / current characteristics

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(ii) The speed/current characteristic

It is shown that

Nα (V −IaRa)/Φ.

In a series motor, Ia=I and below the magnetic saturation level,

So, Φ α I.

Thus N α (V −IR)/I

where R is the combined resistance of the series field and armature circuit. Since IR is small
compared with V, then an approximate relationship for the speed is

Nα V/Iα 1/I

since V is constant.

Hence the theoretical speed/current characteristic is as shown in Figure 3.12.29. The high speed
at small values of current indicate that this type of motor must not be run on very light loads and
invariably, such motors are permanently coupled to their loads.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.12.29 DC series motor speed / current characteristics

(iii) The theoretical speed/torque characteristic may be derived from (i) and (ii) above by
obtaining the torque and speed for various values of current and plotting the co-ordinates on the
speed/torque characteristics. A typical speed/torque characteristic is shown in Figure 3.12.30.

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Figure 3.12.30 DC series motor speed/ torque characteristics

A d.c. series motor takes a large current on starting and the characteristic shown in Figure 3.12.28
shows that the series-wound motor has a large torque when the current is large. Hence these
motors are used for traction (such as trains, milk delivery vehicles, etc.), driving fans and for
cranes and hoists, where a large initial torque is required.

3.12.8.3 Compound-wound motor

There are two types of compound-wound motor:

(i) Cumulative compound, in which the series winding is so connected that the field due to it
assists that due to the shunt winding.

(ii) Differential compound, in which the series winding is so connected that the field due to it
opposes that due to the shunt winding.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.12.31 (a) shows a long-shunt compound motor and (b) a short-shunt compound motor.

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Characteristics

A compound-wound motor has both a series and a shunt field winding, (i.e. one winding in series
and one in parallel with the armature), and is usually wound to have a characteristic similar in
shape to a series-wound motor. A limited amount of shunt winding is present to restrict the no-
load speed to a safe value. However, by varying the number of turns on the series and shunt
windings and the directions of the magnetic fields produced by these windings (assisting or
opposing), families of characteristics may be obtained to suit almost all applications. Generally,
compound-wound motors are used for heavy duties, particularly in applications where sudden
heavy load may occur such as for driving plunger pumps, presses, geared lifts, conveyors, hoists
and so on. Typical compound motor torque and speed characteristics are shown in figure 3.12.32.

Figure 3.12.32 Compound wound motor characteristics

3.12.9 DC Motor Control

3.12.9.1 Changing the direction of rotation

To change the direction of rotation it is only necessary to change the direction of the main field or
the armature current. If both are changed the motor will rotate in the same direction. In the
EASA – 147 Course Notes
majority of cases where a bi-directional dc motor is required on an aircraft, a split field motor is
used. This motor has two fields windings, one for clockwise rotation and another for anti-
clockwise rotation.

3.12.9.2 Speed control

The effects of back emf make a dc motor a self regulating machine.

If the load is increased, load torque exceeds motor torque and the motor slows down, the
reduction in speed causing a decrease in the back emf and an increase in the effective voltage
across the armature.

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The increase in effective voltage causes an increase in the current drawn from the supply and an
increase in motor torque, the increase in motor torque causes an increase in speed to cope with
the load increase.

The speed of a dc motor can be varied in two ways:

 By controlling the field current.

 By controlling the armature current.

Field control

A decrease in field current will cause the main field flux to decreases, this will in turn decrease
the back emf induced into the armature. The decrease in back emf will result in an increase of the
effective voltage which will cause the armature current to increase. The increase in armature
current increases the motor torque which increases the motor speed.

This occurs because a small change in the main field strength causes a large change in the
armature current. Of course, this cannot continue uncontrolled because eventually the field will
be lost. Field control is generally used for speed control of normal running speed and upwards.

Armature control

An increase in armature current causes an increase in motor torque and the motor speed increases.
A decrease in armature current causes a decrease in motor speed. Armature control is generally
used for control of normal running speed and downwards.

3.12.10 Starter Generator Construction

Some aircraft are installed with a combined starter-generator. This involves a permanent coupling
of the starter-generator shaft to the engine via a gearbox drive. The dual-purpose machine is
compound-wound and the field is connected via a changeover relay. During engine start it acts
like a conventional motor until the engine is up to speed.
EASA – 147 Course Notes
The changeover relay then automatically connects the field windings to a voltage regulator and it
becomes a conventional generator. The starter-generator system has reduced weight and
component parts compared with having a separate starter motor and generator, thereby reducing
overall operating costs.

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EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.12.33 Starter Generator

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NOTES

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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NOTES

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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Chapter 13
AC Theory

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

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3.13 AC THEORY

3.13.1 Sinusoidal Wave

Alternating voltage and current vary continuously. The graphic representation for AC is a sine
wave. A sine wave can represent current or voltage. There are two axes. The vertical axis
represents the direction and magnitude of current or voltage. The horizontal axis represents time.

Figure 3.13.1 AC Sinusoidal wave

When the waveform is above the time axis, current is flowing in one direction. This is referred to
as the positive direction. When the waveform is below the time axis, current is flowing in the
opposite direction. This is referred to as the negative direction. A sine wave moves through a
complete rotation of 360 degrees, which is referred to as one cycle. Alternating current goes
through many of these cycles each second.

Period (T): The time taken for an alternating quantity to complete one cycle is called the period
or the periodic time, T, of the waveform. Figure 3.13.2 shows the period of a wave.

Frequency (f): The number of cycles completed in one second is called the frequency, f, of the
supply and is measured in hertz, Hz. The standard frequency of the electricity supply is 50 Hz. EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.13.2 Period of a sinusoidal wave

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Since the frequency is inversely related to the period—that is, as one increases, the other
decreases by an equal amount—the two can be related by the following equation:

1
𝑓𝑓 = 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻
𝑇𝑇

Or
1
𝑇𝑇 = 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
𝑓𝑓

Cycle: The portion of a waveform contained in one period of time. The cycles within T1, T2, and
T3 of Figure 3.13.2 they are all bounded by one period of time and therefore satisfy the definition
of a cycle.

Examples:

 If the time taken to complete 1 cycle is 8mS. What is the frequency?

1 1
𝑓𝑓 = = = 125 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻
𝑡𝑡 80 × 10−3

 An aircraft uses a frequency of 400Hz. What is the periodic time?

1 1
𝑡𝑡 = = = 2.5 × 10−3 𝑆𝑆 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 2.5 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑓𝑓 400

Phase: The phase of an oscillation or wave is the fraction of a complete cycle corresponding to an
offset in the displacement from a specified reference point at time t = 0. Phase is a frequency EASA – 147 Course Notes
domain or Fourier transform domain concept, and as such, can be readily understood in terms of
simple harmonic motion. The same concept applies to wave motion, viewed either at a point in
space over an interval of time or across an interval of space at a moment in time. Simple
harmonic motion is a displacement that varies cyclically, as depicted to the right.

It is described by the formula:

where A is the amplitude of oscillation, f is the frequency, t is the elapsed time, and θ is the phase
of the oscillation. The phase determines or is determined by the initial displacement at time t = 0.
A motion with frequency f has period
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The term instantaneous phase is used to distinguish the time-variant angle from the initial
condition. It also has a formal definition that is applicable to more general functions and
unambiguously defines a function's initial phase at t=0. I.e., sine and cosine inherently have
different initial phases. When not explicitly stated otherwise, cosine should generally be inferred.

Phase Difference (Angular Difference)

If two conductors are caused to rotate at the same angular velocity, then two waves would be
generated. Any angle between them is said to be their phase difference. In the following
diagram, the phase difference is 90º. As the conductors rotate in an anti-clockwise direction, the
dotted wave is said to lead the solid wave by 90º.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.13.3 Phase Difference

When two waves are 90º apart, they are said to be in ‘quadrature’ with each other. When two
waves are 180º apart, they are said to be in ‘antiphase’ with each other.

Figure 3.13.3 shows the phase relationship of two voltages produced by two coils 90° apart.

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Figure 3.13.4 Phase Relationship

3.13.2 Terms and Definition

Instantaneous value: The magnitude of a waveform at any instant of time is called its
instantaneous value and denoted by lowercase letters (e1, e2) for voltage and (i1, i2) for currents.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.13.5 Different parameters for sinusoidal wave

Peak amplitude: The maximum value of a waveform as measured from its average, or mean,
value is called the peak amplitude and denoted by uppercase letters (such as Em for sources of
voltage and Vm for the voltage drop across a load). For the waveform of Figure 3.13.5 the
average value is zero volts, and Em is as defined by the figure.

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Peak value: The maximum instantaneous value of a function measured from the zero-volt level
is defined its peak value. For the waveform of Figure 3.13.5, the peak amplitude and peak value
are the same, since the average value of the function is zero volts.

Peak-to-peak value: The full voltage between positive and negative peaks of the waveform, that
is, the sum of the magnitude of the positive and negative peaks is called its peak-to-peak voltage
and denoted by Ep-p or Vp-p.

Average value: The average value Iav of an alternating current is expressed by that steady (d.c.)
current which transfers across any circuit the same charge as is transferred by that alternating
current during the same time.

In the case of symmetrical alternating current the average value over a complete cycle is zero.
Hence in their case the average value is obtained by adding or integrating the instantaneous
values of current over one half-cycle only. But in the case of an unsymmetrical alternation current
the average value must always be taken over the whole cycle.

The standard equation of an alternating current is, i= Im sinθ

1 2
Iav= ∫ idθ
T 0
2
Π
1 idθ
= ∫
Π 0 (Π − 0)
Π
Im
Π ∫0
= Sinθdθ

2 Im
=
Π
EASA – 147 Course Notes

=0.637Im

So the average value of current =0.637×maximum value

R.M.S. value: The r.m.s. value of an alternating current is given by that steady (d.c.) which when
flowing through a given circuit for a given time produces the same heat as produced by the
alternating current when flowing through the same circuit for the same time. It is also known as
effective value.
T
1
The average rate of heating produced by an alternating current during one cycle is ∫
T 0
Ri 2 dt

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The average rate of producing heat by I amperes of direct current in the same resistance is I2R
T
1
Hence by definition I R= ∫ Ri 2 dt
2
T 0
T
1
Ir.m.s.= ( ∫ Ri 2 dt )
T0
Now consider a sinusoid i=Im sin ωt
T
1
I2
r.m.s. = ∫ Ri 2 dt Let, R=1 Ω
T 0
T
1
= ∫ I m2 sin 2 ϖtdt
T 0
I m2
=
2
Ir.m.s .= 0.707Im

Hence we find that for a symmetrical sinusoidal current r.m.s. value of current =0.707×max.
value of current.

The r.m.s. value of an alternating current is of considerable importance in practice, because the
ammeters and voltmeters record the r.m.s. value of alternating current and voltage respectively.
In electrical engineering work, unless indicated otherwise, the values of the given current and
voltage are always the r.m.s. values.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.13.6 Sinusoidal Wave quantities

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Example:
Find the rms values of the sinusoidal waveform in each part of Fig.13.3.7.

Figure 13.3.7 Calculating RMS values

For figure (a),

Irms = 0.707(12 × 10−3 A) = 𝟖𝟖. 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦

For figure (b),

again I = 8.484 mA.

Note that frequency did not change the effective value in (b) above compared to (a).

For part (c),

Vrms = 0.707(169.73 V) ≅ 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝐕𝐕

Form factor: Form factor is the ratio of the effective to the average value of a wave. So that, EASA – 147 Course Notes

RMS value
Form factor = Average value
0.707 x maximum value
= 0.637 x maximum value
= 1.11

Peak or Crest factor: The crest, peak, or amplitude factor is the ratio of the maximum value of
a voltage wave to the effective value. Thus,

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Maximum value
Peak or Crest factor = RMS value
Maximum value
= 0.707 x maximum value
= 1.41

3.13.3 Square wave

The square wave is a periodic waveform consisting of instantaneous transitions between two
levels. The square wave is sometimes also called the Rademacher function. The square wave
illustrated in figure 3.13.8 has period 2 and levels -1/2 and 1/2. Other common levels for square
waves include (-1, 1) and (0, 1) (digital signals).

Figure 3.13.8 Square wave

Origins and uses

Square waves are universally encountered in digital switching circuits and are naturally generated
by binary (two-level) logic devices. They are used as timing references or "clock signals",
because their fast transitions are suitable for triggering synchronous logic circuits at precisely
determined intervals. However, as the frequency-domain graph shows, square waves contain a
wide range of harmonics; these can generate electromagnetic radiation or pulses of current that EASA – 147 Course Notes
interfere with other nearby circuits, causing noise or errors. To avoid this problem in very
sensitive circuits such as precision analog-to-digital converters, sine waves are used instead of
square waves as timing references.

3.13.4 Triangular wave

A triangular wave is a non-sinusoidal waveform named for its triangular shape. Like a square
wave, the triangle wave contains only odd harmonics. However, the higher harmonics roll off
much faster than in a square wave (proportional to the inverse square of the harmonic number as
opposed to just the inverse).

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Figure 3.13.9 Triangular wave

Origins and uses

A triangular waveform is of some interest for several purposes. It has been starting waveform, for
example, for conversion to a sinusoidal waveform because of its relatively small harmonic
content and comparative simplicity in generating.

3.13.5 Single phase and three phase principles

An ac generator designed to develop a single sinusoidal voltage for each rotation of the shaft
(rotor) is referred to as a single-phase ac generator. If the number of coils on the rotor is increased
in a specified manner, the result is a poly-phase ac generator, which develops more than one ac
phase voltage per rotation of the rotor. The three-phase system is the most frequently used for
power transmission. In general, three-phase systems are preferred over single-phase systems for
the transmission of power for many reasons.

The frequency generated is determined by the number of poles on the rotor (the rotating part of
the generator) and the speed with which the shaft is turned. The three-phase generator of Figure
3.13.10 has three induction coils placed 120° apart on the stator, as shown symbolically by Figure
3.13.10(b). Since the three coils have an equal number of turns, and each coil rotates with the
same angular velocity, the voltage induced across each coil will have the same peak value, shape,
EASA – 147 Course Notes
and frequency. As the shaft of the generator is turned by some external means, the induced
voltages eAN, eBN, and eCN will be generated simultaneously, as shown in Figure 3.13.11. Note the
120° phase shift between waveforms and the similarities in appearance of the three sinusoidal
functions. In particular, note that at any instant of time, the algebraic sum of the three phase
voltages of a three-phase generator is zero.

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Figure 3.13.6 (a) Three-phase generator; (b) induced voltages of a three-phase generator.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.13.11 Three AC power wave shapes

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NOTES

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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NOTES

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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Chapter 14
Resistive, Capacitive and Inductive Circuits

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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3.14 RESISTIVE (R), CAPACITIVE (C) AND INDUCTIVE (L)

CIRCUITS
3.14.1 Phase-Angle Diagrams

To compare phases of alternating currents and voltages, it is much more convenient to use phasor
diagrams corresponding to the voltage and current waveforms, as shown in Figure 3.14.1(b). The
arrows here represent the phasor quantities corresponding to the generator voltage.

A phasor is a quantity that has magnitude and direction. The length of the arrow indicates the
magnitude of the alternating voltage, in rms, peak, or any ac value as long as the same measure is
used for all the phasors. The angle of the arrow with respect to the horizontal axis indicates the
phase angle.

Figure 3.14.1 Two voltage waveforms 90° out of phase. (a) Wave B leads wave A by 90°. (b) Corresponding
phasors VB and VA for the two voltages with phase angle B = 90°. The right angle shows quadrature phase.

The terms phasor and vector are used for a quantity that has direction, requiring an angle to
specify the value completely. However, a vector quantity has direction in space, while a phasor
EASA – 147 Course Notes
quantity varies in time. As an example of a vector, a mechanical force can be represented by a
vector arrow at a specific angle, with respect to either the horizontal or vertical direction.

For phasor arrows, the angles shown represent differences in time. One sinusoid is chosen as the
reference. Then the timing of the variations in another sinusoid can be compared to the reference
by means of the angle between the phasor arrows.

The phasor corresponds to the entire cycle of voltage, but is shown only at one angle, such as the
starting point, since the complete cycle is known to be a sine wave. Without the extra details of a
whole cycle, phasors represent the alternating voltage or current in a compact form that is easier
for comparing phase angles.

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In Figure 3.14.1(b), for instance, the phasor VA represents the voltage wave A, with a phase angle
of 0°. This angle can be considered as the plane of the loop in the rotary generator where it starts
with zero output voltage. The phasor VB is vertical to show the phase angle of 90° for this voltage
wave, corresponding to the vertical generator loop at the start of its cycle. The angle between the
two phasors is the phase angle.

The symbol for a phase angle is Ɵ (theta). In Figure 3-14.1(b), as an example, Ɵ = 90°.

3.14.2 Phase-Angle Reference

The phase angle of one wave can be specified only with respect to another as reference. How the
phasors are drawn to show the phase angle depends on which phase is chosen as the reference.
Generally, the reference phasor is horizontal, corresponding to 0°. Two possibilities are shown in
Figure 3.14.2. In Figure 3.14.2(a) the voltage wave A or its phasor VA is the reference. Then the
phasor VB is 90° counterclockwise. This method is standard practice, using counterclockwise
rotation as the positive direction for angles. Also, a leading angle is positive. In this case, then,
VB is 90° counterclockwise from the reference VA to show that wave B leads wave A by 90°.

Figure 3.14.2 Leading and lagging phase angles for 90°. (a) When phasor VA is the horizontal reference, the
phasor VB leads by 90°. (b) When phasor VB is the horizontal reference, the phasor VA lags by -90°.
EASA – 147 Course Notes
However, wave B is shown as the reference in Figure 3.14.2(b). Now VB is the horizontal
phasor. In order to have the same phase angle, VA must be 90° clockwise, or -90° from VB. This
arrangement shows that negative angles, clockwise from the 0° reference, are used to show a
lagging phase angle. The reference determines whether the phase angle is considered leading or
lagging in time.

The phase is not actually changed by the method of showing it. In Figure 3.14.2, VA and VB are
90° out of phase, and VB leads VA by 90° in time. There is no fundamental difference whether we
say VB is ahead of VA by +90° or VA is behind VB by -90°.

Two waves and their corresponding phasors can be out of phase by any angle, either less or more
than 90°. For instance, a phase angle of 60° is shown in Figure 3-14.3(a) For the waveforms in

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Fit 3-14.3(a) wave D is behind C by 60° in time. For the phasors in Figure 3.14.3(b) this lag is
shown by the phase angle of -60°.

Figure 3.14.3 Phase angle of 60° is the time for 60/360 or 1/6 of the cycle. (a) Waveforms. (b) Phasor diagram.

3.14.3 In-phase Waveforms

A phase angle of 0° means the two waves are in phase (Figure 3.14.4). Then the amplitudes add.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.14.4 Two waves in phase with angle of 0°. (a) Waveforms. (b) Phasor diagram.

3.14.4 Out-of-phase Waveforms

An angle of 180° means opposite phase, or the two waveforms are exactly out of phase (Figure
3.14.5). Then the amplitudes are opposing. Equal values of opposite phase cancel each other.

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Figure 3.14.5Two waves out of phase with angle of 180°. (a) Waveforms. (b) Phasor diagram.

3.14.5 Phase relationship of Voltage and Current in R, L & C series, parallel and series-
parallel circuit.

3.14.5.1 Phase relationship of V & I for R

The relationship V = IR applies for resistors in an AC circuit, so

I = V/R = (V0/R) Sin(ωt) = Im Sin(ωt)

Figure 3.14.6 Phase relation between V and I for R

In a circuit which only involves resistors, the current and voltage are in phase with each other,
EASA – 147 Course Notes
which means that the peak voltage is reached at the same instant as peak current. In circuits
which have capacitors and inductors (coils) the phase relationships will be quite different.

3.14.5.2 Phase relationship of V & I for C

Consider now a circuit which has only a capacitor and an AC power source (such as a wall
outlet). A capacitor is a device for storing charging. It turns out that there is a 90° phase
difference between the current and voltage, with the current reaching its peak 90° (1/4 cycle)
before the voltage reaches its peak. Put another way, the current leads the voltage by 90° in a
purely capacitive circuit.

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Figure 3.14.7 Phase relation between V and I for C

In a purely capacitive a.c. circuit, the current IC leads the applied voltage VC by 90° (i.e.π/2 rads).
In a purely capacitive circuit the opposition to the flow of alternating current is called the
capacitive reactance, XC.
VC 1
XC = IC = 2π fC Ω.

where C is the capacitance in farads. XC varies with frequency f.

3.14.5.4 Phase relationship of V & I for L

An inductor is simply a coil of wire (often wrapped around a piece of ferromagnet). If we now
look at a circuit composed only of an inductor and an AC power source, we will again find that
there is a 90° phase difference between the voltage and the current in the inductor. This time,
however, the current lags the voltage by 90°, so it reaches its peak 1/4 cycle after the voltage
peaks.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.14.8 Phase relation between V and I for L

In a purely inductive a.c. circuit, the current IL lags the applied voltage VL by 90° (i.e. π/2 rads).
In a purely inductive circuit the opposition to the flow of alternating current is called the
inductive reactance, XL.

XL = VL/IL = 2πfL Ω.

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where f is the supply frequency, in hertz, and L is the inductance, in henry’s. XL is proportional to
f.

3.14.5.5Phase Relationship of Voltage and Current for RC Series combinations

When we connect components together, Kirchoff's laws apply at any instant. So the voltage v(t)
across a resistor and capacitor in series is just ,

vseries(t) = vR(t) + vC(t)

Series voltage is behind the current in phase, but the relative phase is somewhere between 0 and
90°, the exact value depending on the size of VR and VC.

From the phasor diagram the ‘voltage triangle’ is derived. For the R–C circuit:

V = √(VR2 + Vc2)

tan α = VC /VR

If each side of the voltage triangle is divided by current I then the ‘impedance triangle’ is derived.
For the R–C circuit:

Z = √ (R2 + XC2)

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.14.9 Phase relation between V and I for RC series circuit

The phasor diagram at right shows us a simple way to calculate the series voltage. The
components are in series, so the current is the same in both. The voltage phasors (brown for
resistor, blue for capacitor) add according to vector or phasor addition, to give the series voltage
(the red arrow). The circuit and phasor diagram are given below:

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Figure 3.14.10 Phasor diagram for RC series circuit

3.14.5.6 Phase Relationship of Voltage and Current for RL Series combinations

In an a.c. circuit containing inductance L and resistance R, the applied voltage V is the phasor
sum of VR and VL, and thus the current I lags the applied voltage V by an angle lying between 0°
and 90° (depending on the values of VR and VL), shown as angle Φ. In any a.c. series circuit the
current is common to each component and is thus taken as the reference phasor. From the phasor
diagram of figure 3.14.10, the ‘voltage triangle’ is derived.

For RL circuit, V = √(VR2 + VL2

tan Φ = VL/VR

In an a.c. circuit, the ratio of applied voltage (V) to applied current (I) is called the impedance Z.
i.e. Z = V/I

If each side of the voltage triangle is divided by current I then the ‘impedance triangle’ is derived.

For RL circuit, Z = √(R2 + X2L)

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.14.11 phase relationship of voltage and current for RL series circuit.

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3.14.5.7 Phase Relationship of Voltage and Current for RLC Series combinations

Now let's put a resistor, capacitor and inductor in series. At any given time, the voltage across the
three components in series, vseries(t), is the sum of these:

vseries(t) = vR(t) + vL(t) + vC(t),

Figure 3.14.12 Phase relation between voltage and current for RLC series circuit.

The current i(t) we shall keep sinusoidal, as before. The voltage across the resistor, vR(t), is in
phase with the current. That across the inductor, vL(t), is 90° ahead and that across the capacitor,
vC(t), is 90° behind. VL and VC are anti-phase, i.e. displaced by 180°, and there are three phasor
diagrams possible - each depending on the relative values of VL and VC. This relation shows in
figure 3.14.12.

When XL> XC (Figure 3.14.13 b),

Z = √[R2 + (XL – XC)2]

tan Φ = (XL – XC) / R EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.14.13 Phase relation between voltage and current depending on value of XL and XC on RLC series
circuit.
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When XC> XL (Figure 3.14.13 c),

Z = √[R2 + (XC – XL)2]

tan Φ = (XC – XL) / R

When XC= XL (Figure 3.14.13 d), the applied voltage V and current I are in phase. This effect is
called Series Resonance. The circuit acts as purely resistive circuit.

3.14.5.8 Phase Relationship between Voltage and Current for R-L Parallel Circuit

In parallel circuits, the voltage is common to each branch of the network and is thus taken as the
reference phasor when drawing phasor diagrams.

In the two branch parallel circuit containing resistance R and inductance L shown in
Figure3.14.14, the current flowing in the resistance, IR, is in-phase with the supply voltage V and
the current flowing in the inductance, IL, lags the supply voltage by 90°. The supply current I is
the phasor sum of IR and IL and thus the current I lags the applied voltage V by an angle lying
between 0° and 90° (depending on the values of IR and IL), shown as angle Φ in the phasor
diagram.

From the phasor diagram:

I = √(I2R +I2L)
Where IR = V/R and IL = V/XL
tan Φ = IL / IR

Circuit impedance Z = V/I

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.14.14 Voltage and current phase relation for R-L parallel circuit

3.14.5.9 Phase Relationship between Voltage and Current for R-C Parallel Circuit

In the two branch parallel circuit containing resistance R and capacitance C shown in figure
3.14.15, IR is in-phase with the supply voltage V and the current flowing in the capacitor, IC,
leads V by 90°. The supply current I is the phasor sum of IR and IC and thus the current I leads the
applied voltage V by an angle lying between 0° and 90° (depending on the values of IR and IC),
shown as angle ˛ in the phasor diagram.
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Figure 3.14.15 Voltage and current phase relation for R-C parallel circuit

From the phasor diagram:

I = √I2R +I2C
Where IR = V/R and IC = V/XC
tan Φ = IC / IR

Circuit impedance Z = V/I

3.14.5.10 Phase Relationship between Voltage and Current for L-C Parallel Circuit

In the two branch parallel circuit containing inductance L and capacitance C shown in figure
3.14.16, IL lags V by 90° and IC leads V by 90°. Theoretically there are three phasor diagrams
possible - each depending on the relative values of IL and IC:

(i) IL> IC (giving a supply current, I = IL - IC lagging V by 90°)

(ii) IC> IL (giving a supply current, I = IC - IL leading V by 90°)
(iii) IL = IC (giving a supply current, I = 0).

The latter condition is not possible in practice due to circuit resistance inevitably being present.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.14.16 Phase relation between voltage and current in L-C parallel circuit.
For the L-C parallel circuit,

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IL = V/XL and
IC = V/XC

I = phasor difference between IL and IC, and Z = V/I.

3.14.5.11 Phase Relationship between Voltage and Current for RL-C Parallel Circuit

In the two branch circuit containing capacitance C in parallel with inductance L and resistance R
in series (such as a coil) shown in figure 3.14.17(a), the phasor diagram for the LR branch alone
is shown in figure 3.14.17(b) and the phasor diagram for the C branch is shown alone in figure
3.14.17(c). Rotating each and superimposing on one another gives the complete phasor diagram
shown in figure 3.14.17(d).

The current ILR of figure 3.14.17(d) may be resolved into horizontal and vertical components. The
horizontal component, shown as op is ILR cosΦ1 and the vertical component, shown as pq is ILR
sinΦ1 There are three possible conditions for this circuit:

(i) IC> ILR sinΦ1 (giving a supply current I leading V by angle Φ, as shown in figure 3.14.17(e))
(ii) ILR sinΦ1> IC (giving I lagging V by angle Φ, as shown in figure 3.14.17(f))
(iii) IC = ILR sinΦ1 (this is called parallel resonance).

There are two methods of finding the phasor sum of currents ILR and IC in figures 3.14.17(e) and
(f). These are: (i) by a scaled phasor diagram, or (ii) by resolving each current into their ‘in-
phase’ (i.e. horizontal) and ‘quadrature’ (i.e. vertical) components.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.14.17Phase relation between voltage and current for RL-C circuit.

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Impedance of RL branch, ZRL = √(R2+X2L)
Current IRL = V/ZRL and IC = V/XC
Supply current I = phasor sum of ILR and IC
Circuit impedance Z = V/I.

3.14.5.12 Phase Relationship between Voltage and Current for RLC Series - Parallel Circuit

Figure 3.14.18 shows how a series-parallel circuit can be reduced to a series circuit with just one
reactance and one resistance. The method is straightforward as long as resistance and reactance
are not combined in one parallel bank or series string.

Figure 3.14.18 Reducing a series-parallel circuit with R, XL, and Xc to a series circuit with one R and one X.
(a) Actual circuit. (b) Simplified arrangement. (c) Series equivalent circuit. (d) Phasor diagram.

Working backward toward the generator from the outside branch in figure 3.14.18a, we have an
XL, and an XL2 of 100 Ω each in series, which total 200 Ω. This string in figure 3.14.18a is EASA – 147 Course Notes
equivalent to XL, in figure 3-171b.

In the other branch, the net reactance of XL, and XC is equal to 600 Ω minus 400 Ω. This is
equivalent to the 200 Ω of XL4 in figure 3.14.18b. The XL4 and XL, of 200 Ω each in parallel are
combined for an XL of 100 Ω.

In figure 3.14.18c, the 100Ω XL is in series with the 100Ω R1-2. This value is for R, and R2 in
parallel. The phasor diagram for the equivalent circuit in figure 3.14.18d shows the total
impedance Z of 141 Ω for a 100Ω R in series with a 100Ω XL.

With a 141Ω impedance across the applied VT of 100 V, the current in the generator is 0.7 A. The
phase angle is 45° for this circuit.
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3.14.6.1 Power in purely resistive a.c. circuits

Let a voltage v = Vm sinωt be applied to a circuit comprising resistance only. The resulting
current is i = Im sinωt, and the corresponding instantaneous power, p, is given by:

p = vi = (Vm sinωt)(Im sinωt)

i.e., p = VmIm sin2ωt

We know, sin2ωt = ½ (1-cos2ωt)

Then power P = VmIm[½ (1-cos2ωt)]

i.e. P= ½ VmIm(1-cos2ωt)

The waveforms of v, i and p are shown in figure 3.14.19. The waveform of power repeats itself
after π/ω seconds and hence the power has a frequency twice that of voltage and current. The
power is always positive, having a maximum value of VmIm. The average or mean value of the
power is ½VmIm.

The rms value of voltage V=0.707 Vm, i.e. V = Vm/√2, from which, Vm = √2 V. Similarly, the
rms value of current, I= Im/√2, from which, Im = √2I. Hence the average power, P, developed in a
purely resistive a.c. circuit is given by,

P= ½ VmIm = ½ (√2 V) (√2 I)

= VI watts.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.14.19 The waveform for v, I & p on resistive circuit.

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3.14.6.2 Power in purely inductive a.c. circuits

Let a voltage v = Vmsinωt be applied to a circuit containing pure inductance (theoretical case).
The resulting current is I = Imsin(ωt –(π/2)) since current lags voltage by 900in a purely inductive
circuit, and the corresponding instantaneous power, p, is given by:

p = vi = (Vmsinωt)Imsin(ωt –(π/2))
i.e. p = VmImsinωt. sin(ωt –(π/2))
however sin(ωt –(π/2)) = - cosωt

Thus p = - VmImsinωt cosωt

Rearranging gives, p = - ½ VmIm(2sinωt cosωt). However from the double-angle formula

2sinωtcosωt = sin2ωt.

Thus power p = - ½ VmImsin2ωt.

Figure 3.14.20Power in a purely inductive a.c. circuit

EASA – 147 Course Notes
The waveforms of v, i and p are shown in figure 3.14.20. The frequency of power is twice that of
voltage and current. For the power curve shown in figure 3.14.20, the area above the horizontal
axis is equal to the area below, thus over a complete cycle the average power P is zero. It is noted
that when v and i are both positive, power p is positive and energy is delivered from the source to
the inductance; when v and i have opposite signs, power p is negative and energy is returned from
the inductance to the source.

In general, when the current through an inductance is increasing, energy is transferred from the
circuit to the magnetic field, but this energy is returned when the current is decreasing.

Summarizing, the average power P in a purely inductive a.c. circuit is zero.

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3.14.6.3 Power in Purely capacitive a.c. circuits

Let a voltage v = Vmsinωt be applied to a circuit containing pure capacitance. The resulting
current is i = Imsin(ωt + (π/2)) since current leads voltage by 900in a purely capacitive circuit, and
the corresponding instantaneous power, p, is given by:

p = vi = (Vmsinωt)Imsin(ωt + (π/2))
i.e. p = VmImsinωt. sin(ωt + (π/2))
however sin(ωt + (π/2)) = cosωt

Thus p = VmImsinωt cosωt

Rearranging gives, p = ½VmIm(2sinωt cosωt).

Thus power p = ½VmImsin2ωt.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.14.21 Power in a purely capacitive a.c. circuit

The waveforms of v, i and p are shown in figure 3.14.21. Over a complete cycle the average
power P is zero. When the voltage across a capacitor is increasing, energy is transferred from the
circuit to the electric field, but this energy is returned when the voltage is decreasing.

Summarizing, the average power P in a purely inductive a.c. circuit is zero.

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3.14.7 Terms & Definitions

3.14.7.1 Impedance

Impedance is the total opposition to current flow. In all circuits this opposition includes re-
sistance. In ac circuits and in pulsating dc circuits in which the current is constantly changing in
value, this opposition also includes the inductive reactance and the capacitive reactance. The
symbol for impedance is Z, and its value is given in ohms. The value of the impedance Z (in
ohms) of a circuit may consist of the resistance R (in ohms) only, the inductive reactance XL (in
ohms) only, the capacitive reactance Xc (in ohms) only, or any combination of these opposition
effects. The formulae for determining Z in terms of R, XL, and XC

Ohm's law for ac,

I=E/Z
Z=E/I
E= I.Z
Where,
I is the current in amperes,
E is the voltage in volts,
Z is the impedance in ohms.

Figure 3.14.22 Impedance of a R-L circuit

XL = 2πfL=60.319 Ω
ZL = 0 + j60.319 Ωor60.319 Ω/_90o
ZR = 60 + j0Ω or60 Ω/_0o EASA – 147 Course Notes
ZTotal = 60 + j60.319 Ω or85.078 Ω/_45.152

I =E/Z
I=12V/85.078 Ω
I = 1.410 A

3.14.7.2 Phase Angle

Phase angle is an indication of which of two waveforms leads or lags the other, and by how many
degrees or radians. When resistors and inductors are mixed together in circuits, the total
impedance will have a phase angle somewhere between 0o and +90o. The circuit current will have
a phase angle somewhere between 0o and -90o.
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3.14.7.3 Power Factor

The ratio between real power and apparent power in a circuit is called the power factor. Where
the waveforms are purely sinusoidal, the power factor is the cosine of the phase angle (φ)
between the current and voltage sinusoid waveforms. Equipment data sheets and nameplates
often will abbreviate power factor as "cosƟ" for this reason.

Power Factor= Real power/ Apparent Power= cosƟ.

Power factor equals 1 when the voltage and current are in phase, and is zero when the current
leads or lags the voltage by 90 degrees. Power factors are usually stated as "leading" or
"lagging" to show the sign of the phase angle, where leading indicates a negative sign. For two
systems transmitting the same amount of real power, the system with the lower power factor will
have higher circulating currents due to energy that returns to the source from energy storage in
the load. These higher currents in a practical system will produce higher losses and reduce
overall transmission efficiency. A lower power factor circuit will have a higher apparent power
and higher losses for the same amount of real power transfer.

Purely capacitive circuits cause reactive power with the current waveform leading the voltage
wave by 90 degrees, while purely inductive circuits cause reactive power with the current
waveform lagging the voltage waveform by 90 degrees. The result of this is that capacitive and
inductive circuit elements tend to cancel each other out.

3.14.7.4 True Power / Real Power

In an ac circuit with reactance, the current I supplied by the generator either leads or lags the
generator voltage V. Then the product VI is not the real power produced by the generator, since
the voltage may have a high value while the current is near zero, or vice versa. The real power,
however, can always be calculated as I2R, where R is the total resistive component of the circuit,
because current and voltage have the same phase in a resistance. To find the corresponding value
of power as VI, this product must be multiplied by the cosine of the phase angle Ɵ. Then
EASA – 147 Course Notes

Real power = I2R or

Real power = VI cosƟ

where V and I are in rms values, to calculate the real power, in watts. Multiplying VI by the
cosine of the phase angle provides the resistive component for real power equal to I2R.

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Figure 3.14.23Real power in series circuit. (a) Schematic diagram. (b) Phasor diagram.

For example, the ac circuit in figure 3.14.23 has 2A through a 100ΩR in series with the XL of
173Ω. Therefore,

Real power = I2R = 4 x 100

Real power = 400 W

Furthermore, in this circuit the phase angle is 60° with a cosine of 0.5. The applied voltage is 400
V. Therefore

Real power = VI cosƟ = 400 x 2 x 0.5

Real power = 400 W

In both examples, the real power is the same 400 W, because this is the amount of power supplied
by the generator and dissipated in the resistance. Either formula can be used for calculating the
real power, de-pending on which is more convenient.

Real power can be considered as resistive power, which is dissipated as heat. A reactance does EASA – 147 Course Notes
not dissipate power but stores energy in the electric or magnetic field.

3.14.7.5 Apparent Power

When V and I are out of phase because of reactance, the product of V x I is called apparent
power. The unit is volt-amperes (VA) instead of watts, since the watt is reserved for real power.

For the example in figure 3.14.24, with 400 V and the 2-A I, 60° out of phase, the apparent power
is VI, of 400 x 2 = 800 VA. Note that apparent power is the VI product alone, without
considering the power factor cosƟ.

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The power factor can be calculated as the ratio of real power to apparent power, as this ratio
equals cosƟ, As an example, in figure 3.14.24, the real power is 400 W. and the apparent power
is 800 VA. The ratio of 400/800 then is 0.5 for the power factor, the same as cos 60°.

Figure 3.14.24Real power in series circuit. (a) Schematic diagram. (b) Phasor diagram.

3.14.7.6 Reactive Power

The VAR, this is an abbreviation for volt-ampere reactive. Specifically, VARs are volt-amperes
at the angle of 90°.

In general, for any phase angle Ɵ between V and I, multiplying VI by sinƟ gives the vertical
component at 90° for the value of the VARs. In figure 3.14.24, the value of VI sin 60° is 800 x
0.866 = 692.8 VAR.

Note that the factor sinƟ for the VARs gives the vertical or reactive component of the apparent
power VI. However, multiplying VI by cosƟ as the power factor gives the horizontal or resistive
component for the real power.

3.14.7.7 Current Calculation

EASA – 147 Course Notes
An inductive coil, having resistance of 8 Ω and inductance of 80 mH, is connected in series with
a capacitance of 100μFacross 150 V; 50 Hz supply (Figure 3.14.25). Calculate, (a) the current,
(b) the power factor.

Figure 3.14.25 RLC Circuit

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Solution:

f = 50 Hz. ω = 2πf = 2π x 50 = 314.16 rad/s

L = 80 mH = 80 x 10-3= 0.08 H XL = ωL = 314.16 x 0.08 = 25.15 Ω
C = 100 μF = 100 x 10-6 F XC = 1/ωC = 1/ (314.16 x 100 x10-6) = 31.83 Ω
R=8Ω Vs = 150 V
The impedance of the coil,

ZL/_ΦL = R + jXL = (8.0 + j25.15) = 26.375/_72.340 Ω

The total impedance of the current

Z/_-Φ = R + j(XL – XC) = 8.0 + j(25.15 – 31.83) = 8.0– j6.7 = 10.434<- 39.950 Ω

The current drawn from the supply,

I/_Φ = (V/_00) / (Z/_-Φ) = (150/10.343)/_39.950 = 14.375 /_39.950 A

= (11.02 + j9.26) A

The current is I = 14.375 A

The power factor (pf) = cosΦ = cos 39.95 = 0.767 (lead)

Figure 3.14.26 Phase diagram EASA – 147 Course Notes

3.14.7.8 Power calculation

The relationship between real power, reactive power and apparent power can be expressed by
representing the quantities as vectors. Real power is represented as a horizontal vector and
reactive power is represented as a vertical vector. The apparent power vector is the hypotenuse of
a right triangle formed by connecting the real and reactive power vectors. This representation is
often called the power triangle. Using the Pythagorean Theorem, the relationship among real,
reactive and apparent power is:

(Apparent power)2 = (Real power)2 + (Reactive power)2

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Real and reactive powers can also be calculated directly from the apparent power, when the
current and voltage are both sinusoids with a known phase angle between them:

(Real power) = (Apparent power) x cosθ

(Reactive power) = (Apparent power) x sinθ

The ratio of real power to apparent power is called power factor and is a number always between
0 and 1.

There are several power equations relating the three types of power to resistance, reactance, and
impedance (all using scalar quantities)

P = True power
P = I2R = E2/R - measured in units of Watts.

Q = Reactive power
Q = I2X = E2/X – measured in units of Volts-Amps-Reactive (VAR)

S = Apparent power
S = I2Z = E2/Z = IE – measured in units of Volts-Amps (VA)

Problem
Find the true power, reactive power and apparent power for the circuit given in figure 3.14.27.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.14.27 True power, reactive power, and apparent power for a resistive/reactive load.

Calculation

P = True power = I2R = (1.410)2 x 60 = 119.365 W.

Q = Reactive power = I2X = (1.410)2 x 60.319 = 119.998 VAR
S = Apparent power = I2Z = (1.410)2 x (60 + 60.319) = 169.256 VA.

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NOTES

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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Chapter 15
Transformers

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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3.15 TRANSFORMERS

3.15.1 Introduction

A transformer is a static machine. Although it is not an energy conversion device, it is

indispensable in many energy conversion systems. It is a simple device, having two or more
electric circuits coupled by a common magnetic circuit. Analysis of transformer involves many
principles that are basic to understanding of electric machines. Transformers are so widely used
as electrical apparatus that they are treated along with other electric machines.

3.15.2 Basic principles

The transformer is based on two principles: firstly, that an electric current can produce a magnetic
field (electromagnetism) and secondly that a changing magnetic field within a coil of wire
induces a voltage across the ends of the coil (electromagnetic induction). Changing the current in
the primary coil changes the magnitude of the applied magnetic field. The changing magnetic
flux extends to the secondary coil where a voltage is induced across its ends.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure3.15.1An ideal step-down transformer showing magnetic flux in the core.

A simplified transformer design is shown in figure 3.15.1. A current passing through the primary
coil creates a magnetic field. The primary and secondary coils are wrapped around a core of very
high magnetic permeability, such as iron; this ensures that most of the magnetic field lines
produced by the primary current are within the iron and pass through the secondary coil as well
as the primary coil.

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3.15.3 Transformer Construction

There are two general types of transformers

(a) Core type transformer

(b) Shell type transformer

These two differ by the manner in which the windings are wound around the magnetic core.The
magnetic core is a stack of thin silicon-steel laminations about 0.35 mm thick for 50 Hz
transformer. In order to reduce the eddy current losses, these laminations are insulated from one
another by thin layers of varnish. In order to reduce the core losses, transformers have their
magnetic core made from cold-rolled grain-oriented sheet steel (C.R.G.O). This material, when
magnetized in the rolling direction, has low core loss and high permeability.

3.15.3.1 Core Type Transformer

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.15.2 Core-type Transformer

In the core-type, the windings surround a considerable part of steel core as shown in figure
3.15.2. The core type transformers require more conductor material and less iron when compared
to shell-type. The vertical portions of the core are usually called limbs or legs and the top and
bottom portions are called the yoke. For single phase transformers, core-type has two legged
core. In order to reduce leakage flux, half of the L.V. winding is placed over one leg and other
half over other leg. For H.V. winding also, half of the winding is placed over one leg and the
other half over the other leg. L.V. winding is placed adjacent to the steel core and H.V. winding
outside, in order to minimize the amount of insulation required.

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3.15.3.2 Shell Type Transformer

In the core-type, the steel core surrounds a considerable part of the windings as shown in figure
3.15.3. Shell-type transformer has three legged core. The L.V. and H.V. windings are wound on
the central limb. In order to reduce leakage flux, the windings are interleaved or sandwiched. The
shell type transformers require more iron and less conductor material when compared to core-
type.

There are two types of windings employed for transformers.

(i) Concentric coils.
(ii) Interleaved coils.

The concentric coils are used for core-type transformers and interleaved coils for shell-type
transformers.

Figure 3.15.3 Shell type transformer

3.15.4 Transformer Theory of Operation EASA – 147 Course Notes

An ideal transformer is one which has no losses i.e. its windings have no ohmic resistance, there
is no magnetic leakage and hence which has no I 2 * R and core losses. In other words, an ideal
transformer consists of two purely inductive coils wound on a loss-free core. It may, however, be
noted that it is impossible to realize such a transformer in practice, yet for convenience, we will
start with such a transformer and step by step approach an actual transformer.

Consider an ideal transformer (Fig.3.15.4) whose secondary is open and whose primary is
connected to sinusoidal alternating voltage V1. This potential difference causes an alternating
current to flow in primary. Since the primary coil is purely inductive and there is no output
(secondary being open) the primary draws the magnetising current IP only. The function of this
current is merely to magnetise the core, it is small in magnitude and lags V1 by 90o . This
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alternating current It, produces an alternating flux ϕ which is, at all times, proportional to the
current (assuming permeability of the magnetic circuit to be constant) and, hence, is in-phase
with it. This changing flux is linked both with the primary and the secondary windings.
Therefore, it produces self-induced EMF in the primary. This self-induced EMF E1 is, at every
instant, equal to and in opposition to V1. It is also known as counter EMF or back EMF of the
primary.

Figure 3.15.4 A schematic representation of a two-winding transformer

Similarly, there is produced in the secondary an induced EMF E2 which is known as mutually
induced EMF This EMF is antiphase with V1 and its magnitude is proportional to the rate of
change of flux and the number of secondary turns. Fig.3.15.4 shows an ideal transformer in
which the primary and secondary respectively possess N1 and N2 turns. The primary is connected
to a sinusoidal source V1 and the magnetizing current Im creates a flux ϕm . The flux is completely
linked by the primary and secondary windings and, consequently, it is a mutual flux. The flux
varies sinusoidaly, and reaches a peak value ϕ max . Then,
EASA – 147 Course Notes

E1 = 4.44 fN1ϕmax (1)

E2 = 4.44 fN 2ϕmax (2)

From these equations, we deduce the expression for the voltage ratio and turns ratio a of an ideal
transformer:

E1 N1
= = a (3)
E2 N 2
Where:
El = voltage induced in the primary in Volt.

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E2 = voltage induced in the secondary in Volt.
N1 = numbers of turns on the primary.
N2 = numbers of turns on the secondary.
a = turns ratio.

This equation shows that the ratio of the primary and secondary voltages is equal to the ratio of
the number of turns. Furthermore, because the primary and secondary voltages are induced by the
same mutual ϕ they are necessarily in phase.

The phasor diagram at no load is given in Fig.3.15.5. Phasor E2 is in phase with phasor E1 (and
not 180o out of phase) as indicated by the polarity marks. If the transformer has fewer turns on
the secondary than on the primary, phasor E2 is shorter than phasor E1 . As in any inductor,
current I m lags 90 degrees behind applied voltage E1 . The phasor representing flux ϕ is
obviously in phase with magnetizing current I m which produces it. However, because this is an
ideal transformer, the magnetic circuit is infinitely permeable and so no magnetizing current is
required to produce the flux ϕ .

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.15.5 transformer vector diagram.

3.15.6 Transformer Losses

An ideal transformer would have no losses, and would therefore be 100% efficient. In practice
energy is dissipated due both to the resistance of the windings (known as copper loss), and to
magnetic effects primarily attributable to the core (known as iron loss). Transformers are in
general highly efficient, and large power transformers (around 100 MVA and larger) may attain

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an efficiency as high as 99.75%. Small transformers such as a plug-in "power brick" used to
power small consumer electronics may be less than 85% efficient. The losses arise from:

Winding resistance
Current flowing through the windings causes resistive heating of the conductors.
Eddy currents
Induced currents circulate in the core and cause its resistive heating.

Stray losses
Not all the magnetic field produced by the primary is intercepted by the secondary. A portion of
the leakage flux may induce eddy currents within nearby conductive objects such as the
transformer's support structure, and be converted to heat. The familiar hum or buzzing noise
heard near transformers is a result of stray fields causing components of the tank to vibrate and is
also from magnetostriction vibration of the core.

Hysteresis losses
Each time the magnetic field is reversed, a small amount of energy is lost to hysteresis in the
magnetic core. The level of hysteresis is affected by the core material.

Mechanical losses
The alternating magnetic field causes fluctuating electromagnetic forces between the coils of
wire, the core and any nearby metalwork, causing vibrations and noise which consume power.

Magnetostriction
The flux in the core causes it to physically expand and contract slightly with the alternating
magnetic field, an effect known as magnetostriction. This in turn causes losses due to frictional
heating in susceptible ferromagnetic cores.

Cooling system
Large power transformers may be equipped with cooling fans, oil pumps or water-cooled heat
exchangers designed to remove the heat caused by copper and iron losses. The power used to
EASA – 147 Course Notes
operate the cooling system is typically considered part of the losses of the transformer.

3.15.7 Transformer Load

3.15.7.1 Transformer on No-Load

For an ideal transformer, we have assumed that there are no core losses and copper losses.
For practical transformers these two losses cannot be neglected. At no-load condition, the
primary current is not fully reactive and it supplies (i) iron loss in the core, that is, hysteresis
loss and eddy current loss and (ii) very small amount of copper loss in the primary. There is

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copper loss in the secondary because it is an open circuit. The no-load current lags behind V,
by an angle Φ which is less than 90°. The no-load input power is given by,

W0 = V0I0 cosΦ

Where, cosΦ is the no-load power factor under no-load condition. Figure 3.15.4 shows the
no-load phasor diagram of a practical transformer. From figure 3.15.4, the no-load primary
current (I0) has two following components:

• One component of Io, that is, I =I0 cosΦ is in phase with V1. Since Iw supplies the iron
loss and primary copper loss at no-load, it is known as active or working or iron loss
component.

• The other component of Io, that is, Iu. = IosinΦ is in quadrature with V1. It is known as
magnetizing component. Its function is to sustain the alternating flux in the core and it is
wattless.

Figure 3.15.6 Transformer with No-Load

EASA – 147 Course Notes
From figure, we can write
=
I0 I w2 + I µ2 and
I 
φ0 = tan −1  µ 
 Iw 

The following points are most important:

• The no-load primary current is 1 to 5% of full-load current.

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• Since the permeability of the core varies with the instantaneous value of exciting or
magnetizing current, the waveform of exciting or magnetizing current is not truly sinusoidal.

• Since I0 is very small, the no-load copper loss is negligible. Hence no-load input is practically
equal to the iron loss in the transformer.

• Since core-loss is solely responsible for shifting the current vector I0, the angle Φ is known as
hysteresis angle of advance.

3.15.7.2 Transformer On-Load

Figure shows the transformer during no-load condition. The flux Φ is set up in the core. When the
secondary is loaded as referred to in Figure, the secondary current will set up its own flux (Φ2)
which opposes Φ. The resultant flux becomes Φ-Φ2.The value of el will decrease because
magnitude of Φ decreases. Hence V1 becomes greater than e1 and the primary winding draws
more current from the source. Let the additional current drawn by the primary be I'2.This current
I2’ will set up its own flux Φ2) in the same direction of Φ and it will oppose Φ2 as shown in figure
3.15.5 The resultant flux will be Φ at any load condition if and only if-

φ ′2 = φ2

or,
N1 I 2′ = N 2 I 2
N2 I2
=I 2′ = I2
N1 a

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.15.7 Transformer on load condition

3.15.8 Transformer Power Equation

If the secondary coil is attached to a load that allows current to flow, electrical power is
transmitted from the primary circuit to the secondary circuit. Ideally, the transformer is perfectly
efficient; all the incoming energy is transformed from the primary circuit to the magnetic field
and into the secondary circuit. If this condition is met, the incoming electric power must equal the
outgoing power.
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Pincoming = IPVP = Poutgoing = ISVS

giving the ideal transformer equation

Vs N Ip
= s =
Vp N p Is

Figure 3.15.8 The ideal transformer as an circuit element

If the voltage is increased (stepped up) (VS > VP), then the current is decreased (stepped down) (IS
< IP) by the same factor. Transformers are efficient so this formula is a reasonable approximation.
The impedance in one circuit is transformed by the square of the turn ratio.

3.15.9 Transformer Efficiency

The efficiency of a transformer, like any other device, is defined as the ratio of useful output EASA – 147 Course Notes
power to input power.

η = (Output power) / (Input power)

The percentage efficiency of a transformer is in the range of 95 to 99%. For large power
transformers with low loss designs, the efficiency can be as high as 99.7%. There is a possibility
of error if the efficiency is determined from the measured values of output and input powers, as
the wattmeter readings may have an error of about 1%. Hence, it is a more accurate approach if
the efficiency is determined using the measured values of losses by the open circuit and short
circuit tests. The efficiency is then given as

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Output power
η=
Output power + Losses
V2I2 Cosθ 2 V2I2 Cosθ 2
η= =
V2I2 Cosθ 2 + PC + PL V2I2 Cosθ 2 + PC + I22Req2

Although the load power factor has some effect on the mutual flux and hence the core loss, the
effect is insignificant, allowing us to assume that the core loss is constant at all the load
conditions. Hence, for the assumed constant values of PC and V2 (secondary terminal load voltage
also varies with load, but the variation is too small to be accounted in efficiency calculations), the
condition for maximum efficiency, at a given load power factor, can be derived by differentiating
the expression for η with respect to I2 and equating it to zero:

dη d V2I2 Cosθ 2
= [ ]=0
dI 2 dI 2 V2I2 Cosθ 2 + PC + I22Req2

Solving it further, we get

PC = I22Req2.

Thus, the maximum efficiency occurs at a load at which variable load loss equals the constant
core (no-load) loss. Further,

I2 2 PC
2
= 2
I2 FL I2 FL Req2

where I2FL is the full-load (rated) current and I22FLReq2 is the load loss at the rated load conditions.
Therefore, the per-unit load at which the maximum efficiency occurs is

I2 PC
(per-unit load) ηmax = =
I2FL (PL)FL
EASA – 147 Course Notes

The value of maximum efficiency can be found out by substituting the value of I2 from equation
in equation. Similarly, it can easily be shown that the maximum efficiency, for a given load,
occurs at unity power factor (cosθ=1). The rating of transformers is expressed in volt-amperes
and not in watts because heating (temperature) determines the life of the transformers. Hence, the
rated output is limited by the losses, which depend on the voltage (no-load loss) and the current
(load loss), and are almost unaffected by the load power factor. The amount of heat depends on
the r.m.s. values of current and voltage and not on the power factor. Hence, the power delivered
through a transformer may not be a unique value. The rating of a transformer is therefore not
expressed in power rating (watts) but by the one which indicates the apparent power (volt-
amperes) that it can deliver.
3.15.10 Polarity of a Transformer

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Windings on transformers or other electrical machines are marked to indicate terminals of like
polarity. Consider the two windings shown in Fig.3.15.9(a). Terminals 1 and 3 are identical,
because currents entering these terminals produce fluxes in the same direction in the core that
forms the common magnetic path. For the same reason, terminals 2 and 4 are identical. If these
two windings are linked by a common time-varying flux, voltages will be induced in these
windings such that, if at a particular instant the potential of terminal 1 is positive with respect to
terminal 2, then at the same instant the potential of terminal 3 will be positive with respect to
terminal 4. In other words, induced voltages e12 and e34 are in phase. Identical terminals such as
1 and 3 or 2 and 4 are sometimes marked by dots or ± as shown in Fig.3.15.9(b). These are
called the polarity markings of the windings. They indicate how the windings are wound on the
core.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.15.9 Polarity determination.

If the windings can be visually seen in a machine, the polarities can be determined. However,
usually only the terminals of the windings are brought outside the machine. Nevertheless, it is
possible to determine the polarities of the windings experimentally. A simple method is illustrated
in Fig.3.15.9(c), in which terminals 2 and 4 are connected together and winding 1-2 is connected
to an ac supply.

The voltages across 1-2, 3-4, and 1-3 are measured by a voltmeter. Let these voltage readings be
called V12 , V34 , and V13 respectively. If a voltmeter reading V13 is the sum of voltmeter readings
V12 and V34 (i.e., V13 ≅ V12 + V34 ), it means that at any instant when the potential of terminal 1 is
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positive with respect to terminal 2, the potential of terminal 4 is positive with respect to terminal
3. The induced voltages e12 and e43 are in phase, as shown in Fig.3.15.9(c), making e13 = e12 + e43 .
Consequently, terminals 1 and 4 are identical (or same polarity) terminals. If the voltmeter
reading V13 is the difference between voltmeter readings V12 and V34 (i.e., V13 ≅ V12 − V34 ), then 1
and 3 are terminals of the same polarity.

Polarities of windings must be known if transformers are connected in parallel to share a common
load. Fig.3.15.10(a) shows the parallel connection of two single-phase (1 ϕ ) transformers. This is
the correct connection because secondary voltages e21 and e22 oppose each other internally. The
connection shown in Fig.3.15.10(b) is wrong, because e21 and e22 aid each other internally and a
large circulating current icir will flow in the windings and may damage the transformers. For
three-phase connection of transformers, the winding polarities must also be known.

Fig.3.15.10 Parallel operation of single-phase transformers. (a) Correct connection. (b) Wrong connection.

3.15.10.1 Polarity Tests

To determine whether a transformer possesses additive or subtractive polarity, we proceed as EASA – 147 Course Notes
follows (Fig. 3.15.11):

1. Connect the high voltage winding to a low voltage (say 120V) AC source V1 .
2. Connect a jumper J between any two adjacent HV and LV terminals.
3. Connect a voltmeter EX between the other two adjacent HV and LV terminals.
4. Connect another voltmeter EP across the HV winding. If EX gives a higher reading than EP,
the polarity is additive. This tells us that Hl and X1 are diagonally opposite. On the other
hand, if EX gives a lower reading than EP, the polarity is subtractive, and terminals Hl and Xl
are adjacent.

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Figure 3.15.11 Determining the polarity of a transformer using an ac source.

In this polarity text, jumper J effectively connects the secondary voltage ES in series with the
primary voltage EP. Consequently, ES either adds to or subtracts from Ep. In other words, EX = EP
+ ES or EX = EP – ES, depending on the polarity. We can now see how the terms additive and
subtractive originated.

In making the polarity test, an ordinary 120 V, 60 Hz source can be connected to the HV winding,
even though its nominal voltage may be several hundred kilovolts.

3.15.11 Autotransformer

An autotransformer (sometimes called autoformer) is an electrical transformer with only one

winding. The winding has at least three electrical connection points called taps. The voltage
source and the load are each connected to two taps. One tap at the end of the winding is a
common connection to both circuits (source and load). Each tap corresponds to a different source
or load voltage. In an autotransformer a portion of the same winding acts as part of both the
primary and secondary winding.
EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.15.12 Single-phase tapped autotransformer with output voltage range of 40%–115% of input.

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The ratio of secondary to primary voltages is equal to the ratio of the number of turns of the
winding they connect to. For example, connecting at the middle and bottom of the
autotransformer will half the voltage. Depending on the application, that portion of the winding
used solely in the higher-voltage (lower current) portion may be wound with wire of a smaller
gauge, though the entire winding is directly connected.

3.15.11.1 Limitation

A failure of the insulation or the windings of an autotransformer can result in full input voltage
applied to the output. This is an important safety consideration when deciding to use an
autotransformer in a given application.

Because it requires both fewer windings and a smaller core, an autotransformer for power
applications is typically lighter and less costly than a two-winding transformer, up to a voltage
ratio of about 3:1 - beyond that range a two-winding transformer is usually more economical.

In three phase power transmission applications, autotransformers have the limitations of not
suppressing harmonic currents and as acting as another source of ground fault currents. A large
three-phase autotransformer may have a "buried" delta winding, not connected to the outside of
the tank, to absorb some harmonic currents.

A special form of autotransformer called a "zig zag" is used to provide grounding (earthing) on
three-phase systems that otherwise have no connection to ground (earth). A zig-zag transformer a
path for current that is common to all three phases (so-called "zero sequence" current).

Like multiple-winding transformers, autotransformers operate on time-varying magnetic fields

and so cannot be used directly on DC.

3.15.11.2 Applications
EASA – 147 Course Notes
Auto transformers are used for:

 Line boosters to compensate for voltage drops in long cable runs.

 Motor starting, several tappings being used in sequence to apply an increasing voltage to
the motor
 Impedance matching
 To step the 115V ac supply down to 26V for aircraft lighting circuits.

The major disadvantage of auto transformers, especially step down types, is that should the
common portion of the winding go open circuit, the primary voltage is applied directly to the load
on the secondary.

It was for this reason that autotransformers were rarely used on aircraft but improved reliability,
through modern manufacturing methods, has made them increasingly more common.
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Figure 3.15.13 Use of Autotransformer in aircraft lighting system

3.15.12 Three Phase Transformers

The windings on each limb of a three-phase transformer are like the windings of a single-phase
transformer. The flux ϕ produced by the primary voltage also links with the secondary winding,
inducing an e.m.f. proportional to the turns ratio. The phase of the secondary voltage will also be
related the primary phase. The three primary phases (one on each limb) will have a 1200 phase
difference from each other. It follows that the secondary windings on each limb will also have a
EASA – 147 Course Notes
1200 phase difference from each other and can be connected to give a three-phase supply. It is
important to note, however, that it is the phase voltage ratio which is proportional to the turns
ratio of the windings on one limb.

Both primary and secondary windings may be connected either star or delta. Figure 3.15.14(a)
shows a transformer with the primary winding connected star and the secondary connected delta.
In circuit diagram it is usual to show the phase windings spaced 1200 apart, as indicated in figure
3.15.14(b).

Vp and Vs are the primary and secondary line voltages, respectively. Since the primary is star-
connected, the phase voltage Vphp = Vp/1.73, but with the secondary delta-connected the line and

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phase voltages are the same. In this case, the turns ratio does not give the line voltage ratio, that
is, the ratio of the transformer terminal voltages.

Figure 3.15.14 Three-phase transformer, Star-delta connection (a) Winding connections (b) Circuit Diagram

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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NOTES

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NOTES

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Chapter 16
Filters

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3.16 FILTERS
3.16.1 Introduction

Any combination of passive (R, L, and C) and/or active (transistors or operational amplifiers)
elements designed to select or reject a band of frequencies is called a filter. In communication
systems, filters are employed to pass those frequencies containing the desired information and to
reject the remaining frequencies. In stereo systems, filters can be used to isolate particular bands
of frequencies for increased or decreased emphasis by the output acoustical system (amplifier,
speaker,etc.). Filters are employed to filter out any unwanted frequencies, commonly called noise,
due to the nonlinear characteristics of some electronic devices or signals picked up from the
surrounding medium. In general, there are two classifications of filters:

1. Passive filters are those filters composed of series or parallel combinations of R, L, and C
elements.
2. Active filters are filters that employ active devices such as transistors and operational
amplifiers in combination with R, L, and C elements.

In general, all filters belong to the four broad categories of low-pass, high-pass, pass-band, and
stop-band. For each form there are critical frequencies that define the regions of pass-bands and
stop-bands (often called reject bands). Any frequency in the pass-band will pass through to the
next stage with at least 70.7% of the maximum output voltage. For some stop-band filters, the
stop-band is defined by conditions other than the 0.707 level. In fact, for many stop-band filters,
the condition that Vo= 1/1000Vmax (corresponding with -60 dB in the discussion to follow) is
used to define the stop-band region, with the pass-band continuing to be defined by the 0.707-V
level. The resulting frequencies between the two regions are then called the transition frequencies
and establish the transition region.

3.16.2 Low-Pass Filter

The R-C filter, incredibly simple in design, can be used as a low-pass or a high-pass filter. If the
output is taken off the capacitor, as shown in figure 3.16.1(a), it will respond as a low-pass filter.
EASA – 147 Course Notes
If the positions of the resistor and capacitor are interchanged and the output is taken off the
resistor, the response will be that of a high-pass filter.

Figure 3.16.1 (a) Low-pass filter. (b) Vo versus frequency for a low-pass R-C filter

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A glance at figure 3.16.1(b) reveals that the circuit should behave in a manner that will result in a
high-level output for low frequencies and a declining level for frequencies above the critical
value. Let us first examine the network at the frequency extremes of f = 0 Hz and very high
frequencies to test the response of the circuit.

At f =0 Hz,
1
XC = = αΩ
2π fC

and the open-circuit equivalent can be substituted for the capacitor, as shown in figure 3.16.2(a),
resulting in V0 = Vi. At very high frequencies, the reactance is
1
XC = = 0Ω
2π fC

and the short-circuit equivalent can be substituted for the capacitor, as shown in figure 3.16.2(b),
resulting in V0= 0 V

Figure 3.16.2 (a) R-C low-pass filter at low frequencies (b) R-C low-pass filter at high frequencies.

Uses

When rectifiers are used to produce the d.c. supplies of electronic systems, a large ripple
introduces undesirable noise and may even mask the effect of the signal voltage. Low-pass filters
are added to smooth the output voltage waveform, this being one of the most common
applications of filters in electrical circuits. EASA – 147 Course Notes

Filters are employed to isolate various sections of a complete system and thus to prevent
undesired interactions. For example, the insertion of low-pass decoupling filters between each of
several amplifier stages and a common power supply reduces interaction due to the common
power supply impedance.

3.16.3 High-Pass Filter

A high-pass R-C filter can be constructed by simply reversing the positions of the capacitor and
resistor, as shown in figure 3.16.3(a). Figure 3.16.3(b) reveals that the circuit should behave in a
manner that will result in a high-level output for high frequencies and a declining level for
frequencies below the critical value.
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Figure 3.16.3 (a) High-pass filter (b) V0 versus frequency for a high-pass filter

At very high frequencies the reactance of the capacitor is very small, and the short-circuit
equivalent can be substituted, as shown in figure 3-195(a). The result is that Vo =Vi.

Figure 3.16.4(a) R-C high-pass filter at very high frequencies. (b) R-C high-pass filter at f = 0 Hz

At f = 0 Hz, the reactance of the capacitor is quite high, and the open-circuit equivalent can be
substituted, as shown in figure 3.16.4 (b). In this case, V0 =0 V.

For the high-pass R-C filter, the application of any frequency greater than fc will result in an
output voltage V0 that is at least 70.7% of the magnitude of the input signal. For any frequency
below fc, the output is less than 70.7% of the applied signal.

3.16.4 Pass-Band Filter

A number of methods are used to establish the pass-band characteristic. One method employs
both a low-pass and a high-pass filter in cascade, as shown in figure 3.16.5.The components are
chosen to establish a cutoff frequency for the high-pass filter that is lower than the critical EASA – 147 Course Notes
frequency of the low-pass filter, as shown in figure 3.16.6. A frequency f1 may pass through the
low-pass filter but have little effect on V0 due to the reject characteristics of the high-pass filter. A
frequency f2 may pass through the high-pass filter unmolested but be prohibited from reaching the
high-pass filter by the low-pass characteristics. A frequency f0 near the center of the pass-band
will pass through both filters with very little degeneration.

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Figure 3.16.5Frequency response for a low-pass and a high-pass filter using the same elements

Figure3.16.6 Phase plots for a low-pass and a high-pass filter using the same elements.

The network as shown in figure 3.16.7(a) will generate the characteristics of figure 3.16.7(b).
However, there is a loading between stages at each frequency that will affect the level of V0.
Through proper design, the level of V0 may be very near the level of Vi in the pass-band, but it
will never equal it exactly. In addition, as the critical frequencies of each filter get closer and
closer together to increase the quality factor of the response curve, the peak values within the
pass-band will continue to drop. For cases, whereV0max Vimax the bandwidth is defined at 0.707
of the resulting V0max.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.16.7 (a) Band-Pass filter (b) Band-Pass characteristics

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3.16.5 Stop-Band Filters

Stop-band filters can also be constructed using a low-pass and a high-pass filter. However, rather
than the cascaded configuration used for the pass-band filter, a parallel arrangement is required,
as shown in figure 3.16.8(a). A low-frequency f1 can pass through the low-pass filter, and a
higher-frequency f2 can use the parallel path, as shown in figure 3.16.8(b). However, a frequency
such as f0 in the reject-band is higher than the low-pass critical frequency and lower than the
high-pass critical frequency, and is therefore prevented from contributing to the levels of V0
above 0.707Vmax.

Figure 3.16.8(a) Stop-band filter (b) Band-Stop characteristics

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Chapter 17
AC Generators

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3.17 AC GENERATORS
3.17.1 Introduction

In the electric power generation system, if the output is picked off in such a way that the current
and voltage remains alternating in nature in the external circuit, then the generator is called an
AC Generator.

Generators powering an aircraft electrical system are mostly AC generators and those are
designed to meet specific requirements of voltage and frequency. Sometimes, AC generators,
specially the small ones, are called simply “Generators”. Generators may be single, two, three or
six phase generators. Some has rotary armature and some rotary field, depending upon
construction.

3.17.2 Rotation of loop in a magnetic field and waveform produced

One way to generate an ac voltage is to rotate a coil of wire at constant angular velocity in a fixed
magnetic field, figure 3.17.1. (Slip rings and brushes connect the coil to the load.) The magnitude
of the resulting voltage is proportional to the rate at which flux lines are cut (Faraday’s law), and
its polarity is dependent on the direction the coil sides move through the field. Since the rate of
cutting flux varies with time, the resulting voltage will also vary with time. For example in (a),
since the coil sides are moving parallel to the field, no flux lines are being cut and the induced
voltage at this instant (and hence the current) is zero. (This is defined as the 00 position of the
coil.) As the coil rotates from the 00 position, coil sides AA' and BB' cut across flux lines; hence,
voltage builds, reaching a peak when flux is cut at the maximum rate in the 900 position as in (b).
Note the polarity of the voltage and the direction of current. As the coil rotates further, voltage
decreases, reaching zero at the 1800 position when the coil sides again move parallel to the field
as in (c). At this point, the coil has gone through a half-evolution.

During the second half-revolution, coil sides cut flux in directions opposite to that which they did
in the first half revolution; hence, the polarity of the induced voltage reverses. As indicated in (d),
EASA – 147 Course Notes
voltage reaches a peak at the 2700 point, and, since the polarity of the voltage has changed, so has
the direction of current. When the coil reaches the 3600 position, voltage is again zero and the
cycle starts over. Figure 3.17.1 shows one cycle of the resulting waveform. Since the coil rotates
continuously, the voltage produced will be a repetitive, periodic waveform.

In practice, the coil of figure 3.17.1 consists of many turns wound on an iron core. The coil, core,
and slip rings rotate as a unit.

In figure 3.17.1, the magnetic field is fixed and the coil rotates. While small generators are built
this way, large ac generators usually have the opposite construction, that is, their coils are fixed
and the magnetic field is rotated instead. In addition, large ac generators are usually made as
three-phase machines with three sets of coils instead of one. This is covered in next session.

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However, although its details are oversimplified, the generator of figure 3.17.1 gives a true
picture of the voltage produced by a real ac generator.

Figure 3.17.1 Generating an ac voltage. The 0° position of the coil is defined as in (a)where the coil sides move
parallel to the flux lines.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.17.2 Coil voltage versus angular position.

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Output voltage

The instantaneous value of emf induced in the loop is given by:

𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝐸𝐸𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆

Where, EMax = BlV and θ is the angle of the conductor with respect to the field.

Output frequency

The frequency of the alternating volt age generated will depend upon:

 The number of poles.

 The speed of rotation of the rotor.

Thus for every 2 poles, (N and S), 1 cycle is generated, therefore, frequency

𝑃𝑃 𝑁𝑁
𝑓𝑓 = ×
2 60
where,

P = number of poles
N = revolutions per minute

Example; Find the frequency of an alternator fitted with a four pole rotor which is driven at 1500
rev/mm.

𝑃𝑃 𝑁𝑁 4 1500
𝑓𝑓 = × = × = 50 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻
2 60 2 60

Since the number of poles are constant for a particular generator then clearly the frequency is
dependent on the speed only and this speed is termed “synchronous speed”; it is the speed at EASA – 147 Course Notes
which the generator must be run to generate the required frequency.

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3.17.3 AC Generator Construction and Operation

The major difference between an AC Generator and a DC Generator is the method of connection
to the external circuit; that is, the AC generator is connected to the external circuit by slip rings,
but the DC generator is connected by a commutator. Other details in construction are more or
less is same except for the way of internal circuit connections and peripherals which vary
according to type/class of Generators. Subsequent sections outline diagrams/schematics of
outstanding classes/types of Generators to show their construction, arrangement of internal circuit
connections and so on.

3.17.3.1 Revolving Armature Type Three Phase AC Generator

Three-phase generators have three sets of windings and thus produce three ac voltages instead of
one. To get at the idea, consider first the elementary single-phase generator of figure 3.17.3. As
coil AAʹ rotates, it produces a sinusoidal waveform eAAʹ as indicated in (b). This voltage can be
represented by phasor EAÁ as shown in (c).

Figure 3.17.3 A basic single-phase generator. EASA – 147 Course Notes

If two more windings are added as in figure 3.17.3, two additional voltages are generated. Since
these windings are identical with AAʹ (except for their position on the rotor), they produce
identical voltages. However, since coil BBʹ is placed 120° behind coil AAʹ, voltage eBB’ lags eAAʹ
by 1200; similarly, coil CCʹ, which is placed ahead of coil AAʹ by 1200, produces voltage eCCʹ that
leads by 1200. Waveforms are shown in (b) and phasors in (c). As indicated, the generated
voltages are equal in magnitude and phase displaced by 1200. Thus, if EAAʹ is at 00, then EBB’ will
be at -1200 and ECCʹ will be at +1200. Assuming an rms value of 120V and a reference position of
00 for phasor EAAʹ, for example, yields EAAʹ = 120V 00, EBBʹ = 120V -120° and ECCʹ = 120 V 1200.
Such a set of voltages is said to be balanced. Because of this fixed relationship between balanced
voltages, you can, if you know one voltage, easily determine the other two.

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Figure 3.17.4 Generating three-phase voltages. Three sets of coils are used to produce three balanced voltages.

3.17.3.2 Revolving Field Type Three Phase AC Generator

The rotating-field type of Generator (figure 3.17.5) has a stationary armature winding (stator) and
a rotating-field winding (rotor). The advantage of having a stationary armature winding is that the
armature can be connected directly to the load without having sliding contacts in the load circuit.
A rotating armature would require slip rings and brushes to conduct the load current from the
armature to the external circuit.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.17.5 AC Generator – Rotating Field Type

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Figure 3.17.6 Internal Construction of Rotating Field Type AC Generator

Slip rings have a relatively short service life and arc-over is a continual hazard; therefore, high-
voltage generators are usually of the stationary-armature, rotating-field type. The voltage and
current supplied to the rotating field are relatively small, and slip rings and brushes for this circuit
are adequate. The direct connection to the armature circuit makes possible the use of large cross-
section conductors, adequately insulated for high voltage.

3.17.3.2.1 Brushless AC Generator Used in Modern Aircraft

The alternators used in modern aircraft avoid slip ring and brushes. Slip-rings and brushes require
maintenance in the workshop thereby incurring an associated cost burden. The brushless
generator is a more complex device but has significantly increased reliability coupled with
reduced maintenance requirements.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.17.7 A practical brushless AC generator arrangement

A schematic diagram for the brushless generator is shown in Fig. 3.17.7; the device can be
divided into three main sections:
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● permanent magnet generator
● rotating field
● three-phase output.

The AC generator uses a brushless arrangement based on a rotating rectifier and permanent
magnet generator (PMG). The output of the PMG rectifier is fed to the voltage regulator which
provides current for the primary exciter field winding. The primary exciter field induces current
into a three-phase rotor winding. The output of this winding is fed to the shaft-mounted rectifier
diodes which produce a pulsating DC output which is fed to the rotating field winding. It is
important to note that the excitation system is an integral part of the rotor and that there is no
direct electrical connection between the stator and rotor.

The output of the main three-phase generator is supplied via current transformers (one for each
phase) that monitor the load current in each line. An additional current transformer can also be
present in the neutral line to detect an out-of-balance condition (when the load is unbalanced an
appreciable current will flow in the generator’s neutral connection).

The generator output is fed to the various aircraft systems and a solid-state regulator. This
rectifies the output and sends a regulated direct current to the stator exciter field of the PMG. The
regulator maintains the output of the generator at 115 V AC and is normally contained within a
generator control unit (GCU).

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.17.8 Layout of a typical brushless AC generator

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Although the regulator controls the output voltage of the generator, its frequency will vary
depending on the speed of shaft rotation. Variable frequency power supplies (sometimes called
frequency wild) are acceptable for resistive loads, e.g. de-icing, but they are not suitable for many
induction motor loads that need to run at constant speed, e.g. fuel pumps and gyroscopic
instruments. Furthermore, certain loads are designed for optimum efficiency at the specified
frequency of 400 Hz, e.g. cooling fans. Some larger multi-engine aircraft operate the generators
in parallel; it is essential that each generator is operating at the same frequency. Constant
frequency can be achieved in one of two ways: controlling the shaft speed by electromechanical
methods using a constant speed drive (CSD) or by controlling the generator output frequency
electronically (variable speed constant frequency: VSCF).

3.17.4 Alternators

3.17.4.1 Single – Phase Alternator

A single-phase alternator has all the armature conductors connected in series, as one winding,
across which an output voltage is generated. The schematic diagram shown in figure 3.17.9
illustrates a two-pole, single-phase alternator. The stator winding is in two distinct coils, both
being wound in the same direction around the stator frame. The rotor consists of two poles of
opposite polarity.

As the rotor turns, its poles induce ac voltages in the stator windings. The two coils of the stator
winding are connected to each other in such a way that the ac voltages induced in them are in
phase; therefore, they add directly.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.17.9 Single Phase Alternator

Obviously, a single-phase alternator can be built with many pairs of poles for lower speed
operation. Single-phase alternators are often used for low-power generators; and in small sizes,
a permanent magnet is often used for the rotor.

3.17.4.2 Two-Phase Alternators

Multiphase (or poly-phase) alternators have two or more single-phase windings symmetrically
spaced around the stator. In a two-phase alternator there are two single-phase windings,

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physically spaced so that the ac voltage induced in one is 90° out of phase with the voltage
induced in the other. The windings are electrically separate from each other. The only way to
get a 90° phase difference is to space the two windings so that, when one is being cut by
maximum flux, the other is being cut by minimum flux.

The schematic diagram (fig. 3.17.10) below illustrates a two-pole, two-phase alternator. The
stator consists of two single-phase windings completely separated from one another. Each
winding is made up of two parts, which are so connected that their voltages add. The rotor is
identical to that used in the single-phase alternator.

Figure 3.17.10 Two Phase Two-Pole Alternator

In the schematic, the rotor poles are opposite the windings of phase A. Therefore, the voltage EASA – 147 Course Notes
induced in phase A is maximum, and the voltage induced in phase B is zero. As the rotor
continues rotating, it moves away from the A windings and approaches the B windings. As a
result, the voltage induced in phase A decreases from its maximum value, and the voltage
induced in phase B increases from zero, and so on, for a complete rotation of the rotor. Notice
that a 90° rotation of the rotor corresponds to one quarter of a cycle, or 90°.

The waveform picture shows the voltages induced in phase A and phase B for one cycle. The two
voltages are 90° out of phase.

In some cases, the two-phase generator connected with a three-wire output. As shown in the
vector diagram, the voltage from terminals A to B (EAB) is equal to the vector sum of the voltage

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from A to C and from C to B. Thus, if the voltage from each winding is 100 volts, the total output
EAB is 141 volts. As you know EAB can also be obtained by solving the right triangle analytically.

3.17.4.3 Three Phase Alternator

The three-phase alternator, as the name implies, has three single phase windings so spaced that
the voltage induced in any one is phase displaced by 120° from the other two. A schematic
diagram (fig. 3.17.11) of a three phase stator, showing all the coils, becomes complex, and it is
difficult to see what is actually happening. So the simplified schematic below shows the windings
of each single phase lumped together as one winding. The rotor is omitted for simplicity. The
voltage waveforms generated across each phase are drawn on a graph, phase-displaced 1200 from
one another.

The three-phase alternator shown in this schematic is essentially three single-phase alternators
whose generated voltages are out of phase by 1200. The three phases are independent of each
other.

Figure 3.17.11 Three Phase Alternator

Instead of having six leads coming out of the three-phase alternator, three leads-one from each
phase-are connected together to form what is called Y (usually designated a wye, or a star,
connection). The point of connection is called the neutral, and the voltage from this point to any
one of the line leads will be the phase voltage. The total voltage, or line voltage, across any two
line leads is the vector sum of the individual phase voltages. Since the windings form only one EASA – 147 Course Notes
path for current flow between phases, the line and phase currents are equal.

A three-phase stator can also be connected so that the phases are connected end to end; it is then
delta connected. In the delta connection the line voltages are equal to the phase voltage, but the
line currents will be equal to the vector sum of the phase currents. Wye and delta connections are
used not only for alternators but also for power transmission and ac motors.

Very large ac generators and power systems use six or more phases; however, the principles
remain the same. Multiphase circuits are used to reduce the number of lines necessary for power
transmission.

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3.17.5 Three Phase Generator Connection

3.17.5.1 Three Phase Star / Y Connection

The wye-connected generator may have a neutral lead brought out. Each load has two phases
in series. Thus, the current and voltage must be determined by vectors. Three-phase wye-
connected systems are the most common power available; however, it is usually obtained
from a three-phase transmission line via transformers.

Figure 3.17.12 Y-Connected Alternator

In the wye-connected system, the voltage and current from line to line (EAB, EBC, EAC) are the
vector sums of the voltage from two of the windings. Thus: For the line-to-line loads, the
resultant voltages are still I200 apart in phase, but the voltages are equal to the vector sum of
the output from two windings. Tracing the circuit, for example, from A to B, and using Kirch-
hoff's voltage law, it is apparent that EAB = EAN + ENB (vectorially). Since ENB is the negative
of EBN (other direction), it is necessary to reverse the direction of EBN before addition, as
shown in the vector diagram in figure 3.17.13.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.17.13 Vector diagram for Line to Line and Line to Neutral
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The voltage can be obtained graphically or analytically. If you obtained it graphically, you would
find that the resultant voltage, line to line, would be about 1.7 times the voltage from line to
neutral (each separate winding). You can calculate the resultant voltage analytically, but you
must do it in a slightly more complicated way. To perform the vector addition, it is necessary to
resolve each vector into the two axes, 90° apart, so we can use the Pythagorean theorem to find
the resultant voltage. This is easy for EAN, since it is already on one of the axes. For ENC we have
to resolve it into its two components, 90° apart.

Figure 3.17.14 Phasor diagram for 3 phase Y connection

The projections of ENC into the vertical and horizontal axes are obtained from the relationships,
vertical
cosθ =
hypotenuse
vertical = cos300 x ENC
= 0.866 x ENC (hypotenuse)
and
horizontal
sinθ =
hypotenuse
horizontal = sin300 x ENC
= 0.5 x ENC

If the individual phase voltages (line to neutral) are 120 volts each, then by the Pythagorean
EASA – 147 Course Notes
theorem
EAC = (0.866 x120) 2 +(1.5 x120) 2 = 208 volts

The phase angle (relative to EAN) can be obtained from the relationship
0.866EAN 0.866
θ = arc tan or arc tan = 300
1.5EAN 1.5

Since ENC and EAN are equal for a resistive load (unity power factor), the voltages, line to line are,
3 (1.73) times (not twice) the individual winding voltage and are shifted (lagging) by 30° with
respect to the individual winding phase. The line currents are 30° out of phase with the line
voltage.

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When a neutral is used, the line currents and line voltages are equal to the individual phases from
the generator. No current flows in the neutral when the loads are equal across each phase.

3.17.5.2 Three Phase Delta Connection

A three-phase stator can also be connected in a delta configuration. In the delta connection, the
end of the first winding is connected to the start of the second, the end of the second to the start of
the third, etc.

Figure 3.17.15 Delta connected alternator

The delta connection is similar to the wye except that the line currents have two components
contributed from two windings (e.g., I1 has a contribution from IA and IC). As for the wye
connection, a vector diagram can be drawn based on these line currents. The vector diagram for
the wye connection can be solved both graphically and analytically. By analogy to the wye circuit
solution, it can be showed that when the power factor is unity and the phases are uniformly
loaded, the line currents are equal and are 120° apart. The line voltages are equal to the phase
voltages and are 120° apart. The line currents are 30° out of phase with the line voltages. And the
line currents are √3 (1.73) times the phase current.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.17.16 Phase diagram of delta connected alternator

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3.17.6 Permanent Magnet Generators

The voltage generated in any dc generator is inherently alternating and only becomes dc after it has
been rectified by the commutator.

Figure 3.17.17 shows an elementary ac generator composed of a coil that revolves at 60 r/min
between the N, S poles of a permanent magnet. The rotation is due to an external driving force, such
as a motor (not shown). The coil is connected to two slip rings mounted on the shaft. The slip rings
are connected to an external load by means of two stationary brushes x and y.

Figure 3.17.17 Schematic diagram of an elementary ac generator turning at 1 revolution per second.

As the coil rotates, a voltage is induced according to E=Blv, between its terminals A and D,

Where

E = induced voltage (V)

EASA – 147 Course Notes
B = flux density (T)
l = active length of the conductor in the magnetic field (m)
v = relative speed of the conductor (m/s)

This voltage appears between the brushes and, therefore, across the load. The voltage is generated
because the conductors of the coil cut across the flux produced by the N, S poles. The induced
voltage is therefore maximum (20V, say) when the coil is momentarily in the horizontal position,
as shown. No flux is cut when the coil is momentarily in the vertical position; consequently the
voltage at these instants is zero. Another feature of the voltage is that its polarity changes every
time the coil makes half a turn. The voltage can therefore be represented as a function of the
angle of rotation (Figure 3.17.18). The wave shape depends upon the shape of the N, S poles. We
assume the poles were designed to generate the sinusoidal wave shown.

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Figure 3.17.18 Voltage induced in the ac generator as a function of the angle of rotation.

The coil in our example revolves at uniform speed, therefore each angle of rotation corresponds
to a specific interval of time. Because the coil makes one turn per second, the angle of 360° in
figure 3.17.17 corresponds to an interval of one second. Consequently, we can also represent the
induced voltage as a function of time (Figure 3.17.19).

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.17.19 Voltage induced as a function of time

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NOTES

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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Chapter 18
AC Motors

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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3.18 AC MOTORS
3.18.1 Introduction

Because of their advantages, many types of aircraft motors are designed to operate on alternating
current. In general, AC motors are less expensive than comparable DC motors. In many instances,
AC motors do not use brushes and commutators so sparking at the brushes is avoided. AC motors
are reliable and require little maintenance. They are also well suited for constant speed
applications and certain types are manufactured that have, within limits, variable speed
characteristics. Alternating current motors are designed to operate on poly phase or single phase
lines and at several voltage ratings. The speed of rotation of an AC motor depends upon the
number of poles and the frequency of the electrical source of power:

y
rpm =

Since airplane electrical systems typically operate at 400 cycles, an electric motor at this
frequency operates at about seven times the speed of a 60 cycle commercial motor with the same
number of poles. Because of this high speed of rotation, 400-cycle AC motors are suitable for
operating small high-speed rotors, through reduction gears, in lifting and moving heavy loads,
such as the wing flaps, the retractable landing gear, and the starting of engines. The 400-cycle
induction type motor operates at speeds ranging from 6,000 rpm to 24,000 rpm. Alternating
current motors are rated in horsepower output, operating voltage, full load current, speed, number
of phases, and frequency. Whether the motors operate continuously or intermittently (for short
intervals) is also considered in the rating.

3.18.2 Types of AC Motors

There are two general types of AC motors used in aircraft systems: induction motors and
synchronous motors. Either type may be single phase, two phase, or three phase. Three phase
induction motors are used where large amounts of power are required. They operate such devices EASA – 147 Course Notes
as starters, flaps, landing gears, and hydraulic pumps. Single phase induction motors are used to
operate devices such as surface locks, intercooler shutters, and oil shutoff valves in which the
power requirement is low. Three phase synchronous motors operate at constant synchronous
speeds and are commonly used to operate flux gate compasses and propeller synchronizer
systems. Single phase synchronous motors are common sources of power to operate electric
clocks and other small precision equipment. They require some auxiliary method to bring them up
to synchronous speeds; that is, to start them. Usually the starting winding consists of an auxiliary
stator winding.

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3.18.3 Three Phase Induction Motor

The three phase AC induction motor is also called a squirrel cage motor. Both single phase and
three phase motors operate on the principle of a rotating magnetic field. A horseshoe magnet held
over a compass needle is a simple illustration of the principle of the rotating field. The needle will
take a position parallel to the magnetic flux passing between the two poles of the magnet. If the
magnet is rotated, the compass needle will follow. A rotating magnetic field can be produced by a
two or three phase current flowing through two or more groups of coils wound on inwardly
projecting poles of an iron frame. The coils on each group of poles are wound alternately in
opposite directions to produce opposite polarity, and each group is connected to a separate phase
of voltage. The operating principle depends on a revolving, or rotating, magnetic field to produce
torque. The key to understanding the induction motor is a thorough understanding of the rotating
magnetic field.

3.18.3.1 Construction

This motor is very robust and, because of its simplicity and trouble free features, it is the type of
motor most commonly employed for industrial use. There are only three essential parts, namely
the stator frame, the stator windings and the squirrel cage rotor.

The Stator Frame

The stator frame may be constructed from cast iron, aluminium or, rolled steel. Its purpose is to
provide mechanical protection and support for the stator laminated metal core, windings and
arrangements for ventilation.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.18.3 Stator frame with windings

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The Stator Windings

Three symmetrically placed windings (one for each phase) are fitted into slotted laminations,
which are made from high-grade alloy steel to reduce the effects of eddy currents. Generally the
six ends of the three windings are brought out into a terminal box. Figure 3.18.3 shows the stator
windings fitted into the slotted laminations. The six coloured leads from the winding ends are also
visible.

These windings consist of copper wire insulated with varnish, which are fitted into insulated
slotted laminations. The impregnated varnish remains rigid at all working temperatures. It has a
high insulation resistance and a high resistance to moisture, saline atmosphere, acid or alkaline
fumes and also oil and grease, so giving complete reliability under all conditions.

Figure 3.18.4 shows a typical motor terminal block. The six leads from inside the motor must be
connected to the terminal block in the correct order.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.18.4 three phase motor terminal block

Figure 3.18.5 shows the six leads from inside the motor connected to the terminal block. The
colours of these leads may differ from one manufacturer to another. A rewound motor will most
likely have different colours.

Figure 3.18.6 shows how the windings are arranged in the slots of a typical stator. The layers of
insulation between the windings and the laminations are also visible.

The ends of the windings of the three-phase induction motor are identified as shown in Figure
3.18.7.

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It is essential that the polarity of the windings, are such that the three magnetic fields, are acting in
the correct direction. This means that the start and finish ends of the windings must be correctly
identified before star or delta interconnections are made. Such markings are usually attached to
the ends of the windings in the motor terminal box.

Figure 3.18.5 Six leads from inside the motor connected to the terminal block

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.18.6 Stator windings into the stator slots

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Three phase AC induction motors must be connected in either star or delta (whichever suits the
supply voltage available). The installer should refer t th a a t ’ t h i a data th
motor nameplate prior to making any connections. A motor which is wrongly connected will
quickly burn-out. Such three-phase motors are usually supplied with 3 links, which are used to
connect the motor windings in star or delta formation.

Figure 3.18.7 Three phase motor windings identification

Star connection

To make a star connection, the three finish ends are connected together. This connection point is
referred to as the star point. The three-phase supply is connected to the three start ends. Figure
3.18.8 illustrates the terminal block arrangement for a motor connected in star.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.18.8 A star connected motor

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Figure 3.18.9 shows the schematic diagram and the star graphical symbol.

Figure 3.18.9 Motor windings connected in star

When connected to a 400 Volt three-phase supply, a star connected motor will have 230 Volts
across each winding. Some three phase motor windings are only suitable for 230 Volts. If
connected in delta in this situation, they will quickly burn-out.

Warning: Under no circumstances should the three-phase supply be connected to the star point
of the motor i.e. onto W2-U2-V2 as this will cause a short circuit across the supply. EASA – 147 Course Notes

Delta Connection

To make a delta connection, the finish end of one winding is connected to the start end of the next
winding and so on. Figure 3.18.10 illustrates the terminal block arrangement for a motor
connected in delta. Figure 3.18.11 illustrates the schematic diagram, and the delta graphical symbol.

A three phase motor having windings rated for 400 Volts should be connected in delta to a 400
Volt three phase supply. If connected in star in this situation it will only develop one third of its
output power, and will stall under load.

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Figure 3.18.10 Terminal block of a delta connected motor

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.18.11 Motor windings connected in delta

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A three phase motor having windings rated for 230 V may be connected in delta to a 230 Volt
three phase supply OR in star to a 400 Volt three phase supply. This type of motor is referred to
as a Dual Voltage Motor. (The windings are rated for the lower of the two voltage).

The Squirrel Cage Rotor

The squirrel cage rotor is made up of copper or aluminium bars joined together at both ends to
form a short-circuited cage arrangement. The shaft is supported on two bearings, one at each end,
to reduce friction and allow it rotate freely within the stator. It is important to remember that there
are no electrical connections made to the rotor bars in an induction motor. See Figure 3.18.12.

Figure 3.18.12 Rotor Complete with Drive-Shaft and Bearings

Squirrel Cage Rotor Construction

The rotor consists of a stack of steel laminations with evenly spaced slots punched around the
circumference into which are placed solid heavy un-insulated copper or aluminium bars. These
conducting bars are then physically and electrically joined together at each end of the rotor by
shorting end-rings. See Figure 3.18.13

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.18.13 Cut-away View of Rotor

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In the case of small and medium size motors, the rotor conductors and end rings can be die-cast
in aluminium. See Figure 3.18.14.

Figure 3.18.14 A complete rotor used in small and medium size motor

If the laminated metal could be removed, we would be left with the aluminium squirrel cage.
Better starting and quieter running is achieved by having the rotor bars (conductors) slightly
skewed. See Figure 3.18.15

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.18.15 Die-cast Squirrel Cage

If the conductors and end rings are made of copper they will be brazed together rather than cast.

The rotor is the part of the motor that is free to rotate. It is mounted on bearings to reduce friction.
Bushings are used in some small motors. Because of their construction, squirrel cage rotors are

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cheap to manufacture and are very robust and reliable. The rotor is a self-contained unit and has
no direct connection to the electrical supply.

As previously stated, the operation of an electric motor depends on the interaction between two
magnetic fields. In the case of the induction motor, these magnetic fields result from current
flowing in the stator windings and in the conductors of the squirrel cage rotor. The current in the
stator windings produce a rotating magnetic field. This magnetic field sweeps past the rotor
conductors and induces an EMF in them. Current flows in the rotor conductors and end rings as a
result.

The induced current in the rotor establishes its own magnetic field, which interacts with the
magnetic field of the stator. This produces a force and hence causes the rotor to turn in the same
direction as the magnetic field of the stator.

Figure 3.18.16 illustrates the complete structure of a three-phase induction motor.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.18.16 Cut-away View of a Three-Phase Induction Motor

3.18.3.1 Producing a Rotating Magnetic Field

Before we go any further it is important to understand how a rotating magnetic field is produced.
Take a look at figure 3.18.17(a) which shows a three-phase stator to which three-phase AC is
applied. The windings are connected in delta configuration, as shown in figure 3.18.17(b). It is
important to note that the two windings for each phase (diametrically opposite to one another) are
wound in the same direction. At any instant the magnetic field generated by one particular phase
depends on the current through that phase. If the current is zero, the magnetic field is zero. If the

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current is a maximum, the magnetic field is a maximum. Since the currents in the three windings
a ◦ t of phase, the magnetic fields generated will also ◦ t ha .

(a) (b)

Figure 3.18.17 (a) Arrangement of the field windings of a three-phase AC motor.

(b) AC motor as a delta-connected three-phase load.

The three magnetic fields that exist at any instant will combine to produce one field that acts on
the rotor. The magnetic fields inside the motor will combine to produce a moving magnetic field
and, at the end of one complete cycle of the applied current, the magnetic field will have shifted
th gh 36 ◦ ( t revolution).

Figure 3.18.18 shows the three current waveforms applied to the field system. These waveforms
a ◦ t ha with a h th . Th wav a t ith th th alternating
magnetic fields generated by the three phases, or the currents in the phases. We can consider the
direction of the magnetic field at regular intervals over a cycle of the applied current (i.e. every
6 ◦). T ak life simple we take the times at which one of the three current waveforms passes
EASA – 147 Course Notes
through zero (i.e. the point at which there will be no current and therefore no field produced by
one pair of field windings). For the purpose of this exercise we will use the current applied to A
and C' as our reference waveform (i.e. this will be th wav that ta t at ◦ g a h). At
' '
◦, wav C-B is positive and wave form B-A is negative. This means that the current flows
in opposite directions through phases B and C, and so establishes the magnetic polarity of phases
B and C. The polarity is shown on the simplified diagram above. Note that B' is a north pole and
B is a south pole, and that C is a north pole and C' is a south pole.

Si at ◦ th i t wi g th gh phase A, its magnetic field is zero. The magnetic

'
fields leaving poles B and C will move towards the nearest south poles C and B. Since the
magnetic fields of B and C are equal in amplitude, the resultant magnetic field will lie between
the two fields, and will have the direction shown.

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Figure 3.18.18 AC waveforms and magnetic field direction.

At th xt i t, 6 ◦ at , th t wav forms to phases A and B are equal and opposite, and

waveform C is zero. The resultant magnetic field has rotated through 6 ◦. At i t ◦,
waveform B is zero and the resultant ag ti i d ha tat d th gh a th 6 ◦.
successive points (corresponding to one cycle of AC), you will note that the resultant magnetic EASA – 147 Course Notes
field rotates through one revolution for every cycle of applied current. Hence, by applying a
three-phase AC to the three windings we have been able to produce a rotating magnetic field.

3.18.3.2 Principle of Operation of Induction Motors

The operation of a 3-phase induction motor is based I upon the application of Faraday's Law and
the! Lorentz force on a conductor. The behavior can readily be understood by means of the
following example.

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Figure 3.18.19 Moving magnet cutting across a conducting ladder.

Consider a series of conductors of length l whose extremities are short-circuited by two bars A
and B (Figure 3.18.19). A permanent magnet placed above this conducting ladder, moves rapidly
to the right at a speed v, so that its magnetic field B sweeps across the conductors. The following
sequence of events then takes place:

(i) A voltage E = Blv is induced in each conductor while it is being cut by the flux (Faraday's
law).

(ii) The induced voltage immediately produces a current I which flows down the conductor
underneath the pole-face, through the end bars, and back through the other conductors.

(iii) Because the current-carrying conductor lies in the magnetic field of the permanent magnet, it
experiences a mechanical force (Lorentz force).

(iv) The force always acts in a direction to drag the conductor along with the magnetic field.

If the conducting ladder is free to move, it will accelerate toward the right. However, as it picks
up speed, the conductors will be cut less rapidly by the moving magnet, with the result that the
induced voltage E and the current I will diminish. Consequently, the force acting on the
EASA – 147 Course Notes
conductors will also decrease. If the ladder were to move at the same speed as the magnetic field,
the induced voltage E, the current I, and the force dragging the ladder along would all become
zero.

In an induction motor the ladder is closed upon itself to form a squirrel-cage and the moving
magnet is replaced by a rotating field. This field is produced by the 3-phase currents that flow in
the stator windings.

3.18.3.3 Induction Motor Slip

When the rotor of an induction motor is subjected to the revolving magnetic field produced by the
stator windings, a voltage is induced in the longitudinal bars. The induced voltage causes a

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current to flow through the bars. This current, in turn, produces its own magnetic field, which
combines with the revolving field so that the rotor assumes a position in which the induced
voltage is minimized. As a result, the rotor revolves at very nearly the synchronous speed of the
stator field, the difference in speed being just sufficient enough to induce the proper amount of
current in the rotor to overcome the mechanical and electrical losses in the rotor. If the rotor were
to turn at the same speed as the rotating field, the rotor conductors would not be cut by any
magnetic lines of force, no emf would be induced in them, no current could flow, and there would
be no torque. The rotor would then slow down. For this reason, there must always be a difference
in speed between the rotor and the rotating field. This difference in speed is called slip and is
expressed as a percentage of the synchronous speed.

Where s is the slip, Ns is the synchronous speed in RPM, and N is the rotor speed.

For example, if the rotor turns at 1,750 rpm and the synchronous speed is 1,800 rpm, the
difference in speed is 50 rpm. The slip is then equal to 50/1,800 or 2.78 percent.

3.18.3.4 Rotor Speed

When the stator windings are energised, they set up a rotating magnetic field which is referred
to as the synchronous speed (Ns). This speed is measured in revolutions per minute (RPM).

NB This is not the speed at which the motor shaft rotates.

The speed of the rotating magnetic field depends on:

 The frequency of the supply

 The number of poles per winding in the motor
EASA – 147 Course Notes
When considering the number of poles in a motor we only need to look at one of the windings.
This applies to basic single phase and three phase induction motors. A winding will consist of
an even number of poles. These poles are energised in pairs. A large number of poles around
the stator will result in a slow speed motor.

A winding cannot have less than two poles (one pair of poles). This results in the fastest possible
motor speed for this type of motor.

The synchronous speed may be determined by the following formula:

Ns = fx60/P

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Where: Ns = The speed of the rotating magnetic field in RPM.
f = The frequency of the supply in cycles per second ( Hz ).
60 = Converts cycles per second to cycles per minute.
P = The number of Pairs of Poles per Winding in the motor.

The synchronous speed in turn determines the rotor speed. As can be seen from the above
calculations the greater the number of poles in the motor, the slower the output speed. The rotor
speed is between 2.5% and 5.5% slower than the synchronous speed at full load. This is the speed
which is given on the motor nameplate. The no load speed of a motor will be slightly higher than
the full load speed. A squirrel cage induction motor can be considered to be a constant speed
motor, as its speed varies only a small percentage with variations in load.

3.18.4 Synchronous Motor

The synchronous motor is one of the principal types of AC motors. Like the induction motor, the
synchronous motor makes use of a rotating magnetic field. Unlike the induction motor, however,
the torque developed does not depend on the induction of currents in the rotor. Briefly, the
principle of operation of the synchronous motor is as follows: A multiphase source of AC is
applied to the stator windings, and a rotating magnetic field is produced. A direct current is
applied to the rotor winding, and another magnetic field is produced. The synchronous motor is
so designed and constructed that these two fields react to each other in such a manner that the
rotor is dragged along and rotates at the same speed as the rotating magnetic field produced by
the stator windings.

An understanding of the operation of the synchronous motor can be obtained by considering the
simple motor of figure 3.18.20. Assume that poles A and B are being rotated clockwise by some
mechanical means in order to produce a rotating magnetic field, they induce poles of opposite
polarity in the soft iron rotor, and forces of attraction exist between corresponding north and
south poles.

Consequently, as poles A and B rotate, the rotor is dragged along at the same speed. However, if EASA – 147 Course Notes
a load is applied to the rotor shaft, the rotor axis will momentarily fall behind that of the rotating
field but, there after, will continue to rotate with the field at the same speed, as long as the load
remains constant. If the load is too large, the rotor will pull out of synchronism with the rotating
field and, as a result, will no longer rotate with the field at the same speed. Thus the motor is said
to be overloaded.

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Figure 3.18.20 Illustrating the operation of a synchronous motor.

Such a simple motor as that shown in Figure 3.18.20 is never used. The idea of using some
mechanical means of rotating the poles is impractical because another motor would be required to
perform this work. Also, such an arrangement is unnecessary because a rotating magnetic field
can be produced electrically by using phased AC voltages. In this respect, the synchronous motor
is similar to the induction motor.
EASA – 147 Course Notes
The synchronous motor consists of a stator field winding similar to that of an induction motor.
The stator winding produces a rotating magnetic field. The rotor may be a permanent magnet, as
in small single phase synchronous motors used for clocks and other small precision equipment, or
it may be an electromagnet, energized from a DC source of power and fed through slip rings into
the rotor field coils, as in an alternator.

In fact, an alternator may be operated either as alternator or a synchronous motor. Since a

synchronous motor has little starting torque, some means must be provided to bring it up to
synchronous speed. The most common method is to start the motor at no load, allow it to reach
full speed, and then energize the magnetic field. The magnetic field of the rotor locks with the
magnetic field of the stator and the motor operates at synchronous speed.

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Figure 3.18.21 Synchronous motor.

The magnitude of the induced poles in the rotor shown in figure 3.18.21 is so small that sufficient
torque cannot be developed for most practical loads. To avoid such a limitation on motor
operation, a winding is placed on the rotor and energized with DC. A rheostat placed in series
with the DC source provides the operator of the machine with a means of varying the strength of
the rotor poles, thus placing the motor under control for varying loads.

The synchronous motor is not a self-starting motor. The rotor is heavy and, from a dead stop, it is
impossible to bring the rotor into magnetic lock with the rotating magnetic field. For this reason,
all synchronous motors have some kind of starting device. One type of simple starter is another EASA – 147 Course Notes
motor, either AC or DC, which brings the rotor up to approximately 90 percent of its synchronous
speed. The starting motor is then disconnected, and the rotor locks in step with the rotating field.
Another starting method is a second winding of the squirrel cage type on the rotor. This induction
winding brings the rotor almost to synchronous speed, and when the DC is connected to the rotor
windings, the rotor pulls into step with the field. The latter method is the more commonly used.

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3.18.5 Single Phase Induction Motors

In the case of a two-phase induction motor, two windings are placed at right angles to each other.
By exciting these windings with current which is 9 ◦ t ha , a tati g ag ti i d can
be created. A single-phase induction motor, on the other hand, has only one phase. This type of
motor is extensively used in applications which require small low-output motors. The advantage
gained by using single-phase motors is that in small sizes they are less expensive to manufacture
than other types. Also they eliminate the need for a three-phase supply. Single-phase motors are
used in communication equipment, fans, portable power tools, etc. Since the field due to the
single-phase AC voltage applied to the stator winding is pulsating, single-phase AC induction
motors develop a pulsating torque. They are therefore less efficient than three- or two-phase
motors, in which the torque is more uniform.

There are 2 basic theories which explain why a torque is produced in the rotor.
(i) The double-revolving-filed theory of single-phase induction motor
(ii) The cross-field theory of single-phase induction motor
In the next section we will study only the double-revolving-filed theory of single-phase induction
motor.

3.18.5.1 Double-Field Revolving Theory

The double-field revolving theory is proposed to explain this dilemma of no torque at start and
yet torque once rotated. This theory is based on the fact that an alternating sinusoidal flux (ϕ =
ϕm ωt) can be represented by two revolving fluxes, each equal to one-half of the maximum
value of alternating flux (i.e., ϕm/2) and each rotating at synchronous speed (Ns = 120 f/P, ω =
πf)in opposite directions.

The above statement will now be proved. The instantaneous value of flux due to the stator current
of a single-phase induction motor is given by;

(ϕ = ϕm ωt)

Consider two rotating magnetic fluxes ϕ1 and ϕ2 each of magnitude ϕm/2 and rotating in opposite
EASA – 147 Course Notes
directions with angular velocity ω (See Fig. 3.18.22).

Figure 3.18.22 An alternating sinusoidal flux represented by two revolving fluxes.

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Let the two fluxes start rotating from OX axis at t = 0. After time t seconds, the angle through
which the flux vectors have rotatedis at. Resolving the flux vectors along-X-axis and Y-axis, we
have,

Total X-component=

Total Y-component=

Resultant flux, √( ) = ϕm ωt

Thus the resultant flux vector is ϕm ωt wt along X-axis.

Figure 3.18.23 Double revolving fields represented through vectors at different instants of time EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure3.18.24 Rotating flux vectors and their resultant vector.

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Therefore, an alternating field can be replaced by two relating fields of half its amplitude rotating
in opposite directions at synchronous speed. Note that the resultant vector of two revolving flux
vectors is a stationary vector that oscillates in length with time along X-axis. When the rotating
flux vectors are in phase [See Fig. 3.18.24(i)], the resultant vector is ϕ = ϕm; when out of phase by
180° [See Fig. 3.18.24(ii)], the resultant vector ϕ = 0.

Let us explain the operation of single-phase induction motor by double-field revolving theory.

(i) Rotor at standstill

Consider the case that the rotor is stationary and the stator winding is connected to a single-phase
supply. The alternating flux produced by the stator winding can be presented as the sum of two
rotating fluxes ϕ1 and ϕ2, each equal to one-half of the maximum value of alternating flux and
each rotating at synchronous speed (Ns = 120f/P) in opposite directions as shown in Fig.
3.18.25(i). Let the fluxϕ1 rotate in anti clockwise direction and flux ϕ2 in clockwise direction.
The fluxϕ1 will result in the production of torque T1 in the anti clockwise direction and flux ϕ2
will result in the production of torque T2 In the clockwise direction. At standstill, these two
torques are equal and opposite and the net torque developed is zero. Therefore, single-phase
induction motor is not self-starting. This fact is illustrated in Fig. 3.18.25(ii).

Note that each rotating field tends to drive the rotor in the direction in which the field rotates.
Thus the point of zero slip for one field corresponds to 200% slip for the other as explained later.
The value of 100% slip (standstill condition) is the same for both the fields.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Fig 3.18.25 Single phase AC induction motor flux and torque

(ii) Rotor running

Now assume that the rotor is started by spinning the rotor or by using auxiliary circuit, in say
clockwise direction. The flux rotating in the clockwise direction is the forward rotating flux (ff)

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and that in the other direction is the backward rotating flux (fb). The slip w.r.t. the forward flux
will be

where Ns = synchronous speed

N = speed of rotor in the direction of forward flux

The rotor rotates opposite to the rotation of the backward flux. Therefore, the slip w.r.t. the
backward flux will be

( ) ( )

Thus for forward rotating flux, slip is s (less than unity) and for backward rotating flux, the slip is
2 - s (greater than unity). Since for usual rotor resistance/reactance ratios, the torques at slips of
less than unity arc greater than those at slips of more than unity, the resultant torque will be in the
direction of the rotation of the forward flux. Thus if the motor is once started, it will develop net
torque in the direction in which it has been started and will function as a motor.

Fig. 3.18.24 shows the rotor circuits for the forward and backward rotating fluxes. Note that r2 =
R2/2, where R2 is the standstill rotor resistance i.e., r2 is equal to half the standstill rotor
resistance. Similarly, x2 = X2/2 where X2 is the standstill rotor reactance. At standstill, s = 1 so
that impedances of the two circuits are equal. Therefore, rotor currents are equal i.e., I2f = I2b.

However, when the rotor rotates, the impedances of the two rotor circuits are unequal and the
rotor current I2b is higher (and also at a lower power factor) than the rotor current I2f. Their
m.m.f.s, which oppose the stator m.m.f.s, will result in a reduction of the backward rotating flux.
Consequently, as speed increases, the forward flux increases, increasing the driving torque while
the backward flux decreases, reducing the opposing torque. The motor-quickly accelerates to the
final speed.
EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.18.26 Rotor circuits for the forward and backward rotating fluxes

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3.18.5.2 Construction of a Single Phase Induction Motor

The basic construction of the single-phase induction motor is similar to that of a three-phase
induction motor. The main difference is that it has only two stator windings. The operating
principle is similar to that of the three-phase induction motor, except that the rotating magnetic
field required to start it must be produced from a single-phase supply.

Single Phase Motor Winding Identification

Motor manufacturers use a standard marking system to identify the winding ends in the
terminal box.
 The main winding ends are identified in the terminal box as U1 and U2 and are
usually coloured red and black.
 The auxiliary winding ends are identified in the terminal box as Z1 and Z2 and while
there is no standard colour, they will at least have different colours to that of the main
winding. See Fig. 3.18.27.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.18.27 Single phase induction motor construction

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Figure 3.18.28 Typical Single Phase Induction Motor

The rotor is similar in construction to the three-phase version. It may have a centrifugal switch
mechanism attached to it. A Single Phase Squirrel-Cage Rotor incorporating a centrifugal switch
mechanism is shown in Figure 3.18.29.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.18.29 Single phase squirrel-cage rotor with centrifugal switch

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Figure 3.18.30 Open View of Capacitor Start / Capacitor Run Motor

EASA – 147 Course Notes

The Centrifugal Switch

The role of the centrifugal switch is to disconnect all or part of the start circuit, from the supply
once the rotor has reached between 75 and 80% of its full speed. It consists of a mechanical unit
which produces physical movement at the required speed. This physical movement is arranged
so that it opens a contact. Many of these units are disc like, consisting of two flyer weights and
control springs.

When overcome by the centrifugal movement of the flyer weights, the control springs yield,
allowing the disc to move a small distance. This movement opens the switch contact. The switch
disconnects part of the start circuit from the supply. Figure 3.18.31 illustrates this mechanical
principle in simple diagrammatical form.
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Figure 3.18.31 Centrifugal Switch (a) with motor at rest (b) with motor running

When the motor is switched off, the rotor loses speed and the control springs pull the disc back to
its original position. This closes the contact and reconnects the start circuit for the next
starting sequence.

3.18.5.2 Making Single-Phase Induction Motor Self-Starting

The single-phase induction motor is not self starting and it is undesirable to resort to mechanical
spinning of the shaft or pulling a belt to start it. To make a single-phase induction motor self-
starting, we should somehow produce a revolving stator magnetic field. This may be achieved by
converting a single-phase supply into two-phase supply through the use of an additional winding.

When the motor attains sufficient speed, the starting means (i.e., additional winding) maybe
removed depending upon the type of the motor. As a matter of fact, single-phase induction
motors are classified and named according to the method employed to make them self-starting.

(i) Split-phase motors-started by two phase motor action through the use of an auxiliary or
starting winding.
(ii) Capacitor motors-started by two-phase motor action through the use of an auxiliary winding
and a capacitor.
(iii) Shaded-pole motors-started by the motion of the magnetic field produced by means of a EASA – 147 Course Notes
shading coil around a portion of the pole structure.

3.18.5.2.1 Split – phase Induction Motor

The stator of a split–phase induction motor has two windings, the main winding and the auxiliary
winding. These windings are displaced in space by 90 electric degrees as shown in figure 3.18.32.

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Figure 3.18.32 Split phase induction motor

The auxiliary winding is made of thin wire so that it has a high R/X ratio as compared to the main
winding which has thick super enamel copper wire. When the two stator windings are energized
from a single – phase supply, the current Im and Ia in the main winding and auxiliary winding lag
behind the supply voltage V, and Ia leading the current Im as shown in figure 3.18.33. This means
the current through auxiliary winding reaches maximum value first and the mmf or flux due to Ia
lies along the axis of the auxiliary winding and after some time the current Im reaches maximum
value and the mmf due to Im lies along the main winding axis. Thus the motor becomes a 2-phase
unbalanced motor. Because of these two fields a starting torque is developed and the motor
becomes a self starting motor. After the motor starts, the auxiliary winding is disconnected
usually by means of centrifugal switch that operates at about 75% of synchronous speed. Finally
the motor runs because the main winding. Since this being single phase some level of humming
noise is always associated with the motor during running. The power rating of such motors
generally lies between 60- 250W. The typical torque-speed characteristic is shown in fig.3.18.34.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.18.33 Phasor diagram at starting

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Figure 3.18.34 Torque – speed characteristic

This motor has a low starting torque, about 25% of its full load torque. The output is limited to
about 370 Watts because of the high starting currents associated with it ( four to six times full
load current ). It is used to drive small fans and refrigerator compressors.

3.18.10 Capacitor Start

When a capacitor of a suitable value is connected in series with the auxiliary winding, it reduces
the inductive reactance (XL) of that winding circuit to a low value. The main winding circuit now
has a higher inductive reactance and the two branch currents I1 and I2 now have a greater time
EASA – 147 Course Notes
difference between them. This time difference between the two currents sets up a rotating
magnetic field in the stator and again, the rotor turns in the same direction.

Once the motor reaches 75-80% full speed the centrifugal switch opens causing the supply to be
disconnected from the auxiliary winding and capacitor. This motor has a high starting torque,
about 150% full load torque.

The capacitor start motor is more efficient than the split phase motor and is more widely used.

Characteristics of the Capacitor

The capacitor used in the capacitor start motor is a large electrolytic type designed for use on AC
but is short time rated (S.T.R.) or intermittently rated. This means the capacitor must not be left
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in circuit (energised) longer than its specified time. Depending on the power rating of the motor
it va wi tw μ a d 3 μ . It wi hav a w ki g v tag a xi at y 75
Volts. This capacitor may be mounted piggyback fashion on the motor or located in the motor
terminal box.

Figure 3.18.35 Capacitor Start motor

3.18.11 Capacitor Start and Run Motor (Permanent Capacitor Motor)

Notice that there is no centrifugal switch employed in this type of motor. Again the motor has
two windings, a main winding and an auxiliary winding. Looking at the auxiliary winding, it can
be seen that it has a permanently connected capacitor in series with it. This means that the motor
continues running with both windings in circuit. EASA – 147 Course Notes

The outcome is a smoother running motor, with better efficiency and improved performance over
the split phase motor or the capacitor start motor.

Starting torque is approximately 50% of its full load torque. Running torque is higher than the
capacitor start motor.

Characteristics of the Capacitor

The capacitor used in the capacitor start and run motor is a polypropylene type and is
continuously rated. Depending on the power rating of the motor its value will be between 1 µF
and 30 µF. It will have a working voltage of approximately 400 Volts.

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Figure 3.18.36 Permanent Split Capacitor AC Induction Motor

3.18.12 Capacitor Start Capacitor Run

This type of motor employs two capacitors. Both capacitors are used for starting. One capacitor is
switched out when the motor runs up to approximately 80% of full load speed. The other
capacitor is left in circuit when the motor is running. Thus the good starting performance of the
capacitor start motor is combined with the good running performance of the capacitor start
and run motor.

This motor is capable of starting and driving against heavier loads than the other single phase
induction types just covered. It has the advantage of quieter, smoother running, higher efficiency
and better performance.
EASA – 147 Course Notes
Starting torque is approximately 2.5 times its full load torque.

Characteristics of the Capacitors

The start capacitor used in the capacitor start capacitor run motor is a large electrolytic type
designed for use on AC but is intermittently rated. Depending on the power rating of the motor its
value will be between 20 µF and 300 µF. It will have a working voltage of approximately 275
Volts.
The run capacitor used in the capacitor start capacitor run motor is a polypropylene type and
is continuously rated. Depending on the power rating of the motor its value will be between 1 µF
and 30 µF. It will have a working voltage of approximately 400 Volts.

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Figure 3.18.37 Capacitor Start Capacitor Run AC Motor

3.18.13 Shaded-Pole AC Induction Motor

Shaded-pole motors have only one main winding and no start winding. Starting is by means of a
design that rings a continuous copper loop around a small portion of each of the motor poles. This
“ had ” that ti th , a i g th ag ti i d i th had d a a t ag hind the
field in the unshaded area. The reaction of the two fields gets the shaft rotating. Because the
shaded-pole motor lacks a start winding, starting switch or capacitor, it is electrically simple and
inexpensive. Also, the speed can be controlled merely by varying voltage, or through a multi-tap
winding. Mechanically, the shaded-pole motor construction allows high-volume production. In
fact, these are usually id d a “di a ” t , a i g th y a h h a t
replace than to repair.
EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.18.38 Shaded Pole AC Induction Motor

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3.18.14 Speed Control

Induction motors are practically fixed speed devices. There is practically only two methods to
change the rotation speed of AC induction motors:

 p is the number of poles per phase,

 ns is the synchronous speed in revolutions per minute (rpm), and
 120 is a constant to allow for the conversion of minutes to seconds and from poles to pairs
of poles.
 operator closes motor isolator is then presses start button.
 start button connects the supply to contactor coil s.
 contactor contacts s close and auxiliary contacts s1 close.
 l close, motor windings are star connected to 3-phase supply, motor starts.
 auxiliary contacts l1 close at the same time as contactor contacts l. the operator may now
release the start button since supply to l is maintained through l1.
 after a time interval (or speed switch operation), when motor is up to speed, auxiliary
contacts l2 and l3 close.
 contactor coil s is de-energised and its contacts s open; so do the auxiliary contact s1.
contactor coil d is energised and the motor is now delta connected to the 3-phase supply.
in some cases a mechanical interlock is fitted between the contactor contact s and d so that
both cannot be closed at the same time.
 use a frequency converter, or
 use a motor with separate windings for different speeds

In some applications, motors with dual speed windings are used. The applications where accurate
speed control is needed, you need a frequency converter.
A frequency converter can run a three phase AC motor at very wide speed range quite well (the
performance of motor is usually reduced outside its optimal operation speed).

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.18.39 AC Motor speed control

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A frequency converter does not work with AC induction motors that are run from a single phase
power source, because the operation of the required motor phase conversion capacitor is very
frequency sensitive (works as expected only at normal mains frequency).

3.18.15 Direction of Rotation Control

3 Phase Motors

The direction of rotation depends upon the direction of the rotating field. If the direction is
reversed then the rotor will follow in the reverse direction. This can be achieved by reversing any
two of the phase terminals.

Figure 3.18.40 Three phase motor direction of rotation control

Reversing a Split-phase Motor

With the split-phase motor, a switch can select phase b to lag a, or b stator winding can be
switched to carry or lead phase a, and thus cause the motor to follow the leading current.

This is only available on some single phase motors due to the physical location (90°) of the
wi di g . Ma y t ’ ta t a d wi di g a hy i a y di t th cannot be
reversed.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 3.18.41Single phase motor direction of rotation control

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NOTES

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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NOTES

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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Reference Books:

SL. No. Name of the Book Author/Publisher

01. Aircraft Electrical Systems E. H. J. Pallett

02. Basic Electronics Bernard Grob

03. Direct Current Fundamentals Orla E. Loper / Edgar Tedsen

04. A Text Book of Electrical Technology B. L. Theraja, A K Theraja

05. Basic Electricity and Introduction to Electronics Howard W. Sams & Co., Inc.

06. Electricity for Technicians Abraham Marcus / Charles M.

Thomsom

07. Airframe and Powerplant Mechanics: Airframe Federal Aviation Administration

Handbook (AC-65-15A)

08. Aircraft Electrical and Electronic Systems: Mike Tooley & David Wyatt
Principles, Maintenance and Operation
09. Aircraft Engineering Principles Lloyd Dingle & Mike Tooley

10. Aircraft Electricity & Electronics Thomas K. Eismin

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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