Bangladesh Airlines Training Center BATC

Training Note for

Module 01
Mathematics
Category B1.1/B2

EASA – 147 Course Notes

This training note has been prepared for Module 1 Mathematics, Category B1.1/B2 in accordance
with the syllabus prescribed in EASA Part 66 to fulfill the requirements of EASA Part147.

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MATHMATICS

Chapter contents Page No

1.1: Arithmetic 1-1
1.1.1 Arithmetical Terms and signs 1-1
1.1.2 Methods of Multiplication and division 1-9
1.1.3 Fraction and decimals 1-15
1.1.4 Factors and Multiples 1-34
1.1.5 Measures and conversions factors 1-40
1.1.6 Ratio and proportion 1-44
1.1.7 Average and percentages 1-54
1.1.8 Areas and volume 1-63
1.1.9 Powers: Squares, cubes, square and cube roots 1-73

1.2: Algebra 2-2

1.2.1 Evaluating simple algebraic expression, addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division, use of brackets, simple algebraic fractions 2-2
1.2.2 Linear Equations and their solutions 2-12
1.2.3 Indices and Powers, negative and fractional Indices 2-15
1.2.4 Binary and other applicable numbering systems 2-19
1.2.5Simultaneous equations and second degree equations with one unknown 2-24
1.2.6 Logarithm 2-28

1.3: Geometry 3-2

1.3.1 Simple geometrical Construction 3-2
1.3.2 Graphical representation: Nature and use of graphs, graphs of Equation and
Function 3-12
1.3.3 Simple Trigonometry, trigonometrically relationship, use of tables and rectangular
and polar co-ordinates 3-32

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Chapter – 1.1
(Arithmetic)

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1.1 Arithmetic:
1.1.1 Arithmetical Terms and signs:

1.1.1.1Arithmetical Terms:

Arithmetic is the branch of mathematics concerned with numerical calculations, such as addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division. It is the basic language of science and technology. It is
an exact language that has a vocabulary and a meaning for every term. And since it follows very
definite rules and behaves in exactly the same way every time, it is one of the true absolutes in
our life. Scientists and engineers use Arithmetic as their basic tool, and long before any metal is
cut on a new aircraft design. Now we will discuss about some arithmetical terms/ tools that are
used to solve many aircraft related problem.

Number System:

It is generally believed that our present number system began with the use of the natural numbers,
such as 1,2,3,4 ... These whole numbers, ‘positive integers’, and were used primarily for
counting. However, as time went on, it became apparent that whole numbers could not be used
for defining certain mathematical quantities. For example, a period in time might be between 3
and 4 days or the area of a field might be between 2 and 3 acres (or whatever unit of measure was
used at the time). So the positive fractions were introduced, e.g. 1/2, 1/4 and 3/4. These two
groups of numbers, the positive integers and the positive fractions, constitute what we call the
1
positive rational numbers. Thus, 711 is an integer or whole number, is a positive fraction and
4
3
234 is a combined or mixed number.
5

Natural numbers

The natural numbers are positive integers, but suppose we wish to subtract a larger natural
number from a smaller natural number, e.g. 10 subtracted from 7, we obviously obtain a number
which is less than zero, i.e. 7 - 10 = -3. So our idea of numbers must be enlarged to include
numbers less than zero called negative numbers. The number zero (0) is unique, it is not a natural EASA – 147 Course Notes
number because all natural numbers represent positive integer values, i.e. numbers above zero
and quite clearly from what has been said, it is not a negative number either. It sits uniquely on its
own and must be added to our number collection.

So to the natural numbers (positive integers) we have added negative integers, the concept of
zero, positive rational numbers and negative integers.

Rational and irrational number:

A rational number is any number that can be expressed as the quotient of two integers, i.e. any
number that can be written in the form p/q where p and q represent any integers and q is greater
than zero (q>0) . Thus 2/5, 8/9 and 1 are all rational numbers. The number 1 can be represented
by the quotient 1/1 =1, in fact any number divided by itself must always be equal to 1.
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If a number cannot be written as a fraction of two integers, it is called irrational. A decimal that
can be written as a fraction either ends (terminates) or forever repeats, because it is the answer to
a problem in division. Thus the number 0.5 can be written as 1∕2 and the number 0.333... (Forever
repeating threes, otherwise written 0.3) can be written as 1∕3. On the other hand, the number π (pi),
the ratio of the circumference of any circle to its diameter, is

Since the decimal neither ends nor forever repeats, it cannot be written as a fraction, and is an
example of an irrational number

Any rational number when converted into decimals, it becomes terminating decimal or recurrning
decimal. If p/q is a rational number, it will be terminating decimal when factor of q is only 2 or 5.

For example, =

If any other prime number excepting 2 and 5 is the factor of q, then can be expressed as a
recurring decimal. For example, =.045045….=0.0̊45̊

In another word, any terminating or recurring decimal is a rational number.

Any non-terminating decimal which is not recurring is an irrational number. For example,

0.101001000100001000001……………

0.12112111211112111112…..………..

But non-rational number is always a non-terminating and non-recurring decimal.

For example, 5/4=1.25, 1/3=.333333….=.33.. These are rational numbers.

But √2= 1.4142135623730950488016………….. which is non-terminating and non-recurring

decimal. This type of number is non-rational number.
EASA – 147 Course Notes
Proof: √2 is an irrational number

We know, 12=1, 22=4 and (√2)2=2.

Thus, √2 is greater than 1 and less than 2. So √2 is not an integer.

Now, if √2 is a rational number, then let us assume

√2=p/q,--------(i)

Where, p and q are both integers; q>1;

and there is no common factor between p and q other than 1.

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Squaring both side of equation (i), we get

2=p2/q2

Or, 2q=p2/q

Now, 2q is definitely a whole number. On the other hand, p2/q can never be a whole number.
Because there is no common factor between p2 and q

So, 2q is not equal to p2/q. So, √2 can never be expressed as p/q like other rational numbers. So,
√2 is a non-rational number.

Real number:

The real numbers include all of the measuring numbers. Zero is often written as 0.0 when it must
be treated as a real number rather than an integer. The set of real number include positive and
negative terminating and non-terminating decimals (e.g. ±1/9= ±0.1111..., 0.48299999, ±2.5,
1.73205...). The real numbers are so called to distinguish them from others, such as imaginary or
complex numbers; the latter may be made up of both real and imaginary number parts.

Important number systems

Natural 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ... or 1, 2, 3, 4, ...

Integers ..., −5, −4, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ...
a
Rational ∕b where a and b are integers and b is not zero
The limit of a convergent sequence of rational
Real
numbers
a + bi where a and b are real numbers and i is
Complex
the square root of −1

All positive and negative numbers are referred to as signed numbers and they obey the arithmetic
laws of sign. Conventional representation of signed numbers is shown below, with zero at the EASA – 147 Course Notes
midpoint. Positive numbers are conventionally shown to the right of zero and negative numbers
to the left:

-4, -3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4...

A number line may be used to illustrate real numbers. It is a line starting at 0 and then increasing
to the right with positive whole numbers (+ve integers) and to the left with negative whole
numbers (-ve integers). Arrowhead points to infinity meaning that it is endless

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Figure 1.1-1: The number line includes all numbers from negative infinity to positive infinity.

From the number line as shown in Figure 1.1-1, it is obvious that:

Integers are the whole numbers.

Positive integers = {+1, +2, +3, +4 ……………………………. ∞}

Negative integers = {-1, - 2, - 3, - 4 ……………………………… ∞}

The number of units a point is from zero, regardless of its direction, is called the absolute value of
the number corresponding to the point on the above number system when points are drawn to
scale. Thus the absolute value of a positive number, or of zero, is the number itself. While the
absolute value of a negative number is the number with its sign changed. For example, the
absolute value of +10 is 10 and the absolute value of -10 is also 10. Now the absolute value of
any number n is represented by the symbol l n l. Thus l+24l mean the absolute value of +24.

1.1.1.2 Signs:

It is a symbol that is used before number. There are four category sign value (i.e +, -, ×, ÷)

This sign number follows some laws.

The laws of signs:

Manipulation of numbers, as explained above is best understood by following laws of signs.

These laws are as follows.

►First law: To add two numbers with like signs, add their absolute values and prefix their
common sign to the result.
EASA – 147 Course Notes
This law works for ordinary arithmetic numbers and simply defines what we have always done in
arithmetic addition.

For example, 3 + 4 = 7 or in full (+3) + (+4) = +7.

After the introduction of the negative numbers, the unsigned arithmetic numbers became the
positive numbers, as illustrated above. So now all numbers may be considered either positive or
negative, and the laws of signs apply to them all.

Does the above law apply to the addition of two negative numbers? From ordinary arithmetic we
know that (-7) + (-5) = -12. This again obeys the first law of signs, because we add their absolute
value and prefix their common sign.

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►Second law: To add two signed numbers with unlike signs, subtract the smaller absolute value
from the larger and prefix the sign of the number with the larger absolute value to the results.

So following this rule, we get for example: 5+ (-3) =2; -12+9= -3; 6+ (-11) = -5 and so on.

The numbers written without signs are, of course, positive numbers. Notice that brackets have
been removed when not necessary.

►Third law: To subtract one signed number from another, change the sign of the number to be
subtracted and follow the rules for addition.

For example, if we subtract 5 from -3, we get -3 - (+5) = -3 + (-5) = -8.

Now what about the multiplication and division of negative and positive numbers, so as not to
labor the point the rules for these operations are combined in our fourth and final law.

►Fourth law: To multiply (or divide) one signed number by another, multiply (or divide) their
absolute values; then, if the numbers have like signs, prefix the plus sign to the result; if they
have unlike signs, prefix the minus sign to the result.

Therefore, applying this rule to the multiplication of two positive numbers, e.g. 3 x 4 = 12, 12 x 8
= 96 ... and so on, which of course, is simple arithmetic? Now applying the rule to the
multiplication of mixed sign numbers we get e.g. -3 x 4 = -12, 12 x (-8) = -96 ... and so on. We
can show, equally well, that the above rule yields similar results for division.

When the equal (=) key is pressed, the quotient will show up on the display.

Example-1:

Apply the fourth law to the following arithmetic problems and determine the arithmetic result:

(a) (-4) (-3)(-7) = ? (b) 14/-2 =?

(c) 5(-6) (-2) =? (d) —22/-11=?

Solution: EASA – 147 Course Notes

(a) In this example we apply the fourth law twice, (—4)( —3) = 12 (like signs) and so 12(-7) = —
84.

(b) 14/-2 applying the third law for unlike signs immediately gives —7, the correct result.

(c) Again applying the fourth law twice, 5(—6) = —30 (unlike signs) and (—30)( —2) = 60.

(d) —22/-11 applying the fourth law for like sign gives 2, the correct result

Suppose a is again any positive integer, but b is 0. What is the value of a/b? What is the value of
any positive integer divided by zero? Well the answer is that we really do not know! The value of
the quotient a/b, if b=0, is not defined in mathematics. This is because there is no such quotient
that meets the conditions required of quotients.
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For example, we know that to check the accuracy of a division problem, we can multiply the
quotient by the divisor to get the dividend. If 21/7=3, then 7 is the divisor, 21 is the dividend and
3 is the quotient and so 3×7=21 as expected. So, if 17/0 were equal to 17, then 17×0 should again
equal 17 but it does not!

Or, if 17/0 were equal to zero, then 0×0 should equal 17 but again it does not. Any number
multiplied by zero is always zero.

Therefore, division of any number by zero (as well as zero divided by zero) is excluded from
mathematics. If b=0, or if both a and b are zero, then a/b is indeterminate.

If we let the letter n stand for any real number, what does each of the following expressions
equal?
(a) n/n=? (b) n×0=? (c) n×1=? (d) n+0=? (e) n−0=? (f) n−n=? (g) n/0=?
(a) n/n=1, i.e. any number divided by itself is equal to 1.
(b) n×0=0, any number multiplied by zero is itself zero.
(c) n×1=n, any number multiplied or divided by 1 is itself.
(d) n+0=n, the addition of zero to any number will not alter that number.
(e) n−0=n, the subtraction of zero from any number will not alter that number.
(f) n−n=0, subtraction of any number from itself will always equal zero.
(g) n/0, division by zero is not defined in mathematics.

1.1.1.2.1: The commutative, associative and distributive laws

We all know that 6×5=30 and 5×6=30, so is it true that when multiplying any two numbers
together, the result is the same no matter what the order? The answer is yes. The above
relationship may be stated as:
The product of two or more real numbers is the same, no matter in what order they are
multiplied. That is, a.b = b.a this is known as the commutative law of multiplication. EASA – 147 Course Notes

If three or more real numbers are multiplied together, the order in which they are multiplied still
makes no difference to the product.
For example, 3×4×5=60 and 5×3×4=60
We also have commutative and associative laws for addition of numbers, which by now will be
quite obvious to you, here they are:
The sum of two or more numbers is the same no matter in what order they are added. That is,
a+b=b+a. This is known as the commutative law of addition.
You may be wondering where the laws are for subtraction. Well you have already covered these
when we considered the laws of signs. In other words, the above laws are valid no matter whether
or not the number is positive or negative.
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So, for example, −8+(16−5)=3 and (−8+16)−5=3
In order to complete our laws we need to consider the following problem: 4(5+6)=? We may
solve this problem in one of two ways, firstly by adding the numbers inside the brackets and then
multiplying the result by 4, this gives: 4(11) =44.
Alternatively, we may multiply out the bracket as follows: (4×5)+(4×6)=20+24=44. Thus,
whichever method we choose, the arithmetic result is the same. This result is true in all cases, no
matter how many numbers are contained within the brackets!
So in general, using literal numbers we have: a (b + c) = ab + ac
This is the distributive law. In words, it is rather complicated:
The distributive law states that: the product of a number by the sum of two or more numbers is
equal to the sum of the products of the first number by each of the numbers of the sum.
The commutative, associative and distributive laws of numbers are valid for both positive and
negative numbers.

1.1.1.2.2: Methods of Addition and Subtraction

Addition is the process in which the value of one number is added to the value of another. The
result is called the sum. When working with whole numbers, it is important to understand the
principle of the place value. The place value in a whole number is the value of the position of the
digit within the number. For example, in the number 512, the 5 is in the hundreds column, the 1 is
in the tens column, and the 2 is in the ones column.
When adding several whole numbers, such as 4,314, 122, 93,132, and 10, align them into
columns according to place value and then add.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

This is the sum of four whole numbers.

Subtraction is the process in which the value of one number is taken from the value of another.
The answer is called the difference. When subtracting two whole numbers, such as 3,461 from
97,564, align them into columns according to place value and then subtract.

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Exercise 1.1.1
1. Is 0 (zero) a natural number?
2. Rewrite the numbers 5, 13, 16 in form of a/b where b=4.

3. Is √10 a rational or non-rational number? Why?

4. Express 1/3 and 1/7 as non-terminating decimals

5. Add -5 with -7

6. Add 5 with -6

7. Subtract -6 from 6

8. Subtract 254 from -395

9. Subtract -278 from 342

10. Which of the following has the largest absolute value: 6, -7, -85, 80, 0?

11. -16+(-4)-(-3)+28=?

12. find the absolute value of -8x(54-65)+(-94)

13. Prove that (a+b)2=a2+2ab+b2 where a=2, b=5.

14. If a=2, b=5, c=8, then what will be the value of a2+ b2+c2+2ab+2bc+2ca?

1.1.2: Methods of Multiplication and division:

1.1.2.1 Multiplication of Whole Number:

Multiplication is a process of adding one number to itself a given number of times. For example,
when we multiply 4 times 6, the results are the same as if we had added 4 to itself 6 times.
4 × 6 = 24
EASA – 147 Course Notes
4 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 = 24

To multiply numbers having more than one digit, we simply multiply all of the digits in the
multiplicand (Figure 1.1-2) by each digit in the multiplier. We must be careful when we do this,
however, to keep all of the units, tens, hundreds, and thousands in their correct columns.

In Figure 1.1-2, we can see the steps used when we multiply 416 by 32. We first multiply the 416
by the units of the multiplier, the 2. In this step, we have 2 times 6 which is 12, so we put the 2 in
the units column of the first partial product and carry the remaining 10 into the tens column of the
first operation carry. We know that 2 times 10 is 20, and since we have 1 in the tens carry

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column, we add 20 and 10 and put 3 in the tens column of the first partial product. And finally, 2
times 400 is 800, so 8 goes in the hundreds column of the first partial product.

Our next step is to multiply the multiplicand by the tens digit of the multiplier. We first multiply 6
by 30 and get 180, so we put 8 in the tens column of the second partial product (we may ignore
the unit of zero in this step - it will always be zero), and then we carry the 1, which is actually 10
times 10, or 100, in the tens column of the second operation carry. Now, 30 times 10 is 300, and
adding the 100 we carried gives us 400. We bring the 4 down into the hundreds column of the
second partial product. The last part of this step is to multiply 30 times 400, which gives us
12,000, or 1 in the ten-thousands column, and 2 in the thousands column. Note that the second
partial product is actually 12,480, as it was derived from 416 multiplied by 30. It is customary to
ignore the zero in the units column, but we must be sure that the last digit that we do use - in this
case the 8 - is placed in the tens column of the second partial product. When we add the two
partial products, we have the final product of 13, 312.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 1.1-2: Multiplication of whole numbers.

To multiply on an electronic calculator, simply turn it on and clear the display by pressing the
clear key. Now press in the digits for the multiplicand (the top number), then press the times (X)
key and then each digit for the multiplier (the bottom number). When the equal (=) key is pressed,
the product will show up on the display.

In order to check multiplication for accuracy, divide the product by either the multiplier or the
multiplicand. You should get the other number as the quotient.

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Example-1:
How many hydraulic system filters are in the supply room if there are 35 cartons and each carton
contains 18 filters?

Solution:

Therefore, there are 630 filters in the supply room.

Example-2:
Multiply: 350×25
With these figures, hundreds, tens and units are involved. You will find it easier to multiply it by
the smallest or the least complex number.

Now we multiply by 25 in a similar manner to the previous example.

Multiply first by the 2 x 10, which means placing a naught in the units column first. Then
multiply 2 x 0, putting down below the line the result, i.e. zero. Then: 2 x 5 = 1 x 10, again
putdown the naught and carry the single hundred. So we get:
350
25
1
00
We continue the process by multiplying 2 by the 3 hundreds and adding the single hundred or EASA – 147 Course Notes
2 x 3 + 1 = 7 to give 7000 (remembering the naught, we first put down). This part of the process
was the equivalent of multiplying350 x 20 = 7000. So we get:

We now multiply the number 350 by 5, where5 x 0 = 0; put it down below the line; 5 x 5 = 25
put down the 5 and carry the 2. Finally,5 x 3 = 15, add the 2 you have just carried to give 17. So
the total number below the 7000 is1750 = 350 x 5 and we get:

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Finally we add the rows below the line to give the result, i.e.:

Then 350 x 25 = 8750

1.1.2.2 Division of Whole Number:

Division is the means of finding out how many times one number will go into another or how
many time’s one number can be subtracted from the other.
24 divisions 6 = 4
24-6-6-6-6=0
"Twenty-four divided by 6" means that we can subtract 6 from 24 four times. Try this on your
calculator and you will find that you end up with zero; it comes out even.

To divide by longhand, we place the dividend (the number we are dividing) under a division sign
(=), and then we place the divisor (the number we are dividing by) to the left of it. Our first step is
to see how many times the divisor will go into the first digits of the dividend. In Figure 1.1-3, we
see that our divisor of 8 will go into 35, the left two digits of the dividend, four times; so we place
the digit 4 above the last digit of the dividend we used, the 5. We now multiply our divisor by 4 EASA – 147 Course Notes
and place the results, the number 32, below the 35 and subtract.

It is obvious that the divisor of 8 will not go into the 3 we got when we subtracted. We must
therefore bring down enough of the dividend to get a number into which we can divide. To do
this, we bring down the zero, which gives us 30, and 8 will go into 30 three times. We continue
with this partial division until we use up all of the digits in our dividend, and anything that is left
over is called the remainder. When we divide 3,504 by eight, our quotient is 438, and there is no
remainder; it comes out even.

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Figure-1.1-3: Division of whole numbers.

To check our work, multiply the quotient by the divisor and add any remainder. If your work is
correct, your answer will be the dividend.
Division problems may be written by placing the dividend under the division sign and the divisor
to the left; by putting the dividend on top of a line and the divisor below it; or by separating the
dividend and the divisor by a "divided by" (÷) sign. They all mean the same - just find the number
of times the divisor will go into the dividend.

Figure-1.1-4: All of these arrangements tell us to divide by eight.

Division by electronic calculator is done by first clearing the display, then pressing the keys for
the dividend. Now, press the divide (÷) key and then the keys for the division.

Example-3: EASA – 147 Course Notes

218 landing gear bolts need to be divided between 7 aircraft. How many bolts will each aircraft
receive?

Solution:

The solution is 31 bolts per aircraft with a remainder of 1 bolt left over.
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Example-4:

4321 ÷ 6

Solution

720
6 | 4321
42 6 x 7 = 42
12 43 - 42 = 1 and drop down the 2
12 6 x 2 = 12
01 12 - 12 = 0 and drop down the 1
0 6x0 = 0
1 1-0 = 1

We can conclude that

4321 ÷ 6 = 720 R1

In general we write

(Divisor x Quotient) + Remainder = Dividend

Example- 5: 18932 ÷ 37

511
37 | 18932
185 37 x 5 = 185
43 189 - 185 = 4 and drop down the 3
37 37 x 1 = 37
62 43 - 37 = 6 and drop down the 2
37 37 x 1 = 37
25 62 - 37 = 25

We can conclude that

EASA – 147 Course Notes
18932 ÷ 37 = 511 R25

Example 6:

You are the manager of a ski resort and noticed that during the month of January you sold a total
of 111,359 day ski tickets. What was the average number of tickets that were sold that month?

Solution

since there are 31 days in January, we need to divide the total number of tickets by 31

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3589
31 | 111259
93 31 x 3 = 93
182 111 - 93 = 18 and drop down the 2
155 31 x 5 = 155
275 182 - 155 = 27 and drop down the 5
248 31 x 8 = 248
279 275 - 248 = 27
279 31 x 9 = 279

The ski resort averaged 3,589 ticket sales per day in the month of January.

Exercise 1.1.2:
1. Multiply 87 with 68
2. Multiply 894 with79
3. Multiply 1052 with 805
4. Multiply 23x12x11
5. Multiply 62x5x7
6. Multiply 23x12x11x0
7. If there are 112 aircrafts in a fleet and each aircraft consumes 1785 tons of fuel in a week,
what will be the total fuel consumption in a week?
8. What will be the fuel cost for a flight of 6 hours while fuel consumption per hour is 1500
kg and cost of fuel per kg is 75 taka?
9. There are 15 mechanics and 10 cleaners in a shift. If the payment of a mechanic is 825
taka a day and that of a cleaner is 512 taka a day, what will be the total payment in a week
of 7 days?
10. There are total 115 aircrafts in a fleet. Maintenance cost per aircraft per day is 12545 taka.
What will be the total maintenance cost of the fleet per year?
11. Divide 5005 by 8. EASA – 147 Course Notes

12. Divide 1519 by 3

13. Divide 12115 by 12

14. Suppose that you had $100 and had to distribute all the money to 100 people so that each
person received the same amount of money. How much would each person get?

15. Total production of Airbus A320 is 515 for a certain period. 116 airlines have raised equal
demand for purchase. How many aircrafts can be supplied to each airlines? How many
aircrafts will remain?

16. The total maintenance cost of an airliner in a year is 152600000 taka. Maintenance cost
per day of an aircraft is 1200 taka. How many aircrafts are there in the fleet?
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17. Distribute 512 aircrafts into 27 different routes. How many aircrafts will standby?

18. You are buying a custom refrigerator with a rectangular front. If you only have enough
space for the width to be 48 inches and you need the face to have an area of 2,976 square
inches, how high must the refrigerator be?

1.1.2.3 Multiplication of signed Number:

Numbers Multiplication of signed numbers is carried out in exactly the same way as
multiplication of unsigned numbers, and if the signs of the numbers are alike, the sign of the
answer will be positive. If the signs of the numbers are not alike, however, the sign of the answer
will be negative.

Figure 1.1-5: Multiplication of signed numbers.

1.1.2.4 Division of signed numbers:

As in multiplication of signed numbers, the process of division is the same as it is for unsigned
numbers, and the sign of the answer will be positive if the signs of the two numbers are alike, and
it will be negative if their signs are different.

Figure 1.1-6: Division of signed numbers.

1.1.3 Fraction and decimals:

1.1.3.1 Fractions: EASA – 147 Course Notes

N
A fraction is a number written in the form where N is called the numerator and D is called the
D
denominator. The fraction bar between the numerator and denominator shows that division is
taking place.
Thus, fractions are represented as:

1 7 2
Some , , example of fraction is: etc.
2 8 3
2
The denominator of a fraction cannot be a zero. For example, the fraction is not allowed. An
0

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improper fraction is a fraction in which the numerator is equal to or larger than the denominator.
4 15
For example, or are examples of improper fractions
4 8
.If we divide a square into four equal parts by dividing each side in its center, we will have four
fourths, or four quarters. Each of the smaller squares is called one-fourth, or 1/4. Now, if we
divide the entire square into parts the size of one fourth of each fourth, there will be 16 even
smaller squares, each of them having an area of 1/16 that of the large square.

Figure 1.1-7: The denominator of a fraction tells the number of parts the unit is divided into, and the
numerator tells how many of these parts are being considered.

We can divide each of these smaller squares into four equal parts, and each will have one sixty-
fourth of the area of the entire square. And each of our original quarters will contain 16 of these
sixty-fourths.

If we divide each of the sixty-fourths into four equal parts, we will have tiny squares of such a
small size that it would take 256 of them to equal the original square, and each quarter will
contain 64 of these smallest squares. This breakdown of the square sets up a relationship that
helps us understands common fractions: one-fourth = 4/16 = 16/64 = 64/256. EASA – 147 Course Notes

Fractions written in this form, with integers in the numerator and denominator are generally called
1 1 3 1
‘common fractions’ and often known as, vulgar fractions’, e.g. , , , etc. Whereas fractions
2 4 4 3
written in decimal form 0.5, 0.25, 0.75, 0.333, etc. are known, as their name implies, as decimal
fractions. Look at Figure 1.7 and find decimal placement.

In the decimal system, we assume that a point resembling a period may be placed after the units
column to indicate the end of the whole numbers. This "decimal point" is generally called just the
"decimal." For example, the number 126, or one hundred and twenty-six, can also be written
126.0. And we can multiply 126.0 by ten by simply moving the decimal point over one place to
the right, and the number becomes 1,260, the correct product.

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The decimal point can also be moved to the left, creating a decimal fraction, and every place we
move it, ten divides the number. When we move the decimal point in our 126.0 one place to the
left, the number becomes the decimal fraction 12.60. With the decimal moved one place more to
the left, the number is 1.260.

Figure 1.1-8: Decimal placement

It makes no difference how many zeros we have to the right of the decimal, as long as there are no
significant (non-zero) numbers following the zero. Numerically, 126, 126.00 and 126.000 are all
the same.
Addition of Fractions:
In order to add fractions, the denominators must be the same number. This is referred to as having
“common denominators.”
If the fractions do not have the same denominator, then one or all of the denominators must be
changed so that every fraction has a common denominator
1 1
Example-1: Add  by finding the least common denominator.
5 10
Solution:
Multiples of 5 are: 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, and on. Multiples of 10 are: 10, 20, 30, 40, and on. Notice EASA – 147 Course Notes
that 10, 20, and 30 are in both lists, but 10 is the smallest or least common denominator (LCD).
The advantage of finding the LCD is that the final answer is more likely to be in lowest terms.
A common denominator can also be found for any group of fractions by multiplying all of the
denominators together. This number will not always be the LCD, but it can still be used to add or
subtract fractions.
2 3 4
Example-2: Add   by finding a common denominator
3 5 7
Solution:
A common denominator can be found by multiplying the denominators 3 × 5 × 7 to get 105

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2 3 4 70 63 60 193
  =   =
3 5 7 105 105 105 105
1 3
Example-3: Add to
7 7
Solution:
1 3 1  3 4
  =
7 7 7 7
3
Example-4: Find the total thickness of a panel made from inch thick aluminum, which has a
32
1
paint coating that is inch thick. To add these fractions, determine a common denominator. The
64
least common denominator for this example is 1, so only the first fraction must be changed since
the denominator of the second fraction is already 64.
3 1 3  2  1 6 1 6  1 7
      
32 64 32  2 64 64 64 64 64

7
Therefore, is the total thickness is .
64
Subtraction of Fractions:
In order to subtract fractions, they must have a common denominator.
2 10
Example-5: Subtract from
17 17
Solution:
10 2 10  2  8
  
17 17 17 17
If the fractions do not have the same denominator, then one or all of the denominators must be
changed so that every fraction has a common denominator. EASA – 147 Course Notes
Example-6:
The tolerance for rigging the aileron droop of an airplane is 7∕8 inch ± 1∕5 inch. What is the
minimum droop to which the aileron can be rigged?
Solution:
To subtract these fractions, first change both to common denominators. The common
denominator in this example is 40. Change both fractions to 1∕40, as shown, then subtract.
7 1  7  5 1  8   35 8  35  8  27
      
8 5  8  5 5  8   40 40  40 40

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27
Therefore is minimum droop.
40
Multiplication of Fractions:
Multiplication of fractions does not require a common denominator. To multiply fractions, first
multiply the numerators. Then, multiply the denominators.

Example-7:
3 7 1 3  7  1 21
   
5 8 2 5  8  2 80

The use of cancellation when multiplying fractions is a helpful technique which divides out or
cancels all common factors that exist between the numerators and denominators. When all
common factors are cancelled before the multiplication, the final product will be in lowest terms.
Example-8:

Division of Fractions:
Division of fractions does not require a common denominator. To divide fractions, first change
the division symbol to multiplication. Next, invert the second fraction. Then, multiply the
fractions.
Example-1.1.13: Divide 7∕8 by 4∕3
Solution:

Reducing Fractions:
A fraction needs to be reduced when it is not in “lowest terms.” Lowest terms mean that the
numerator and denominator do not have any factors in common. That is, they cannot be divided EASA – 147 Course Notes
by the same number (or factor).
To reduce a fraction, determine what the common factor(s) are and divide these out of the
numerator and denominator. For example when both the numerator and denominator are even
numbers, they can both be divided by 2.

Example-9: The total travel of a jackscrew is inch. If the travel in one direction from the

neutral position is inch, what is the travel in the opposite direction?

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The fraction is not in lowest terms because the numerator (6) and the denominator (16) have a

common factor of 2. To reduce , divide the numerator and the denominator by 2. The final

reduced fraction is as shown below.

Example-10: Simplify the following fractions:

2 3 1
(a)  
3 5 2
(b) 3  3 5 1 
   
4  8 16 2 

5 7 3
(c) ( 2   )
8 16 8
Solution:
(a) Recognizing that the LCM is 30, which enables us to evaluate this fraction using the rules for
addition and subtraction of fractions given before, then:
2 3 1 20  18  15 23
   
3 5 2 30 30 (b) In this example, we need to simplify the right-hand bracket,
before we multiply. So we get:
 3  658  3  3  9
       
 4   16   4   16  64

5
(c) This example involves a whole number fraction to apply the rules, the fraction 2 is best put
8
21
into improper form, which is Note, to obtain this form we simply multiply the denominator by
8 EASA – 147 Course Notes
the whole number and add the existing numerator, i.e. (2 x 8) + 5 = 21 to obtain the new
numerator. We next need to apply the rules of arithmetic, in the correct order, to solve the
fraction. This follows on from the number laws you learnt earlier. The arithmetic law of
precedence tells us that we must carry out the operations in the following order: brackets, of,
division, multiplication, addition, subtraction (you might have remembered this order using the
acronym BODMAS).
So following the process discussed above, we get:
 21 7 3   21 16 3 
      
 8 16 8   8 7 8 

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6 3  48  3  45 5
    5
1 8  8  8 8
Example-11:
In Figure 1.1-9, the center of the hole is in the center of the plate. Find the distance that the center
of the hole is from the edges of the plate.
To find the answer, the length and width of the plate should each be divided in half. First, change
the mixed numbers to improper fractions:

7 87
5 inches = inches
16 16
5 29
3 inches = inches
8 8
Then, divide each improper fraction by 2 to find the center of the plate.

Figure-1.1-9: Center hole of the plate.

87 2 87 1 87
    inches
16 1 16 2 32
29 2 29 1 29 inches
   
8 1 8 2 16 EASA – 147 Course Notes

Finally, convert each improper fraction to a mixed number

87 23
 87  32  2 inches
32 32
29 13
 29  16  1 inches.
16 16
23
Therefore, the distance to the center of the hole from each of the plate edges is 2 inches and
32
13
1 inches
16

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Addition of Mixed Numbers:
To add mixed numbers, add the whole numbers together. Then add the fractions together by
finding a common denominator. The final step is to add the sum of the whole numbers to the sum
of the fractions for the final result.

Example 12: The cargo area behind the rear seat of a small airplane can handle solids that are 4

feet long. If the rear seats are removed, then 2 feet is added to the cargo area. What is the total
length of the cargo area when the rear seats are removed?

Solution:

=6
=7 feet of Cargo room

Subtraction of Mixed Numbers:

To subtract mixed numbers, find a common denominator for the fractions. Subtract the fractions
from each other (it may be necessary to borrow from the larger whole number when subtracting
the fractions). Subtract the whole numbers from each other. The final step is to combine the final
whole number with the final fraction.

Example 13: What is the length of the grip of the bolt shown in the following figure? The overall
length of the bolt is 3 inches, the shank length is 3 inches, and the threaded portion is 1
inches long.
EASA – 147 Course Notes

Solution:
To find the grip, subtract the length of the threaded portion from the length of the shank.

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3 inches -1 inches = grip length
Therefore:
=3
So the grip length of the bolt is 1 inches
Multiplication of Mixed Numbers:
When multiplying mixed numbers, you first have to change them to improper fractions. You then
multiply the numerators and denominators, and reduce the results, if possible. Then, at the end,
you can change the fraction back to a mixed number.

Example-14: Sadie worked hours at time-and-a-half. How many hours will she get paid

for?

1. Change all the mixed numbers to improper fractions.

In Sadie’s case, you have two mixed numbers, and , that need to become

improper fractions. Follow this formula to convert each mixed number into an improper fraction:

In a fraction, the Numerator is always above the fraction line. The Denominator is always down
below the fraction line.

You convert the mixed numbers to improper fractions as follows:

2. Reduce the fractions.

To do this, break down both the numerator and denominator of each fraction into their prime
factors (shown below in parentheses): EASA – 147 Course Notes

3. Cross out any common factors.

In this example, you cross out 2 and 3 because they’re common factors — that is, they appear
in both the numerator and denominator:

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4. Multiply the numerators together and the denominators together.

5. Reduce the answer.

If the result is an improper fraction, change it to a mixed number.

So, Sadie worked hours at time-and-a-half and gets paid for 16 hours.
Example-15:

Solution:

Solution:

Division of Mixed Numbers

(a) Convert each mixed number to an improper fraction.
(b) Invert the improper fraction that is divisor.
(c) Multiply the two numerators together.
(d) Multiply the two denominators together.
(e) convert the result back to a mixed number if it is an improper fraction
(f) Simplify the mixed number.

Example-16:
EASA – 147 Course Notes

Step 1: Convert each mixed number to an improper fraction.

and

Step 2: Write a new division problem with the improper fractions.

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Step 3: invert the improper fraction that is divisor

Step 4: multiply the two denominators together

Step 5: Rewrite as a mixed number.

Example -17:

Step 1: Write the mixed numbers as improper fractions.

Step 2: Rewrite the division problem using the improper fractions.

Step 3: invert the improper fraction that is divisor

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Step 4: Multiply.

Step 5: Simplify.

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Exercise 1.1.3:

1. Arrange the fractions in ascending order (smallest to largest)

2. ,
3. Arrange the fractions in descending order (largest to smallest)

4. Which one is the largest among , ?

5. Which one is the smallest among ?

Add (7 to 9):
6.

7.

8.
Subtract (10 to 11):
9.

10.
Multiply(12 to 13):
11.

12.
Divide (13 to 14):
13.

14.
5 13
15. The span of an aircraft is 3 meters and means chord is 1 meters. What will be the
8 16
surface area? EASA – 147 Course Notes
16. The distance between X and Y is 85 km. Mr. A travels km by Riksha,25 km by bus
and km by train. The remaining distance he walked on foot. How much distance he
walked on foot?
17. What is the number to be added to the sum of 25 and to make 100?

18. What is the cost of kg of sugar while the cost per kg is taka?

19. The product of two fractions is If one is , what the other?

20. The sum of two fractions is 70. If one is what will be the other?

21. The divisor is 10 times the quotient. If the divisor is what will be the dividend?

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22. +5 ÷8-20

23.

24. )}]

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32. 1+

33. +

1.1.3.2 Decimals:

Addition of Decimal Fractions:

Addition of decimal fractions (numbers with significant figures to the right of the decimal point)
is done in exactly the same way as addition of whole numbers. The decimal point of all of the
numbers must be kept in a straight vertical line, and the decimal point in the sum will be located EASA – 147 Course Notes
in line with those numbers being added. (Columns to the right of the decimal point indicate tenths,
hundredths, thousandths, etc.)

When using the electronic calculator, perform all of the steps in the same way you did for the
addition of whole numbers, except you must be sure that the key for the decimal point is pressed
in its proper sequence each time you enter a number. The decimal point will be automatically
located at the correct place in the answer when the equal key is pressed.

Subtraction of Decimal Fractions:

To subtract decimal fractions, we use the same process that is used in subtraction of whole
numbers. The only important thing to remember in both procedures is that you must keep the
decimal points in a straight line.

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Figure 1.1-11, we subtract 47.36 from 463.28 by first putting the subtrahend below the minuend
with the decimal points in a straight vertical line. Now, beginning at the right side with the hun-
dredths column, subtract. When we get to the tenths column in this problem, we must borrow 10
tenths from the units column so we can subtract. Continue on beyond the decimal point, sub-
tracting in the normal way. The decimal point in the difference will be in line with the decimal
point in the subtrahend and the minuend.

Figure-1.1-10: Addition decimal fractions.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure-1.1-11: Subtraction of decimal fractions.

Subtraction of decimal fractions by use of the electronic calculator is done in the same way as
subtraction of whole numbers, except that you must remember to press the decimal key in the
correct sequence each time you enter a number. The decimal point in the answer will automatical-
ly locate itself at the proper place when the equal (=) key is pressed.

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Multiplication of Decimal Fractions:
When multiplying numbers having both whole numbers and decimal fractions, disregard the
decimal point and proceed with the multiplication as though all of the numbers were whole
numbers. To locate the decimal in the product, count the number of digits to the right of the
decimal point in both the multiplier and the multiplicand and move the decimal point in the
answer the same number of places to the left of the last digit. In the example of Figure 1.1-12, we
multiply 19.76 by 0.275. There are two digits to the right of the decimal point in the multiplicand
and three in the multiplier. Our product has an absolute value of 543400, but when we move the
decimal point five places to the left, we find the product of the two numbers to be 5.434. (The two
zeros beyond the last significant digit had no effect on the answer and, to make it less confusing,
we have dropped them.)
When we must multiply large numbers having several digits to the left of the decimal point, by
small numbers with a number of digits to the right of the decimal point, we can make the problem
simpler by rearranging the decimal points. In Figure1.1-12, we have the problem of 1,620 mul-
tiplied by 0.002. We can greatly simplify the problem by moving the decimal point in the mul-
tiplier three places to the right to make it 2. All we have done is to multiply it by one thousand.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 1.1-12: Multiplication of numbers involving decimal fractions.

Now, in order not to change the problem, we must divide the multiplicand by one thousand, by
moving its decimal point to the left three places, and the 1,620 becomes 1.62. When we multiply
1.62 by 2, we get 3.24. This is exactly the same thing we get if we multiply out our original
problem; try it.

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Figure- 1.1-13: Each place a decimal is moved to the left divides the number by ten, and each place the decimal
is moved to the right multiplies the number by ten.

Division of Decimal Fractions:

Division by a decimal fraction is accomplished in exactly the same way as division of whole
numbers, but the problem is much simplified if some number that will make a whole number of
the divisor multiplies both the divisor and the dividend. In Figure 1.11-14, we are dividing 676 by
42.25. We can simplify this by multiplying both the divisor and the dividend by 100. We do this
by simply moving the decimal point in both numbers two places to the right. Our problem then
becomes 67,600 divided by 4,225. Since we do not have any mixed numbers to contend with, the
problem is simply one of dividing whole numbers, and the quotient is 16.

Of course, we do not have to simplify the problem at all if we use an electronic calculator. Just
punch out the digits in the numbers, putting the decimal point in the divisor as it comes up, and
the decimal point in the answer will be in the proper place.

Figure 1.1-14: When dividing a number by a decimal fraction, multiply both the divisor and dividend by the
EASA – 147 Course Notes
same number that changes the decimal fraction in the divisor into a whole number.

Conversion of Fraction into Decimal:

Example-18: Express each of the following as a decimal:

87
(a)
100

(b) 11
10000
(c) 34 97
1000

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Solution:

Fractions whose denominators can be changed to 10 or powers of 10 can be converted to decimals

mentally using the method shown in the above Example.

Example-19:

Express each of the following as a decimal:

3 (b) 3 (c) 27 21
(a) (d)
5 4 25 4

EASA – 147 Course Notes

The electronic calculator is one of our handiest tools for working almost any kind of mathematical
problem, but it is somewhat difficult to use in working problems involving common fractions. It
is easy, however, to work these problems when we convert the common fractions into decimal
fractions. We can do this simply by dividing the numerator by the denominator. In this way, 13/16
becomes 0.8125.

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Figure 1.1-15: Conversion of a common fraction into a decimal fraction.

Conversion of decimals to Fraction:

A decimal fraction can be written as a common fraction whose denominator is one, with the same
number of zeros annexed to it as places the decimal point would be moved in order to convert the
decimal fraction into a whole number. For example, 0.5 is 5/10; 0.75 is 75/100; and 0.003 may be
written as the common fraction 3/1000.

To convert a decimal fraction into a common fraction of the lowest terms, write it in its common
fraction form and divide both the numerator and the denominator by any number that will go into
both of them an even number of times. Six hundred and twenty-five thousandths, written as 0.625,
a decimal fraction, can also be written as 625/1000. Then both numerator and denominator can be
divided by 5 to get 125/200. Both can again be divided by 5 to get 25/40. And finally, these
numbers can be divided by 5 once more to get the fraction in its lowest terms, 5/8. Hence, 0.625 =
5/8

Figure-1.1-16: Conversion of a decimal fraction into a common fraction of the lowest terms.

Estimation Technique:

►(i) Rounding off decimal numbers to decimal points (dp)

It is easy when working with decimal fractions to carry the problem out to an unreasonable
degree, and so a little practical thought should be given to the use to which the numbers will be
put. For example, if you want to lay out a metal strap to fit around a cylindrical air conditioning
duct, you can find the circumference of the duct by multiplying its diameter by pi, or 3.1416. If
the duct is 3 inches in diameter, the strap will have to be 9.4248 inches long. This number is EASA – 147 Course Notes
highly accurate, but impractical to use for this purpose, as there is no need to measure to one ten-
thousandth of an inch when the metal can be cut to an accuracy of less than one-hundredth of an
inch. Since you need to measure to an accuracy of only one-hundredth of an inch, you should use
3.14 for the value of pi (π), and the metal should be cut to a length of 9.42 inches.

To round off numbers in a decimal fraction, determine the accuracy you want-tenths, hundredths,
thousandths, or ten-thousandths-and then carry your answer out one decimal place beyond this
amount. If the last digit is less than 5, disregard it. But, if it is 5 or greater, add one count to the
last digit in the rounded off answer. In our example, we wished to read the circumference
measurement to hundredths of an inch, and it came out 9.424. The last digit, 4, is less than 5, so
the answer is 9.42. If the number, when multiplied out, had been, for example, 9.426, 1 would

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have been added to the 2 and the answer would have been rounded off to 9.43. This is called
rounding off to 2 decimal point (dp) i.e. accuracy is 2 dp.

►(ii) Rounding off to significant figures (SF)

Rounding off to some number of significant figures is another estimation technique for expressing
numbers. For example, the number 3772.47312 may be rounded off to 3770 with the accuracy of
3 SF, to 3800 with the accuracy of 2 SF, to 4000 with the accuracy of 1 SF.

Converting Numbers from Standard Notation to Scientific Notation

Example-20: Convert 1,244,000,000,000 to scientific notation.

Solution:
First, note that the decimal point is to the right of the last zero. (Even though it is not usually
written, it is assumed to be there.)
1,244,000,000,000 = 1,244,000,000,000
To change to the format of scientific notation, the decimal point must be moved to the position
between the first and second digits, which in this case are between the 1 and the 2. Since the
decimal point must be moved 12 places to the left to get there, the power of 10 will be 12.
Remember that large numbers always have a positive exponent. Therefore, 1,244,000,000,000 =
1.244 × 1012 when written in scientific notation

Example -21: Convert 0.000000457 from standard notation to scientific notation.

Solution:
To change to the format of scientific notation, the decimal point must be moved to the position
between the first and second numbers, which in this case is between the 4 and the 5. Since the
decimal point must be moved 7 places to the right to get there, the power of 10 will be −7.
Remember that small numbers (those less than one) will have a negative exponent. Therefore,
0.000000457 = 4.57 × 10-7 when written in scientific notation

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Exercise 1.1.4:
1. Add the followings:
a. 42.305+23.4+18.23+121.675=?
b. 13.001+23.01+0.005+8.6=?
c. 1+.01+.001+.0002=?
d. 14.1+309.23+232.832+101=?
2. Subtract the followings:
a. 142.47-87.7456

b. 32.08-2.895
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c. 0.9862- 0.235
d. 382.47-147.7456
e. 142.47-87.7456
3. Multiply: a)1.806x1.6, b)182.4x23.7, c)1.14x0.5x5.2 d)1.9x1.001 e) 0.0306x24.02
4. Find out the value of :
a. 0.1x0.01x0.001x0.0001
b. 0.05x0.07x0.003
c. 6.03x2.95x0.88
d. 37.75x0.6421
e. 0.33x0.02x0.18
5. Divide: a) 42.64 ÷ 3.2 b) 1.656÷.36 c) 0.0006÷0.005 d) 4÷0.6285 e) 0.00281÷1.405
6. Simplify:
a. 15.32-4.689+1.5639-4.324+6.342
b. 40.0001-12.001-5.0001+16.456
c. (3.45+2.6) x6.34+2.65÷1.25-10.345
d. 0.48x0.2÷10x0.08÷3.2+0.9997
e. 1.175-0.116 of (1.75÷3.5) ÷ {0.1 of (120÷20) - 0.55}
f. 5.007+[8.75 of 9 ÷ {82.95-(134.65-128.45)}]
7. Round-off the following numbers correct to three significant figures:
(a) 2.713 (b) 0.0001267 (c) 5.435×104
8. Round-off the following numbers correct to two significant figures:
(a) 8.7147 (b) 0.0014259 (c) 6.436×105

EASA – 147 Course Notes

1.1.4 Factors and Multiples:

We have 18=1x18=2x9=3x6=6x3=9x2=18x1.

We call each of the numbers 1, 2, 3, 6, 9 and 18 a factor of 18. Conversely, we call 18 a

multiple of each of the numbers 1, 2, 3, 6, 9 and 18. Clearly, when 18 is divided by any one
of its factors, the remainder is zero. We say that the number 18 is divisible by 1, 2, 3, 6, 9
and 18.

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Example-1: (a) List the factors of 60. (b) List the multiples of 5.

Solution

(a) We have 60=1x60=2x30=3x20=4x15=5x12=6x10. Thus, the factors of 60 are 1,

2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20, 30, and 60.

(b) By multiplying 5 with 1, 2, 3, 4 and so on, we obtain the multiples of 5, i.e.

the multiples of 5 are 5, 10, 15, 20,

Notes: 1. A prime number is a natural number which has only two different factors, 1 and the
number itself. Prime numbers are 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, etc.

2. A composite number is a natural number which has more than two different factors. Composite
numbers are 4, 6, 12, 15, 24, 32, etc.

3. A composite number can be expressed as the product of two or more prime numbers.

4. The process of expressing a composite number as the product of prime factors is called prime
factorization.

1.1.4.1 Highest Common Factors:

Suppose Mary, an art elective program student, is working on an assignment. She plans to cover a
30 cm by 36 cm sheet of paper completely with identical square patterns. Can you help her to find
the side of the largest possible square?

First, consider dividing each side into groups of equal lengths. This is equivalent to finding the
factors of 30 and 36. Making a complete list from the smallest to the largest, we have

EASA – 147 Course Notes

1, 2, 3 and 6 are common factors to 30 and 36, the largest being 6. 6 is called the Highest
Common Factor (HCF) of 30 and 36. Returning to the above problem, we now know that the side
of the largest possible square is 6 cm.

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The diagram illustrates that Mary's sheet of paper can be covered completely with 30 squares each
of side 6 cm.

Listing all the possible factors of numbers to find the HCF of the numbers as shown above can be
tedious. The following provides two alternative methods:

Method 1: The prime factorization of 30 and 36 is shown below:

The HCF of 30 and 36 is 2 x 3 x l = 6.

Method 2:
EASA – 147 Course Notes
In step 1, we know that 30 and 36 are divisible by 2 because they are both even numbers.

In step 2, we divide 30 and 36 by 2 and write the quotients (15 and 18). We know that 15 and 18
are divisible by 3.

In step 3, we divide 15 and 18 by 3 and write the quotients (5 and 6).

Since 5 and 6 have no common factors except 1, we stop our computation.

We multiply the numbers listed on the left side of the above problem: 2 x 3 = 6.

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The HCF of 30 and 36 is 6.

Example-2: Find the HCF of 60, 180 and 210

Exercise 1.1.5:

1. Find the H.C.F of the following factorizations:

a. 525,495,570
b. 560,832,1760
c. 405,450,1107
d. 906,1510,1057
2. What greatest number will leave no remainder when 57, 93, and 144 are divided by it?
3. What greatest number will leave the remainder 4 when each of 100 and 184 is divided by
it?
4. Find the greatest number which will leave the remainders 5 and 7 respectively when 365
and 463 are divided by it?
5. The floor area of two square rooms is 1296 and 2025 square meters respectively. What is
the biggest size of square size stones will be need to cover the floor of the two rooms so
EASA – 147 Course Notes
that no stone needs to be broken?
6. The lengths of an iron-sheet and a copper-sheet are 762cm and 960cm respectively. What
is the highest length of a piece of equal size so that the pieces can be cut from the two
sheets? What is the number of pieces of each kind?
7. The capacity of three drums is 225,375, and 525 liters of water respectively. What is the
highest capacity of a pitcher in liter by which the three drums can fill up exactly? How
many pitcher of water are there in each drum?
8. A person repaid $6.50, $9.50 and $23.00 with the same kind of coins. What was the
biggest kind of coin in cents did he need?

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1.1.4.2 Lowest Common Multiple (LCM)
Mary, the art elective program student, is working on a second assignment. She first designs a
rectangular pattern measuring 9 cm by 12 cm. She then makes copies of the rectangular pattern.
Next she uses the rectangular patterns to form a square. How many rectangular patterns does she
need to form the smallest square? What is the length of a side of this square?

The diagram shows that Mary needs 12 rectangular patterns to form the smallest The length, in
cm, of the side of a square that can be formed is a multiple of both 9 and 12.

Can you think why?

Consider the possible multiples of 9 and 12.
The first three multiples common to 9 and 12 are 36, 72 and 108.
The smallest of all the common Multiples of 9 and 12 is 36 and we call 36 the Least Common
Multiple (LCM) of 9 and 12.

Returning to our problem, we now know that the side of the smallest square is 36 cm. The number EASA – 147 Course Notes
of rectangular patterns needed to create such a square is 4 x 3 = 12.

Example-2: Find the LCM of 30 and 36.

Solution:
Multiples of 30 = {30, 60, 90, 120, 150, 180, 210 ...}
Multiples of 36 = {36, 72, 108, 144, 180, 216…}
The LCM of 30 and 36 is 180
The above method of finding the LCM of two numbers is tedious. The following are two simpler
methods:

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Example-3:

Find the LCM of 18, 24 and 36.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

 The LCM of 18, 24 and 36 is 2x3x2x3x1x2x1=72.

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Exercise 1.1.6
1. Find the L.C.M of the following numbers :
a. 40,50,60
b. 28,35,56,84
c. 16,24,30,40,48
d. 28,36,54,72,144
e. 22,88,132,198
f. 33,55,60,80,90
g. 36, 108,144
h. 54,72,216
i. 36, 144,216
j. 72, 144, 216
k. 88,132,154
l. 72, 126,162
m. 96, 108,156
n. 24, 96,156
2. What is the least number when divided by 8, 12, 18 and 24 leaves in each case a
remainders of 5?
3. What is the least number when 5 added to it, the sum is exactly divisible by 16, 24 and 32?
4. What is the least number when divided by 20,25,30,36 and 48; there is a remainder of
15,20,25,31 and 43 respectively?
5. What are the numbers between 400 and 500 so that if they are divided by 12, 15,20 and
60, there is a remainder of 10 in each case.
6. Five bells are rung at intervals of 6,12,24,30 and 40 seconds respectively. If they ring
together at the start, when will they ring together again?
7. HCF of the numbers is respectively 14 and 168 if one of the numbers is 42, what is the
other number?
8. The lengths of an iron rod and a copper rod are 2666 cm and 9699 cm respectively. What
is the highest length of a piece of equal size so that the pieces can be sheets?

EASA – 147 Course Notes

1.1.5 Measures and conversions factors:

1.1.5.1 Measurement Systems:

Conventional (U.S. or English) System:

Our conventional (U.S. or English) system of measurement is part of our cultural heritage from
the days when the thirteen colonies were under British rule. It started as a collection of Anglo-
Saxon, Roman, and Norman-French weights and measures. For example, the inch represents the
width of the thumb and the foot is from the length of the human foot. Tradition holds that King
Henry I decreed that the yard should be the distance from the tip of his nose to the end of his
thumb. Since medieval times, commissions appointed by various English monarchs have reduced

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the chaos of measurement by setting specific standards for some of the most important units.
Some of the conventional units of measure are: inches, feet, yards, miles, ounces, pints, gallons,
and pounds. Because the conventional system was not set up systematically, it contains a random
collection of conversions. For example, 1 mile = 5,280 feet and 1 foot = 12 inches

Metric System:

The metric system, also known as the International System of Units (SI), is the dominant
language of measurement used today. Its standardization and decimal features make it well-suited
for engineering and aviation work.

The metric system was first envisioned by Gabriel Mouton, Vicar of St. Paul’s Church in Lyons,
France. The meter is the unit of length in the metric system, and it is equal to one ten-millionth of
the distance from the equator to the North Pole. The liter is the unit of volume and is equal to one
cubic decimeter. The gram is the unit of mass and is equal to one cubic centimeter of water.

All of the metric units follow a consistent naming scheme, which consists of attaching a prefix to
the unit. For example, since kilo stands for 1,000 one kilometer equals 1,000 meters. Centi is the
prefix for one hundredth, so one meter equals one hundred centimeters. Milli is the prefix for one
thousandths and one gram equals one thousand milligrams.

1.1.5.2 Measurement Systems and Conversions:

The United States primarily uses the conventional (U.S. or English) system, although it is slowly
integrating the metric system (SI). A recommendation to transition to the metric system within ten
years was initiated in the 1970s. However, this movement lost momentum, and the United States
continues to use both measurement systems. Therefore, information to convert between the
conventional (U.S., or English) system and the metric (SI) system has been included in Figure
1.1-17.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure-1.1-17: Names and definitions of metric prefixes.

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Conversion factors:

Figure-1.1-18(a): Conversion factor

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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Figure-1.1-18(b): Conversion factor

Examples of its use are as follows:

To convert inches to millimeters, multiply the number of inches by 25.4.

Example-1: 20 inches = 20 × 25.4 = 508 mm

To convert ounces to grams, multiply the number of ounces by 28.35.

Example-2: 12 ounces = 12 × 28.35 = 340.2 grams

Example-3: Find the number of cups in two gallons.

There is no stated conversion for cups to gallons, so we have to be a bit more creative. Since
there are 4 cups in 1 quart, and 4 quarts in 1 gallon, we can set up the conversion ratio based
on "quarts". Two Two gallons is 8 quarts.

=32 Cups

Example- 4: Imagine that you are driving your car in Canada. As you're driving along, you notice
that the speed limit signs have numbers like 120 (on the highway) and 50 (in the city). As you
start to speed up, you realize that the signs are in km/hour. Unfortunately, your speedometer only
reads in mi/hour. Figure out how fast you're allowed to go if the sign says:

Solution:
EASA – 147 Course Notes

We Know 1 Km=0.06214 mi.

Therefore

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Exercise 1.1.7:
1. Convert 250 square inches into square meters
2. Convert 125 kilograms into ounce.
3. Convert 125 gallons into liter.
4. Convert 450 square kilometers into acres.
5. Convert -40°C into Fahrenheit.
6. The amount of water in a potable water tank is 1.45 cubic feet. What is the amount in
gallons?
7. Hydraulic fluid requirement for an aircraft is 589 quart. What is the requirement in liter?
8. An aircraft flies at a forward speed of 500 km per hour. Convert this speed into knots.
9. An aircraft flies at a forward speed of 450 km per hour from place A to place B. The
distance between A and B is 1200 Nautical mile. How time will be taken from A to B if
the speed is constant throughout the flight?
10. The temperature of an iron rod is 200°C. Convert it into Fahrenheit Scale.

1.1.6 Ratio and proportion

1.1.6.1 Ratio:

A ratio is the comparison of two numbers or quantities. A ratio may be expressed in three ways:
as a fraction, with a colon, or with the word “to.” For example, a gear ratio of 5:7 can be
expressed as any of the following:

5
or 5:7 or 5 to 7
7

Aviation Applications:

Ratios have widespread application in the field of aviation.

For example:

Compression ratio on a reciprocating engine is the ratio of the volume of a cylinder with the
piston at the bottom of its stroke to the volume of the cylinder with the piston at the top of its EASA – 147 Course Notes
stroke. For example, a typical compression ratio might be 10:1 (or 10 to 1).

Aspect ratio is the ratio of the length (or span) of an airfoil to its width (or chord). A typical
aspect ratio for a commercial airliner might be 7:1 (or 7 to 1).

Air-fuel ratio is the ratio of the weight of the air to the weight of fuel in the mixture being fed into
the cylinders of a reciprocating engine. For example, a typical air-fuel ratio might be 14.3:1 (or
14.3 to 1).

Glide ratio is the ratio of the forward distance traveled to the vertical distance descended when an
aircraft is operating without power. For example, if an aircraft descends 1,000 feet while it travels
through the air for a distance of two linear miles (10,560 feet), it has a glide ratio of 10,560:1,000
which can be reduced to 10.56: 1 (or 10.56 to 1).
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Gear Ratio is the number of teeth each gear represents when two gears are used in an aircraft
component. In Figure 1.1-19, the pinion gear has 8 teeth and a spur gear has 28 teeth. The gear
ratio is 8:28 or 2:7.

Figure-1.19: Gear ratio

Example-1:
A pinion gear with 10 teeth is driving a spur gear with 40 teeth. The spur gear is rotating at 160
rpm. Determine the speed of the pinion gear.
Solution:
Teeth in Pinion Gear Speed of Spar Gear

Teeth in Spar Gear Speed of Pinion Gear

10 teeth 160 rpm


40 teeth Sp ( Speed of Pinion Gear)

To solve for SP, multiply 40 × 160, then divide by 10. The speed of the pinion gear is 640 rpm.
Example-2:
If the cruising speed of an airplane is 200 knots and its maximum speed is 250 knots, what is the
ratio of cruising speed to maximum speed?
Solution:
First express the cruising speed as the numerator of a fraction whose denominator is the
maximum speed. EASA – 147 Course Notes

200
Ratio =
250
Next, reduce the resulting fraction to its lowest terms.
200 4
Ratio = =
250 5
Therefore, the ratio of cruising speed to maximum speed is 4:5.
Another common use of ratios is to convert any given ratio to an equivalent ratio with a
denominator of 1.

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Example-3:

Express the ratio 9:5 as a ratio with a denominator of 1.

9 ? 9 1.8
R= = Since 9 ÷ 5 = 1.8, then =
5 1 5 1

Therefore, 9:5 is the same ratio as 1.8:1. In other words, 9 to 5 is the same ratio as 1.8 to 1.

1.1.6.2 Proportion:

A proportion is a statement of equality between two or more ratios. For example,

3 6
 or 3:4=6:8
4 8

This proportion is read as, “3 is to 4 as 6 is to 8.”

Extremes and Means:

The first and last terms of the proportion (the 3 and 8 in this example) are called the extremes.
The second and third terms (the 4 and 6 in this example) are called the means. In any proportion,
the product of the extremes is equal to the product of the means.

In the proportion 2:3 = 4:6, the product of the extremes, 2 × 6, is 12; the product of the means, 3 ×
4, is also 12. An inspection of any proportion will show this to be true.

Example-4:

An airplane flying a distance of 300 miles used 24 gallons of gasoline. How many gallons will it
need to travel 750 miles?

Solution: Let, x is the required quantity of gasoline.

Therefore,

300: 750 = 24: x EASA – 147 Course Notes

Or, (300) (x) = (750) (24)

Or, 300x = 18,000

So, x = 60

Sixty gallons of gasoline will be required to travel a distance of 750 miles.

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Example-5:

If an engine has a reduction gear ratio between the crankshaft and the propeller of 3:2, and the
engine is turning at 2700 RPM, what is the speed of the propeller?

Solution:

We can solve this problem of proportions by letting the symbol ‘x’ represent the unknown value,
which in this case is the speed of the propeller. We first set up the proportional statement 3/2 =
2700/x, as we have it in Figure 1.1-20. To solve this equation, we simply cross multiply; that is
we find that 3x = 2 × 2700, or 5,400. To solve for x, we divide 5,400 by 3 and find the speed of
the propeller to be 1800 RPM.

Figure-1.1-20: A proportion is a relationship between two ratios that shows them to be equal.

Another way we can solve this proportion problem is to convert the known ratio into a percen-
tage. We have the ratio of 3:2 between the engine RPM and the propeller RPM. This means that
the propeller is turning only 2/3 the speed of the engine. Two-thirds is roughly 67%, so the pro-
peller is turning at 67% of the engine speed. Sixty-seven percent of 2700 RPM is 1809 RPM. The
difference of nine RPM in the two ways of working the problem is caused by rounding off the
EASA – 147 Course Notes
percentage from 66.6666% to 67%, and since it represents only 1/2 of one percent, it is suffi-
ciently close for practical work. Actually, this computation is more accurate than the average
aircraft tachometer.

Proportional problems may also be solved by arranging them as we have in Figure 1.1-21, and
instead of cross multiplying, multiplying the means (the two middle numbers) by the extremes
(the two outside numbers). In this problem, we make the ratios of the engine gear over the
propeller gear, equal to the ratio of X which represents the engine RPM we want to find, to 1800,
which represents the RPM of the propeller.

Engine gear: Propeller gear = Engine RPM: Propeller RPM 3:2=X: 1800

When we multiply the means, we get 2X, and when we multiply the extremes, we get 5,400. Now
dividing 5,400 by 2 gives the engine RPM of 2,700.
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Figure-1.1-21: The product of the means (the inner numbers) of a proportion must equal the product of the
extremes (the other numbers).
Direct proportion:

Two quantities are said to vary directly, or be in direct proportion, if they increase or decrease at
the same rate. For example, we know that the fraction a reduces to 6/4 so we can write the
proportion 6/4 = 3/2 we read this as 6 is to 4 as 3 is to 2 or expressed mathematically as 6 : 4:: 3 :
2, where the double colon :: represents the word as in the proportion.

Now in this form, the first and fourth numbers, in the proportion, 6 and 2 in this case, are called
the extremes and the second and third numbers, 4 and 3 in this case, are called the means. Now it
is also true that from our proportion 6/4 = 3/2 then, 6 x 2 = 4 x 3. So that we can say that in any
true proportion, the product of the means equals the product of the extremes.

Example-6: A train travels 200 km in 4 h. How long will it take to complete a journey of 350 km,
assuming it travels at the same average velocity?

Solution:
The key is to recognize the proportion; 200 km is proportional to 4 h as 350 km is proportional to
x h. Then in symbols:
200:4:: 350: x and using our rule for means and extremes, we get:
200x = (4) (350)
or 200x = 1400
1400 EASA – 147 Course Notes
or, x = 200 So, x=7h
The rule for the products of the means and extremes is very useful and should be remembered!
We can generalize the above rule, using algebra (literal numbers), then:
x a

y b
or x : y:: a : b then bx = ay
In general, we may also represent a proportion by use of the proportionality sign, . For example,
2a  4a, where  is read as `is proportional to'.

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Inverse proportion:

If 30 men are working on a production line and produce 6000 components in 10 working days,
we might reasonably assume that if we double the amount of men, we can produce the
components in half the time. Similarly, if we employ 20 men it would take longer to produce the
same number of components. This situation is an example of inverse proportion. So in the above
case, the number of men is reduced in the proportion of
20 2

30 3
Therefore, it will take the inverse proportion of days to complete the same number of
components, i.e.:
3
  10 or 15 days
2
Example-7:
Two gear wheels mesh together as shown in Figure 1.1-22 One has 60 teeth, the other has 45
teeth. If the larger gear rotates at an angular velocity of 150 rpm, what is the angular velocity of
the smaller gear wheel, in rpm?

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 1.1-22 External meshing of two gears

Solution:
I hope you can see from Figure 1.1-22 that the larger gear wheel will make less revolution than
the smaller gear wheel, in a given time. Therefore, we are dealing with inverse proportion.
The ratio of teeth of the smaller gear wheel compared to the larger gear wheel is:
45 3

60 4

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4
Therefore, the ratio of angular velocities must be in the inverse proportion .Then the velocity of
3
4
the smaller gear wheel is =  150 = 200 rpm.
3
Constant of proportionality:
1
We can write down the general expression for inverse proportion as: y  , where y is said to be
x
inversely proportional to x.
Algebraically, using the proportion sign, direct proportion between any two quantities may be
represented as y ∞ x.

Now in order to equate the above expressions we need to introduce the constant of proportionality
κ. For example, if 2  4, then 2=4κ. When κ.=1/2; we say that κ. is the constant of
proportionality. It allows us to replace the proportionality sign (), with the equals (=) sign. In our
2
simple example above κ. = after transposition, or κ. = 1/2.
4

y
Now if in general, y  x then, y = κ. x, or  k , where k is the constant of proportionality.
x

k
Similarly for inverse proportion, where y  1/x, then y = or xy = κ.
x

Example-8:

The electrical resistance of a wire varies inversely as the square of its radius.

1. Write down an algebraic expression for this proportionality.

2. Given that the resistance is 0.05Ω when the radius of the wire is 3 mm. Find the resistance
when the wire used has a radius of 4.5 mm.

Solution: EASA – 147 Course Notes

1. It is not always the case that variables are proportional only to their first powers. In this case,
the resistance of the wire varies inversely as the square of the radius. Now, if R is the resistance
1 1
and r the radius, then: R 2 or R= k . This is the required algebraic expression.
r r2
k
2. When R = 0.05 and r = 3, then 0.05 = and κ. = 0.45.
32

Therefore, the final connecting equation is:

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0.45
R= when r = 4.5, then =.022 Ω
r2

The above example shows a typical engineering use for proportion. In the example that follows,
we can write down some familiar scientific relationships, using the rules for direct and inverse
proportion.

Example-9:
Write down the formulae to express the following:
1. The volume of a gas at constant temperature is inversely proportional to the pressure.
2. The electrical resistance of a wire varies directly as the length and inversely as the square
of the radius.
3. The kinetic energy of a body is jointly proportional to its mass and the square of its
velocity, when the constant of proportionality = 1/2.
Solution:
1. This should be familiar to you as Boyle's law. If we use the symbol V for volume and p for
pressure, then V  1/p and introducing the constant of proportionality  give the required
k
relationship as V = , or pV= κ. (a constant).
p
2. This is the same relationship that you met earlier, except the length L of the conductor is
involved. So, if we again use R for resistance and r for radius, then R 
kL
and again introducing the constant of proportionality we get R= 2
r
Note that in the above case the resistance R is a function of two variables: the length L and the
radius r.
3. The kinetic energy (KE) is also dependent on two variables the mass (m) and the square of the
velocity (v2), both variables being in direct proportion. So you may write down the relationship as
1 EASA – 147 Course Notes
KE  mv2 and introducing the constant of proportionality, which in this case we are given as ,
2
1
then the required relationship is KE= mv 2 . You will be studying this relationship in your
2
physics. You will be using the ideas of proportion in the next section on algebra, where we
consider the surface area and volume of regular solids.

Finding the Ratio of Two Quantities:

To find a ratio, the first term is divided by the second term. Both quantities of both terms must be
expressed in the same units, and reduced to their lowest terms.

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Example 10:
What is the weight ratio of a fuel load of 800 gallons to one of 10,080 pounds? Assume that the
fuel weighs 7.2 pounds per gallon.
Solution:
First: Express the fuel load in gallons as the numerator of a fraction whose denominator is the
fuel load in pounds.

800gal
R=
10,080

Next: Express both quantities in the same unit (pounds).

800  7.2
R=
10080

Then: Perform the indicated mathematical manipulations and reduce to lowest terms.

800  7.2 5760 4

R= = = or 4:7
10080 10080 7

What is the ratio in gallons?

First: Express the ratio in fractional form.

800gal
R=
10080

Next: Express both quantities in the same unit (gallons).

800gal
R=
10,080
7.2

Then: Perform the indicated mathematical manipulations and reduce to lowest terms. EASA – 147 Course Notes

Finding the Quantify of the First Term:

Now consider the situation when the ratio and the quantity that corresponds to the second term are
given, and it is required to find the quantity that corresponds to the first term. To solve this type
problem, multiply the term that corresponds to the second term by the fraction that represents the
ratio.

Example-11:

5
The given ratio is and the quantity that corresponds to the second term is 35. Find the quantity
7
that corresponds to the first term.
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Solution:

First: Express the problem as the product of the second term times the ratio.

5
35 × =?
7

Next: Perform the indicated operation.

5
35 × = 25
7

The first term is 25. The proof of this can be demonstrated by showing that the ratio of 25 to 35 is
5:7, reduced to lowest terms.

25 5

35 7

Finding the Quantity of the Second Term:

To solve a problem of this type, the ratio of the two quantities and the quantity that corresponds to
the first term must be known. The solution is obtained by dividing the known number by the
fraction that represents the ratio.

Example-12:
2
The ratio of two quantities is ; the quantity that corresponds to the first term is 100. Find the
3
quantity that corresponds to the second term.
Solution:
First: Express the problem as the quotient of the first term divided by the ratio.
2
100 ÷ =?
3
EASA – 147 Course Notes
Next: Perform the indicated operation.
2 2
100 ÷ =100 x = 150
3 3
The second term is 150. Again, this can be proved by expressing 100 as a ratio of 150.
100 2
=
150 3

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Exercise 1.1.8:

1. Divide 246 in the ratios

2. 1500 bolts are divided among three aircrafts in the ratios

3. A sum of money worth 13 taka consists of an equal number of coins of 50,10 and 5 paisa.
How many coins of each kind are there?
4. The perimeter of a triangle is 36 meter. Ratio of the sides is 3:4:5. What is the length of
each side?
5. Divide 42 life jackets into two aircrafts so that one gets of the other.
6. The ratio of two quantities is 3:5. If their sum is 320, find the numbers.
7. The sides of the triangle are in the ratios 4:7:8. And its perimeter is 38 cm. Find the sides.
8. Three men provided capitals of 1000$, 1500$ and 2500$ for a business on the
understanding that the shares of the profits were proportional to the capital provided. If the
profits were 350$, what should each receive?

9. If x:y= : and y:z= ;find x:y:z

10. If mark lends 400$ for 9 months, Peter lends 300$ for 8 months and the total interest paid
is 25$, how much should each receive?
11. A car travels 205 km on 20 L of petrol. How much petrol is needed for a journey of 340
km?
1.1.7 Average and Percentages:

1.1.7.1 Averages:

To find the average of a set of values, all we need to do is to add the values together and devide
by the number of values in the set. this may be expressed as:

Sum of the values

Average=
Total number of values. EASA – 147 Course Notes

Example-1:

The barometric pressure, measured in mm of mercury (mmHg), was taken every day for a week.
The readings obtained are shown below. What is the average pressure for the week in mmHg?

Day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

mmHg 75.2 76.1 76.3 75.7 77.1 75.3 76.3

Solution:

So, average pressure mmHg

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(75.2+76.1+76.3+75.7+77.1+75.3+76.3)/7 = 76mm.

Example-2:

A light aircraft is loaded with 22 boxes. If nine boxes have a mass of 12 kg, eight boxes have a
mass of 14 kg and five boxes have a mass of 15.5 kg. What is the total mass of the boxes and the
average mass per box?

By finding the total mass of all 22 boxes, we can then find the average mass per box. So we have:

9 x 12 = 108 kg

8 x 14 = 112 kg

5 x 15.5 = 77.5 kg

Total mass = 297.5 kg

Then average mass of all 22 boxes is =13.52 kg (by long division).

Example-3:

A student has gotten the following grades on his tests: 87, 95, 76, and 88. He wants an 85or better
overall. What is the minimum grade he must get on the last test in order to achieve that average?

The unknown score is "x". Then the desired average is:

(87 + 95 + 76 + 88 + x) ÷ 5 = 85

Multiplying through by 5 and simplifying, I get:

87 + 95 + 76 + 88 + x = 425
346 + x = 425
x = 79

He needs to get at least a 79 on the last test.

EASA – 147 Course Notes
Example-4:

A Pediatrician has four nine years old who are boys. Their height in inches are 54, 57, 53 and 52.
She finds out that according to national statistics the average height of a nine years old boy is 55
inches. What is average height of these four boys?

Solution:

Since we are considering n= 4 boys. We add the four height together and divide the result by 4.
Therefore

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= 54

Example-5:

The average (arithmetic mean) of a list of 6 numbers is 20. If we remove one of the numbers, the
average of the remaining numbers is 15. What is the number that was removed?

Solution:

Step 1: The removed number could be obtained by difference between the sum of original 6
numbers and the sum of remaining 5 numbers i.e.
Sum of original 6 numbers – sum of remaining 5 numbers

Step 2: Using the formula

Sum of original 6 numbers = 20 × 6 = 120
sum of remaining 5 numbers = 15 × 5 = 75

Step 3: Using the formula from step 1

Number removed = sum of original 6 numbers – sum of remaining 5 numbers
120 – 75 = 45

Therefore, the number removed is 45.

Example-6:

A class of 25 students took a science test. 10 students had an average (arithmetic mean) score of
80. The other students had an average score of 60. What is the average score of the whole class?

Solution:

Step 1: To get the sum of weighted terms, multiply each average by the number of students that
had that average and then sum them up. EASA – 147 Course Notes
80 × 10 + 60 × 15 = 800 + 900 = 1700

Step 2: Total number of terms = Total number of students = 25

Step 3: Using the formula

=68
Therefore, the average score of the whole class is 68.
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Exercise 1.1.9:
1. Find the average of
a. 15, 26, 98, 468, 596, 674 and 781
b. 4.5,8.9,9.1,7.8,5.2,12.5,19.5
c. 115.6,124.8,88.9,79.8,189.45
d. 1/5,7/9,5/3,7/3,5/9
2. Average of two numbers is 750. One is 395. What is the other one?
3. A car travels 50 km at 50 km/h and 70 km at 70 km/h. What is its average speed?
4. The average price of aircraft component A and B are 85000 taka. Again, the average price
of aircraft component A, B and C are 95000 taka. What is the price of component C?
5. The average age of 25 students of a class is 12 years. 3 boys aged 14, 15 and 21 years
were newly admitted to the class. What is the present average age of the boys of the class?
6. An aircraft traveled on an average speed of 450 km/hour from X to Y. and returned to X
from Y on an average speed of 360 km/hour. What was the average speed over the whole
journey?
7. The average age of father and mother of a family is 45 years. Again the average age of
father, mother, and their one son is 36 years. What is the age of the son?
8. There are 135, 180, 122, 167, 155 and 132 books respectively in 6 shelves out of 7 shelves
of a library. On verification, it is noticed that the average number of books in 7 shelves is
148. What is the number of books in the seventh shelves?
9. The average height of 30 A.M.E students of BATC is 167 cm. the average height of 14
students of less height is 160 cm and that of 6 students of more height is 172cm. what is
the average height of students of mid-level height?
10. The average run of a batsman increases 5 runs after making 100 runs in the eleventh
innings. What is his average run after the eleventh innings?
11. The average temperature at noon of of a week commencing from Sunday was 35°C. The
average temperature of the first three days was 38°C. And that of the last three days was
34 °C. What was the temperature of Wednesday?
12. An aircraft is loaded with 20 crates. Eight of the crates each have a mass of 120 kg, the
remaining crates each have a mass of 150 kg. What is the average mass per crate? EASA – 147 Course Notes

1.1.7.2 Percentages:

When comparing fractions it is often convenient to express them with a denominator of one
hundred. So, for example:

1 25 4 40
 and 
4 100 10 100

Fractions like these with a denominator of 100 are called percentages.

Thus,

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7 70

10 100
=70 percent or 70%
where the percentage sign (%) is used instead of the name in words. To obtain the percentage we
have simply multiplied the fraction by 100.
The percent, or parts in a hundred, is, thus, a special type of fraction which uses one hundred as
the denominator. The decimal fraction 0.75 is the same as 75/100 and may also be expressed as
75 percent or 75%. Common fractions may be expressed as percentages by dividing the
numerator by the denominator and then multiplying by one hundred, by moving the decimal point
two places to the right. Five-eighths, changed into a decimal fraction, is 0.625. When it is
converted into a percentage by moving the decimal point two places to the right, 5/8 = 0.625 =
62.5%.
(i) Finding a number which is a given percentage of another: It is often necessary to determine
what number is a given percentage of another, and in order to do this, multiply the known number
by the decimal equivalent of the percentage. For example, if 100% on a turbine engine tachometer
represents 11,000 RPM, what is the engine RPM at 38%?
11,000  0.38 = 4,180 RPM
(ii) Finding the percentage that one number is of another: Determining what percentage one
number is of another is done by setting the two numbers up as a common fraction, with the
number representing one hundred percent as the denominator.
In order to determine what percentage 4,180 RPM is of 11,000 RPM, we set up the fraction:
4,180 / 11,000= 4180 ÷ 11,000 = 0.380 = 38%
(iii) Finding the total number when part of the number and its percentage are known: When one
number is known to be a certain percentage of an unknown number, this unknown number,
representing 100%, can be found. To do this, we change the percentage into a decimal and divide
it into the known number. If we know that 4,180 RPM is 38% of the total RPM (100%), we can
find the value of 100% by:
100% RPM = 4,180 ÷ 0.38 =11,000 RPM EASA – 147 Course Notes

4 11
Example-1: Convert the following fractions to percentages (1) (2)
5 25
Solution:
4 400
(1) Then  100  =80%
5 5
11 1100
(2) Similarly  100  =44%
25 25
Decimal numbers can be converted into percentages in a similar way. For example:

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45
0.45 = = 45
100

We can find the same result, simply by multiplying the decimal number by 100, omitting the
intermediate step, so that 0.45 x 100 = 45 %.

The reverse process, turning a percentage into a fraction, simply requires us to divide the fraction
by 100. Thus,

52.5
52.5= =0.525
100

Remembering from your powers of ten that dividing by 100 requires us to move the decimal place
two places to the left

To find the percentage of a quantity is relatively easy, provided you remember to first express the
quantities, as a fraction using the same units.

Example-2:

1. Find 10% of 80

2. What percentage of £6.00 is 90 pence?

3. In a shipment of 80 wingtip lights, 15% of the lights were defective. How

many of the lights were defective?

4. A small engine rated at 12 horsepower is found to be delivering only 10.75

horsepower. What is the motor efficiency expressed as a percent?

5. Eighty ohms represents 52% of a microphone’s total resistance. Find the total resistance of this
microphone.

6. The total wing area of an aircraft is 120 m2. If the two main undercarriage assemblies are to be
stored in the wings and each takes up 3.0 m2 of the wing area, what percentage of the total wing
area is required to store the main undercarriage assemblies? EASA – 147 Course Notes

Solution:
10
1. Units are not involved so expressing 10% as a fraction we get and so we require,
100
10
of 80
100
10 800
or,  80   8%
100 100
2. Here we are involved with units, so converting £6.00 into pence gives 600 and so all that
remains for us to do is express 90 pence as a fraction of 600 pence and multiply by 100.

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Then:
90 9000
 100   15%
600 600
3. Algebra Method:
15% of 80 lights = N (number of defective lights) 0.15 × 80 = N
12 = N
Therefore, 12 defective lights were in the shipment.
Proportion Method:
N 15

80 100
To solve for N: N × 100 = 80 × 15
N × 100 = 1200
Or, N = 1200 ÷ 100
Or, N = 12
In another way,
N = (80 × 15) ÷ 100
Or, N = 12
4. Algebra Method:
N% of 12 rated horsepower = 10.75 actual horsepower
N% × 12 = 10.75
N% = 10.75 ÷ 12
N% = .8958
N = 89.58
EASA – 147 Course Notes
Therefore, the motor efficiency is 89.58%.
Proportion Method:
10.75 N

12 100
To solve for N: N × 12 = 10.75 × 100

N × 12 = 1075 N = 1075 ÷ 12 N = 89.58

In another way,

N = (1075 × 100) ÷ 12

N = 89.58
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Therefore, the motor efficiency is 89.58%.

5. Algebraic Method:

52% of N = 80 ohms

52% × N = 80

N = 80 ÷ .52

N = 153.846

The total resistance of the microphone is 153.846 ohms.

Proportion Method:

80 52

N 100

Solve for N: N × 52 = 80 × 100

N × 52 = 8,000

N = 8,000 ÷ 52

N = 153.846 ohms or

N = (80 × 100) ÷ 52

N = 153.846 ohms

6. We need first to recognize that this problem is none other than finding what
percentage of 120 m2 is 3.0 x 2 m2 (since there are two main undercarriage assemblies). So
following the same procedure as above and expressing the areas as a fraction, we get:

6 600
 100   5%
120 120 EASA – 147 Course Notes
i.e. the undercarriage assemblies take up 5% of the total wing area.

Another, non-engineering use of percentages is to work out profit and loss. You might find this
skill particularly useful to work out the effect of any pay rise or deductions on your wages!

Very simply,

Profit = selling price - cost price

And similarly, Loss = cost price - selling price.

Now both of these can be expressed as a percentage, i.e.

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Selling Pr ice  Cost Pr ice
Profit % =  100 and
Cost Pr ice

Cost Pr ice  Selling Pr ice

Loss % = x100
Cost Pr ice

Example-3:

1. An aircraft supplier buys 100 packs of rivets for £60.00 and sells them to the airline operator
for 80 pence each. What percentage profit does the supplier make?

2. The same supplier buys an undercarriage door retraction actuator for £1700.00 and because it is
reaching the end of its shelf life, he must sell it for £1400.00. What is the supplier’s percentage
loss?

Solution:

1.To apply the profit formula to this example we must first find the total selling price, in
consistent units. This is 100 x 80 pence or £100 x 0.8 = £80. Then on application of the formula
we get:

80  60
Profit % =  100
60

2000
=  33.3%
60

2.This is somewhat easier than the previous example and only requires us to apply the percentage
loss formula. Then:

1700.00  1400.00
Loss % =
1700.00

300.00
=  100
1700.00 EASA – 147 Course Notes
30000
=  17.65%
1700

Exercise 1.1.10:

1. Express 32:60 as a percentage

2. What percentage of 1500 is 930?
3. If one quantity is 123 % of other quantity, then what is the ratio of the two quantities?
4. There are 112 aircrafts in a fleet. 38% of them are Airbus A-320. How many Airbus A-
320 aircrafts are in the fleet?

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5. A book of mathematics is sold for tk. 68 at 85% of the actual price. What is the actual
price?
6. Mr. Amin’s salary increases from 4000 to 4500 tk. What is the percentage of salary
increase?
7. The population of a city increases by 8% in each year. At present the population of the city
is 50000. What will be the population after 2 years?
8. In an examination 52% and 42% examinees failed in English and Math respectively. If
17% failed in both subject, then what percentage of examinees passed in both subjects?
9. When price of fish is reduced by 25%, then what percentage in the use of fish should
increase so that there will be no change of expenditure for use of fish in the family?
10. How long would it take a certain sum of money to be double itself as amount is 5% per
anum?
11. As a consequence for reduction of rate of interest from 7% to 5%, the income of Mr. A
reduced by Tk. 7000 in 5 years. What was his capital?
12. A television was sold for 18000 taka at a profit of 22.5%. What is the actual price?
13. An airline engine repair bay has test equipment valued at £1.5 million. Each year 10% of
the value of the test equipment is written off as depreciation. What is the value of the
equipment after 2 full years?
14. An aircraft supplier buys 200 packs of rivets for £100.00 and sells them for 70 pence a
pack. What is his percentage of profit?
15. A sells to B a gain of 20%; sells to C at the price A paid. What does B loss as a
percentage?
16. A man buys eggs at 55 pens a score. He finds that 10% of the eggs are unsalable but sells
the rest at 60pens a dozen. Find his percentage profit
17. A shopkeeper marks her goods to gain 30%. She allows 10% discount for cash. Find her
Percentage of profit when sold for cash.
18. A man receives 10% discount for cash and pays 63.45$. What discount does he receive?

1.1.8 Areas and volume:

EASA – 147 Course Notes
Volume is the quantity of three-dimensional space enclosed by some closed boundary, for
example, the space that a substance (solid, liquid, gas, or plasma) or shape occupies or contains.
The volume of a container is generally understood to be the capacity of the container, i. e. the
amount of fluid (gas or liquid) that the container could hold, rather than the amount of space the
container itself displaces. Three dimensional mathematical shapes are also assigned volumes.
One-dimensional figures (such as lines) and two-dimensional shapes (such as squares) are
assigned zero volume in the three-dimensional space.

Surface area is the total area of the faces and curved surface of a solid figure. Surface area of an
object is the sum of the areas of its faces.
Before considering the surface area and volume of solids we will use some common formulae to
find the area of the triangle, circle and parallelogram. Those are shown in the following table.
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Shape Area

Triangle Half the base multiplied by the

1
perpendicular height, or A= bh again,
2

A= s ( s  a)(s  b)(s  c) where a,b,c are

1
the length of the sides and s= (a+b+c)
2

Rectangle Length is multiplied by width

Or, A=lxb
b

l
Parallelogram A= Base multiplied by the perpendicular
height between the parallel sides. The base
can be any side of the parallelogram

Circle

where r = radius and

D= diameter of circle.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Trapezium Half the sum of the parallel sides (a,b)
multiplied by the vertical distance (h)
between them, or

A=

Table-1: Formula of Area and Volume

Example-1:

In the triangle ABC shown in Figure-1.1-23, side AB = 3 cm and side AC= 4 cm. Find the area of
the triangle, using both the formulae, given in the table.

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Now we can see from the diagram that this is a right-angled triangle; therefore, the area A is
found simply by using the formula A = ½ bh, where the base can be taken as either side
containing the right-angle. Then, A = ½ (3)(4) =6 cm2. Note that the other side, not used as the
base, is at right angles to the base and is there-fore the perpendicular height. If the triangle was
not right angled, we would need to find the perpendicular height or all of the sides in order to find
the area.

In our second formula, involving the sides of the triangle, we need to know side AC. Since this is
a right-angled triangle we can find the third side (opposite the right angle) by using Pythagoras
theorem. I am sure you are familiar with this theorem, it states that: the sum of the square on the
hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides. In our case we have that
(AC)2 =32+42=9+16=25 or AC = 25 =5.

1 1
We now have three sides = (a + b + c) = (3 + 4 + 5) = 6; therefore, the area of the triangle:
2 2

A= s ( s  a)(s  b)(s  c)

Figure- 1.1-23 Triangle, ABC.

= 6(6  3)(6  4)(6  5)

= 6  3  2 1

= 36
EASA – 147 Course Notes
=6 cm2
Example-2:
The cross section of a metal plate is shown in Figure1.1-24 find its area correct to four significant
figures.

Then using the area rule for a trapezium, where in this case the vertical height is 72.7 mm. Then:

A=

Or, A= (72.1)(72.7) = 5241.67==5242 mm2

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Figure-1.1-24: Cross section of metal plate.

Example-3:

Determine the area of the annulus shown in Figure-1.1-25, which has an inner radius of 5 cm and
an outer radius of 8 cm.

Solution:

The shaded area (similar to a doughnut in shape) is the area of the annulus we require. We know
both the inner and outer radii, there-fore, we can treat this shape as the difference between the
outer and inner circles. We know that the area of a circle is πr2 Now our two circles have two
different radii, where R = 8 cm and r = 5 cm. Then since the area of the annulus A is the
difference between these two circles we may write:

A = πR2 -πr2 or A=π(R2 - r2)then, substituting the appropriate values of the radii gives:

39  22
A =π(82 - 52) = π (64 - 25) =
7

= 122.6 cm2
EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure-1.1-25: The Annulus

Example-4:
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Find the area of a tapered wing whose span is 50 feet and whose mean chord is 6'8". First,
substitute the known values in the formula.

Figure-1.1-26: wing planform.

A=S×C

= 50 feet × 6 feet 8 inches

(Note: 8 inches = 8∕12 feet = .67 feet)

= 50 feet × 6.67 feet

= 333.5 square feet

Example-5: Find the area of the obtuse triangle shown in Figure 1.1-27. First, substitute the
known values in the area formula.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure-1.1-27: Obtuse Triangle.

1
A=  b  h
2
1
= ×2′6"×3′2"
2
Next convert all dimensions to inches.
2′6"=(2×12+6)=30 inches.
3′2"=(3×12+2)=38 inches
Now solve the formula for the unknown value:

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1
A=  30  38 =570 square Inches.
2

Solid Volume Surface area

Right circular cylinder V=πr2h S= 2πrh

Without base and top

Right circular cylinder with V= πr2h S= 2πr(h+r)

base and top

Cone, without base 1 S= πrl where l= the slant

V= πr2h
3 height.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Sphere 4 3 S= 4πr2
V= πr
3

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Hollow pipe of uniform V=π(R2-r2)l S=2π (R2-r2)+2π(R+r)
circular cross section

Spherical sphere 4 S= 4π(R2+r2)

V= π(R3-r3)
3

Table-2: Formula for regular solid

Example- 6:

Find the volume and total surface area of a right cylinder, with a top and bottom, if the cylinder
has a height of 12 cm and a base radius of 3 cm.

Solution: In this example it is simply a question of applying the appropriate formula.

22
Then for the volume V= πr2h = π (3)2(12) =108π= (108)× =339.4 cm3.
7
Now the cylinder has a base and a top, therefore, the surface area S= 2πr (h+r)
Then, S =2π (3) (12 + 3) = 90π = 282.86 cm2.
Example-7:
Water flows through a circular pipe of internal radius 10 cm at 5 m/s. If the pipe is always three- EASA – 147 Course Notes
quarters full, find the volume of water discharged in 30 min.
Solution: This problem requires us to find the volume of water in the pipe per unit time; in other
words, the volume of water in the pipe per second. Note that no length has been given.
The area of the circular cross section =πr2 =π (10)2 = 100π; therefore, the area of the cross section
of water:
3
= ×100π =75π cm3=75π10-4 m2
4

Now since water flows at 5 m/s, then the volume of water discharged per second:

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5  (75 )10 4
= = (375π) 10-4 m3/s
1

Then the number of m3 discharged in 30 min

= (30)(60)(375π)(10-4)=67.5π= 212 m3.

Example-8:

A large, cube-shaped carton contains a shipment of smaller boxes inside of it. Each of the smaller
boxes is 1 ft × 1 ft × 1 ft. The measurement of the large carton is 3 ft × 3 ft × 3 ft. How many of
the smaller boxes are in the large carton? First, substitute the known values into the formula.

Solution:

V=L×W×H

= 3 ft × 3 ft × 3 ft

= 27 cubic feet of volume in the large carton

Since each of the smaller boxes has a volume of 1 cubic foot, the large carton will hold 27 boxes.

Figure-1.1-28: Cubes
EASA – 147 Course Notes
Example-9:

A pressure tank inside the fuselage of a cargo aircraft is in the shape of a sphere with a diameter
of 34 inches. What is the volume of the pressure tank?

V = 4∕3 × π × radius3 = 4∕3 × (3.1416) × (34∕2)3

= 1.33 × 3.1416 × 173 = 1.33 × 3.1416 × 4913
V = 20,528.125 cubic inches

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Figure-1.1-29: sphere
Example-10:

Find the piston displacement of one cylinder in a multi-cylinder aircraft engine. The engine has a
Cylinder bore of 5.5 inches and a stroke of 5.4 inches. First, substitute the known values in the
formula.

V = π × r2 × h = (3.1416) × (5.5 ÷ 2)2 × (5.4)

V = 23.758 × 5.4 = 128.29 cubic inches The piston displacement of one cylinder is 128.29 cubic
inches. For an eight cylinder engine, then the total engine displacement would be:

Total Displacement for 8 cylinders = 8 × 128.29 = 1026.32 cubic inches of displacement

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure- 1.1-30: Cylinder Displacement.

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Exercise 1.1.11:

1. In a parallogram ABCD, base AB is 3 meter, height is 12 meter. Find the area of the
parallogram .
2. A parallogram has sides of 12 cm and 8 cm. The distance between the 12 cm sides is 4 cm.
what is the distance between the 8 cm sides?
3. A square room has a square carpet symmetrically placed in it. This leaves an area
uncovered of 9 m2 and the area of the whole room is 25m2. Find the length of one side of
the carpet.
4. A room 5mx4mx3m high is to be prepared with paper 50 cm wide. What length of paper is
required?
5. The area of a circle is 230 m2. Find its radius.
6. Find the total surface area of a cylinder of base radius 5 cm and length 7 cm.
7. The volume of a sphere is 827 cm3. Find its radius
8. A tank holding 1 m3 of water is filled in 10 minutes by a circular pipe of diameter 2 cm.
find the speed of the water in the pipe.
9. A tank of rectangular cross section 2m by 1m and of height 1m is filled by a pipe of cross
section 10 cm2. If the pipe delivers 1 m3 per minute, Find the time taken to fill the tank.
10. The rain water from a flat roof 15 m by 20 m drains into a tank 3 m deep. On a base
4mx4m. What depth of rainfall will fill the tank?
11. The piston displacement of one cylinder in a multi-cylinder aircraft engine is 220 m3. The
engine has a cylinder bore of 5.5 inches find the stroke the cylinder.
12. Find the volume and total surface area of a right cylinder, without top and bottom, if the
cylinder has a height of 20.8 cm and a base radius of 5 cm.
13. The area of the annulus is 150 cm2, which has an outer radius of 8 cm. Determine the inner
radius.
14. A cylinder has a base radius of 4 cm and a volume of 100 cm3. Find the height.
15. Find the area of a circular path 30 m wide surrounding a circular plot of radius 20m.
16. A wall 8 m long, 6m high and22.5 cm thick is made up of bricks each measuring 25 cm x
11.25cm x 6cm. Find the number of bricks required to build the wall.
17. The capacity of a cylindrical tank is 6160 m3. If the radius of its base is 14 m, find the
EASA – 147 Course Notes
depth of the tank.
18. 3 cubes of sides 6m, 8cm, and 1 cm are melted to form a new cube. Find the length of the
edge of the new cube.
19. A copper sphere of diameter 18 cm is drawn into a wire of diameter 4mm.find the length
of the wire.
20. Find the number of lead balls of diameter 1 cm each that can be made from a sphere of
diameter 16 cm.
21. The cost of electroplating a square sheet of metal varies as the square of its length. The
cost to electroplate a sheet of metal with sides of 12 cm is £15.00. How much will it cost
to electroplate a square piece of metal with sides of 15 cm?

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1.1.9 Powers: Squares, cubes, square and cube roots.

The power (or exponent) of a number is a shorthand method of indicating how many times a
number, called the base, is multiplied by itself. For example, 34 means “3 to the power of 4.” That
is, 3 multiplied by itself 4 times. The 3 is the base and 4 is the power.

Examples-1:
23 = 2 × 2 × 2 = 8.
Read “two to the third power equals 8.”
105 = 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 = 100,000
Read “ten to the fifth power equals 100,000.”

1.1.9.1 Square:

When a number has a power of 2, it is commonly referred to as “squared.” For example, 72 is

read as “seven squared” or “seven to the second power.” To remember this, think about how a
square has two dimensions: length and width.

1.1.9.2 Cube:

When a number has a power of 3, it is commonly referred to as “cubed.” For example, 73 is read
as “seven cubed” or “seven to the third power.” To remember this, think about how a cube has
three dimensions: length, width, and depth.

1.1.9.3 Square Roots:

The square root of 25, written as √25, equals 5. That is, when the number 5 is squared (multiplied
by itself ), it produces the number 25. The symbol √ is called a radical sign. Finding the square
root of a number is the most common application of roots. The collection of numbers whose
square roots are whole numbers are called perfect squares. The first ten perfect squares are: 1, 4,
9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, and 100. The square root of each of these numbers is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,
9, and 10, respectively. For example, √36 = 6 and √81 = 9 To find the square root of a number EASA – 147 Course Notes
that is not a perfect square, use either a calculator or the estimation method. A longhand method
does exist for finding square roots, but with the advent of calculators and because of its lengthy
explanation, it is no longer included in this handbook. The estimation method uses the knowledge
of perfect squares to approximate the square root of a number

Example-2:

Find the square root of 31.

Solution: Since 31 falls between the two perfect roots 25 and 36, we know that √31 must be
between √25 and √36. Therefore, √31 must be greater than 5 and less than 6 because √25 = 5

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and √36 = 6. If you estimate the square root of 31 at 5.5, you are close to the correct answer. The
square root of 31 is actually 5.568.
Example-3: Find out the square Root of 2304 by division method

Example-4: Find the square root of 3136.

Solution:

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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Example-5: What is the least number which is to be subtracted from 8655 to get a perfect square
number ?

Solution:

Here, 6 is the remainder in finding the square root of 8655 by division.

Therefore, if 6 is subtracted from the given number then the number will be a perfect square.

Required least number is 6.

Example-6: What is the least number which is to be added to 651201 to get a perfect square
number?

Solution:

Hence, the remainder is 1565 in finding the square root. So the given number is not perfect
square. The least number when added to 651201 will make the total sum a perfect square and
then its square root will be 806 + 1 = 807

Square of 807 is 807 807 = 651249.

The required least number is 651249 – 651201 = 48.

Finding square root of decimal fraction: EASA – 147 Course Notes

The way in which the square root of the perfect square number or whole number is determined by
long division, the square root of the decimal fraction is also determined in the same way. There
are two parts of a decimal fraction. The part on the left side of decimal point is the whole or
integral part and the part on the right side of decimal point is called decimal part.

Steps for finding a square root:

 In the whole part, horizontal bar is to be drawn on two digits each from the units place
gradually to the left.3

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 In the decimal part, horizontal line is to be drawn over the digits in pairs from the right
side of decimal point. If a digit is left alone in this way, then a zero is put beside the digit
and then the bar is put on two digits.
 In the usual way of determining square root, the activity over the integer part is carried
out and a decimal point should be put in the square root before considering the first two
digits after decimal point.
 For each pair of zeros in the decimal of a number, one zero is to be put after decimal point
in the square root

Example-7: Find the square root of 26ꞏ5225.

Solution:

Therefore Required square root is 5ꞏ15.

Example-8: Find the square root of 0ꞏ002916

Solution:

Therefore Required square root = 0ꞏ054

EASA – 147 Course Notes

1.1.9.4 Cube Roots:

The cube root of 125, written as 3 125 , equals 5. That is, when the number 5 is cubed
(5multiplied by itself then multiplying the product (25) by 5 again), it produces the number 125.
It is common to confuse the “cube” of a number with the “cube root” of a number.
For clarification, the cube of 27 = 273 = 27 × 27 × 27= 19,683
However, the cube root of 27 = 3 27 = 3.

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Exercise-1.1.12:

1. Find out the Square root of 10404?

2. Find out the Square root of 11025?
3. What is the least number which is to be subtracted from 4639 so that the difference is a
perfect square?
4. What is the least number to be added to 5605 so that the total sum is a perfect square?
5. What is the square root of 1.1025?
6. Find out the cube root of 17576?

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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EASA – 147 Course Notes

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CHAPTER- 1.2
(Algebra)

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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EASA – 147 Course Notes

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1.2 Algebra:

1.2.1 Evaluating simple algebraic expression, addition, subtraction, multiplication, and

division, use of brackets, simple algebraic fractions.

1.2.1.1 Factor:

When two or more numbers are multiplied together, each of them, or the product of any number
of them (apart from them all), is a factor of the product. This applies to explicit arithmetic
numbers and to literal numbers.

So, for example, if we multiply the numbers 2 and 6, we get that 2× 6 =12, thus 2 and 6 are
factors of the number 12. However, the number 12 has more than one set of factors, 3× 4 =12 so
3 and 4 are also factors of the number 12. We can also multiply 2× 2× 3 to get 12. Since the
numbers 2, 2 and 3 are yet another set of factors of the number 12. Finally, you will remember
that any number n multiplied by 1 is itself, or n × 1= n. So every number has itself and 1 as
factors; 1 and n are considered trivial factors and when asked to find the factors of an explicit or
literal number, we will exclude the number itself and 1.

Example-1: Find the factors of: (a) 8, (b) xy, (c) 24, (d) abc and (e) -m

Solution:
(a) Apart from the trivial factors 1 and 8, which we agreed to ignore, the number 8 has only the
factors 2 and 4, since 2× 4 = 8, remember that these factors can be presented in reverse order, 4×
2 = 8, but 2 and 4 are still the only factors.

(b) Similarly, the literal number xy can only have the factors x and y, if we ignore the trivial
factors. Thus, the numbers x and y multiplied together to form the product xy are factors of that
product.

(c) The number 24 has several sets of factors, with varying numbers in each set. First we find the
number of sets with two factors, these are: EASA – 147 Course Notes
24 = 6 ×4
24 = 8×3
24 = 12 × 2
More than two factors:
24 = 2 × 2× 6
24 = 4 ×3 × 2
24 = 2 × 2 × 2× 3
However, if we look closely we see that the number 24 has only six different factors: 12, 8, 6, 4,
3 and 2.

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(d) So what about the factors in the number abc? Well, I hope you can see that the product of
each individual factor a, b and c constitute one set of factors. Also ab and c; a and bc; and b and
ac, form a further three sets. So extracting the different factors from these sets we have: a, b, c,
ab, ac and bc as the six factors of the number abc.
(e) We have two sets of factors here 1 and -n, which is the trivial factor, but also the set n and -1,
notice the subtlety with the sign change. When dealing with minus numbers, any two factors must
have opposite signs.
Exercise 1.2.1:
1. Find the factors of: a) 45x, b) 81x2,c) 125x3 ,d)x2 -7x, e) 5x2-10x
2. Resolve into factors: ( 8x2+9y3)2-( 2x2-9y3)2
3. Factorise the following:
a. 6a4b2-18a2b3
b. 5h2+10gh-20g2h
c. 4a+6ab-8ab2
d. 8x2y-24xy2
e. 1-9(a-b)2
f. 16(a-b)2-25(x-y)2
g. 9x2-81
h. 15+x-2x2
i. x2+6x+8
j. 6l2-17lm+12m2

1.2.1.2 Addition:
The sum (addition) of two positive numbers is positive. The sum (addition) of two negative
numbers is negative. The sum of a positive and a negative number can be positive or negative,
depending on the values of the numbers
1.2.1.3 Subtraction:
To subtract positive and negative numbers, first change the “–” (subtraction symbol) to a “+”
EASA – 147 Course Notes
(addition symbol), and change the sign of the second number to its opposite (that is, change a
positive number to a negative number or vice versa). Finally, add the two numbers together
1.2.1.4 Multiplication:
The product of two positive numbers is always positive. The product of two negative numbers is
always positive. The product of a positive and a negative number is always negative.
Consider the two factors (1 + a) and (1 + b), noting that each factor consists of a natural number
and a literal number. Suppose we are required to find (1 + a) (1 + b); in other words, their
product. Provided we follow a set sequence, obeying the laws of multiplication of arithmetic,
then the process is really quite simple!

In order to describe the process accurately, I need to remind you of some basic terminology. In
the factor (1 + a) the natural number 1 is considered to be a constant because it has no other
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value; on the other hand, the literal number a can be assigned any number of values. Therefore, it
is referred to as a variable. Any number or group of numbers, whether natural or literal, separated
by a +, - or = sign, is referred to as a term. For example, the expression (1 + a) has two terms.

When multiplying (1 + a) by (1 + b) we start the multiplication process from the left and work to
the right, in the same manner as reading a book. We multiply each term in the left-hand bracket
by each of the terms in the right-hand bracket as follows:

(1+a)(1+b) = (1×1) + (1×b) + (a×1) + (a×b) = 1+b+a+ab= 1+a+b+ab

Notes:

1. The "dot" notation (1.a) (1.b) for multiplication may be used to avoid confusion with the
variable x.

2. It does not matter in which order the factors are multiplied; refer back to the commutative
law of arithmetic,

Example-1:

Determine the product of the following algebraic factors:

a. (a+ b) (a-b)

b. (2a-3) (a-1)

c. (abc3d ) (a2bc-1)

Solution:
a. In this example we proceed in the same manner as we did above, i.e.:
(a+b)(a-b) = (a × a) + (a) (-b) + (b× a) + (b) (-b) = a2 + (-ab) + (ba) + (-b2)

Which by the laws of signs = a2 - ab + ba - b2 and by the commutative law this can be written as
a2-ab+ab-b2 or (a+b) (a-b) = a2-b2. I hope you have followed this process and recognize the
notation for multiplying two bracketed terms. EASA – 147 Course Notes
The product a2 - b2 is a special case and is known as the difference between two squares. This
enables you to write down the product of any two factors that take the form (x + y) (x - y) as
equal to x2 - y2, where x and y are any two variables.

b. Again for these factors, we follow the process, where we get:

(2a - 3)(a - 1) = 2a × a + (2a) (-1) + (-3) (a) + (-3) (-1) =2a2-2a-3a+3.

And so (2a - 3)(a - 1) = 2a2-5a+3

c. In this case we simply multiply together like variables, using the laws of indices. So we get:

(abc3d)(a2bc-1) = (a1× a2) (b1× b1) × (c3×c-1) (d1) = (a1+2) (b1+1) (C3-1) (d1) = a3b2c2d

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Note that the brackets in the above solution have only been included for clarity; they are not
required for any other purpose.

Example-2: Simplify the following:

a. (x+y) (x+y) (x-y)

b. (a+b) (a2 -ab+b2)

Solution:

(a) This expression may be simplified by multiplying out the brackets and collecting like terms. I
hope you recognize the fact that the product of (x + y) (x - y) is x2 - y2. Then all we need to do is
multiply this product by the remaining factor, we get:

(x + y)(x2 - y2) = x3 - xy2 +x2y - y3

Note that the convention of putting the variables in alphabetical order and the fact that it does not
matter in what order we multiply the factors, the result will be the same.

(b) This is a straightforward product, where

(a + b)(a2 - ab + b2) = a3 – a2b + ab2 + a2b - ab2 + b3 = a3 + b3

Note that there are six terms resulting from the necessary six multiplications. When we collect
like-terms and add we are left with the product known as the addition of cubes.

Example-3:

Simplify the following algebraic expressions:

(i) 3ab+2ac-3c+5ab-2ac-4ab+2c-b

(ii) 3x-2y×4z-2x

(iii) (3a2b2c2+2abc)(2a-1b-1c-1)
EASA – 147 Course Notes
(iv) (3x+2y)(2x-3y+6z)

Solution:

(i) All that is required here is to add or subtract like terms, so we get:

=3ab+5ab-4ab+2ac-2ac-3c+2c-b=4ab-b-c

(ii) Here you need to be aware of the law of precedence; this is derived from the laws of
arithmetic you learnt earlier. As an aide memoir we use the acronym: BODMAS, i.e. brackets, of,
division, multiplication, addition and finally subtraction. These operations are being performed in
this order. From this law we carry out multiplication before addition or subtraction. So we get:

3x — 8yz — 2x = x — 8yz
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(iii) With this expression, when multiplying up the brackets, we need to remember the law of
indices for multiplication. Using this law we get:

6a2-1b2-1c2-1+ 4a1-1b1-1c1-1

= 6a1b1c1 + 4a°b°c° = 6abc+ 4

(iv) This is just the multiplication of brackets, where we multiply all terms in the right- hand
bracket by both terms in the left-hand bracket. We perform these multiplications as though we are
reading a book from left to right. Starting with (3x)× (2x) = 6x2, then (3x) × (-3y) = —9xy and so
on. We then repeat the multiplications, using the right-hand term in the first bracket, i.e. (2y) x
(2x) = 4xy and so on. So that before any simplification we should end up with

2 × 3 = 6 terms:

(3x + 2y)(2x — 3y + 6z)

= 6x2 — 9xy + 18xz + 4xy — 6y2 + 12yz (6 terms)

and so after simplification which involves only two like-terms in this case, we get:

6x2 — 5xy + 18xz — 6y2 + 12yz

1.2.1.5 Division:

When dividing the number 5184 by 12, you would use your calculator to obtain the result, which
of course is 432. I would like to take you back to the time when you were asked to carryout long
division to obtain this answer! My reason for doing so is quite logical: once you remember this
technique using natural numbers, it will be easy to adapt this same technique to the division of
literal numbers or to algebraic.

So we may set the above division out, as follow: 12 5184

We reason that 12 will not go into 5, so we consider the next number, i.e 5 and 1 or 51, 12 will
go into 51 four (4) times with 3 left over. So we now have:
EASA – 147 Course Notes

We now bring down the 8 because 12 does not go into 3 and get 38, 12 will go into 38 three (3)
times (3×12=36), so we put the 3 on top as we did the 4 then we are left with a remainder of 2.
We now have:

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We continue this process by bringing down the final figure 4, since again 12 will not go into the
remainder 2. We get 24, and 12 goes into 24 two times, leaving no remainder. We place the 2 on
top, as before, to finish the division. So the completed long division looks like this:

This division is easily checked by carrying out the inverse arithmetic operation, i.e. (12 × 432) =
5184.
I hope this reminded you of the long division process, which I am sure you are familiar with. We
are now going to use this process to carry out long division of algebra; this is best illustrated by
an example.

Example-4:

Given that a + b is a factor of a3 + b3, find all remaining factors.

We can approach this problem using long division, since the factors of any expression when
multiplied together produce that expression. So we can determine the factors, using the inverse of
multiplication, i.e. division. Now, we are dividing by two literal numbers a and b, so starting with
the unknown a, we see that a divides into a3. Think of it as 3 into 27, leaving 9 or 32, then a into
a3 is a2. Another approach is simply to apply the laws of indices a3/a1 =a2, thus al and a2 are
factors of a3. This first part of the division is shown below:

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Note that the second row underneath the division is obtained by multiplying the divisor (the
expression doing the dividing, a + b in our case) by the quotient (the result above the division
line, a2 in our case). The remainder is obtained after subtraction of the second row from the
original expression.

Next we need to find a quotient which when multiplied by the divisor gives us -a2b (the first term
in the bottom line). I hope you can see that -ab when multiplied by the first term in the divisor a,
gives us -a2 b, then -ab is the next term in our quotient as shown below:

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Finally we need the next term in our quotient to yield +ab2, when multiplied by the first term of
our divisor a. Again, I hope you can see that this is b2. This completes the division as shown
below:

Then the factors of the expression a3 + b3 are (a + b) and (a2 - ab + b2 ).

We know that these two expressions are factors, because there is no remainder after division and
if we multiply them together we obtain the original expression. The above process may at first
appear rather complicated but you can see the pattern and symmetry that exists in the process.
Below there is another completed long division shown without explanation. Study it carefully and
make sure you identify the pattern and sequence of events that go to make up the process

EASA – 147 Course Notes

You might have been able to write down the factors of a4 - b4 straight away, recognizing that it is
the difference between two squares, where the factors are themselves, literal numbers raised to
the power 2.

We have concentrated on long division of algebraic expressions, where the division is exact, but
what happens if we are left with a remainder? Below is shown the division of two expressions
which both yield a remainder:

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x2 1 2
Therefore,  1 where ≡ means “always equal to“
x2 1 x2 1

Similarly:

3x 3  x 2  2   x 2  3x  2 
Therefore,  3   
x3  x  x x 
3

In both the cases, the division has converted an improper fraction into a proper fraction. An
improper algebraic fraction is one in which the highest power in the numerator is greater than or
equal to (  ), the highest power in the denominator. Just to make sure you can distinguish
between these two types of fraction, let us substitute the natural number 2 for the unknown
variable x in the first of the two examples shown above, i.e.:

x2 1 22 1 5 2
  or 1
x2 1 22 1 3 3
5 2
So, is a fraction in improper form and 1 is a proper fraction.
3 3

1.2.1.6 Use of Parentheses:

In algebraic equations, parentheses are used to group numbers or symbols together. The use of EASA – 147 Course Notes
parentheses helps us to identify the order in which we should apply mathematical operations. The
operations inside the parentheses are always performed first in algebraic equations.

Example-5:

Solve the algebraic equation N = (4 + 3)2. First, perform the operation inside the parentheses.
That is, 4 + 3 = 7. Then complete the exponent calculation N = (7)2 = 7 × 7 = 49.

When using more complex equations, which may combine several terms and use multiple
operations, grouping the terms together helps organize the equation. Parentheses, ( ), are most
commonly used in grouping, but you may also see brackets, [ ]. When a term or expression is
inside one of these grouping symbols, it means that any operation indicated to be done on the
group is done to the entire term or expression.

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Example-6:
Solve the equation N = 2 × [(9 ÷ 3) + (4 + 3)2].
Solution:
N = 2 × [(9 ÷ 3) + (4 + 3)2] Start with the operations inside the parentheses ( ), then perform the
operations inside the brackets [ ].
N = 2 × [3 + (7)2] First, complete the operations inside the parentheses ( ).
N = 2 × [3 + 49]
N = 2 × [52] Second, complete the operations inside the brackets [ ].
N = 104
Order of Operation:
In algebra, rules have been set for the order in which operations are evaluated. These same
universally accepted rules are also used when programming algebraic equations in calculators.
When solving the following equation, the order of operation is given below:
N = (62 – 54)2 + 62 – 4 + 3 × [8 + (10 ÷ 2)] + √25 + (42 × 2) ÷ 4 + 3∕4

1. Parentheses. First, do everything in parentheses ( ), starting from the innermost parentheses. If

the expression has a set of brackets, [ ], treat these exactly like parentheses. If you are working
with a fraction, treat the top as if it were in parentheses and the denominator as if it were in
parentheses, even if there are none of the above, completing the calculation in parentheses gives
the following:
N = (8)2 + 62 – 4 + 3 × [8 + (5)] + √25 + (84) ÷ 4 + 3∕4,
Then, N = (8)2 + 62 – 4 + 3 × [13] + √25 + 84 ÷ 4 + 3∕4
2. Exponents. Next, clear any exponents. Treat any roots (square roots, cube roots, and so forth)
as exponents. Completing the exponents and roots in the equation gives the following:
N = 64 + 36 – 4 + 3 × 13 + 5 + 84 ÷ 4 + 3∕4
3. Multiplication and Division. Evaluate all of the multiplications and divisions from left to right. EASA – 147 Course Notes
Multiply and divide from left to right in one step. A common error is to use two steps for this
(that is, to clear all of the multiplication signs and then clear all of the division signs), but this is
not the correct method. Treat fractions as division. Completing the multiplication and division in
the equation gives the following:
N = 64 + 36 – 4 + 39 + 5 + 21 + 3∕4
4. Addition and Subtraction. Evaluate the additions and subtractions from left to right. Like
above, addition and subtraction are computed left to right in one step. Completing the addition
and subtraction in the equation gives the following:
3
X = 161
4

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Order of Operation for Algebraic Equations:

►Parentheses

►Exponents

►Multiplication and Division

►Addition and Subtraction

Use the acronym PEMDAS to remember the order of operation in algebra. PEMDAS is an
acronym for parentheses, exponents, multiplication, division, addition, and subtraction. To
remember it, many use the sentence, “Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally.” Always remember,
however, to multiply/divide or add/subtract in one sweep from left to right, not separately

1.2.1.7 Simple Algebraic fractions:

The process or system that is used to find out the ultimate result of fraction is similar with
Arithmetic operation.

Example -7:

Simplify the following fraction:

(i) a 2a 3c
 
b c a

3a  2a 3b 3c 
(ii)    
4b  b c ab 

Solution:
a 2a 3c ca  a  2a  ab - 3c  bc a 2c  2a 2b  3bc 2
(i)   = 
b c a abc abc
EASA – 147 Course Notes
3a  2a 3b 3c  3a  2a  ac  3b  ab  3c  c  3a  2a 2c  3ab2  3c 2 
(ii)     =   =  
4b  b c ab  4b  abc  4b  abc 

3  2a 2c  3ab 2  3c 2  6a 2c  9ab 2  9c 2
=   
4b  bc  4b 2c

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Exercise 1.2.2

1. Add: (4x2-x-4), (x+1)and (x-6)

2. Subtract (2x-6) from (4x2-x-4)
3. Determine the product of (a+b), (2a+3b) and 7b
4. Determine (x3+4x2-x-4)÷(x+1)
5. Simplify:

a.

b.

c.

d.

e.
f.

g.
h.
i.

1.2.2 Linear Equations and their solutions:

The important point about equations is that the equality sign must always be present!

Example-1:
EASA – 147 Course Notes
Solve the following equations:

1. 3x-4=6-2x

2. 8+4(x-1)-5(x-3)=2(5+2x)

1 1
3.  0
2x  3 4x  3

1. For this equation, all we need to do is to collect all terms involving the unknown x on to the
left-hand side of the equation, simply by using our rules for transposition of formula.

3x+2x-4=6

so, 3x+2x-=6+4
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or, 5x=10, and so x=2

2.In this equation first we need to multiply out the brackets, then collect all terms involving the
unknown x onto one side of the equation and the numbers onto the other -side, then divide out to
obtain the solution. So:

8 + 4(x - 1) - 5(x - 3) = 2(5 + 2x)

Or, 8+4x-4-5x+15= 10+4x

Or, 4x-5x -4x= 10+4-8- 15

Or, -5x= -9 and on division by -5

Note the care taken with the signs! Also remember from your earlier work that a minus number
divided by a minus number leaves us with a plus number. Alternatively, multiple top and bottom
9
of the fraction by (-1), then from(-)(-)=(+) we get 9/5 as required.
5

3. To solve this equation we need to manipulate fractions, or apply the inverse arithmetic
operation to every term! The simplification to obtain x using the rules for transposition is laid out
in full below:

1 1
 0
2x  3 4x  3
1(2 x  3) 1(2 x  3)
  0(2 x  3)
2x  3 4x  3
2x  3
Or, 1 0
4x  3

(2 x  3)(4 x  3)
1(4 x  3)   0(4 x  3)
4x  3
(4x+3)+(2x+3)=0 EASA – 147 Course Notes
or , 4x+3+2x+3=0

or, 6x= -6, and so, x= -1

We could have carried out the multiplication by the terms in the denominator, in just one
operation simply by multiplying every term by the product (2x + 3)(4x + 3). Notice also that
when multiplying any term by zero, the product is always zero.

Example-2:

Solve the equation 3x2 — 5 = —2x — 4 by factorization.

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Solution: The first thing to note before we attempt a solution is that this equation is not in
standard form. All we need to do is transpose the equation, to get it into standard form. You
should, by now, be able to do the transposition with ease, so make sure you obtain:

3x2 + 2x — 1 = 0. Now using the techniques for factorization, that you learnt earlier, after trial
and error, you should find that: (3x — 1)(x + 1) = 0 then either:
1
3x — 1 = 0 giving x 
3
or (x + 1) = 0 giving x= -1
Note that in this case the equation has two different solutions; both can be checked for accuracy
by substituting them into the original equation. Then either;
2
1 1
3   5  2   4
 3  3
or

3 2
5   4
9 3
2 2
4  4
Therefore, 3 3 Which is correct.

Again, 3(-1)2-5=-4-2(-1)
Or, 3-5=-4+2
Therefore, -2= -2 Which is also correct.
Note the need to manipulate fractions and be aware of the laws of signs, skills I hope you have
acquired, at this stage in your learning.
Exercise 1.2.3
1. Solve the following equations:
i. 4(x‐3)=5 EASA – 147 Course Notes

ii.

iii. =0

iv. =1
v. 3(x‐2)=2(x‐1)
vi.

vii.

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viii.

ix.

x.

xi.
2. A certain sum of money consists of 30 coins some of which are 10 cent pieces and the rest
of which are 5 cent pieces. If the total value of the coins is $2, find the number of 10 cent
pieces.
3. A man drives from Bedford to Cambridge, a distance of 48 km in 45 minutes. Where the
surface is good, he drives at 72 km/h; where it is bad, at 48 km/h. find the number of
kilometer of good surface.
4. A fraction not in tis lowest terms is equal to . If the numerator of the fraction were
doubled, it would be 34 greater than the denominator. Find the fraction.
5. A man has to go 10km to catch a bus. He walks part of the way at 7km/h and runs the rest
of the way at 12km/h. if he takes 1h 50 minutes to complete his journey, how far he walks?

1.2.3 Powers and indices, negative and fractional indices:

When a number is the product of the same factor multiplied by it, this number is called a square
of the factor. For example, we know that 3 × 3 = 9. Therefore, we can say that 9 is a power of 3.
To be precise, it is the second power of 3, because two 3s are multiplied together to produce 9.
Similarly, 16 is the second power of, 4. We may use literal terminology to generalize the
relationship between powers and factors.

So the second power of a means a × a or (a.a), this is written as a2, where a is known as the base
(factor) and 2 is the exponent (or index). Thus writing the number 9 in exponent form we get 9 =
32 where; 9 is the second power, 3 is the base (factor) and 2 is the exponent (index).
EASA – 147 Course Notes
The above ideal can be extended to write arithmetic numbers in exponent or index form. For
example 52 = 25, 92 = 81 and 33 = 27

Notice that the second power of 5 gives the number 25 or 5 × 5 = 25; similarly 33 means the third
power of 3, literally 3 x 3 x 3 = 27. The idea of powers and exponents (indices) can be extended
to literal numbers. For example: a × a × a × a × a or a5 or in general am where a is the base
(factor) and the exponent m (or index) is any positive integer am means a used as a factor m times
and is read as the "m th power of a”. Note that since any number used as a factor once would
simply be the number itself, the index (exponent) is not usually written; in other words a means
a1.Now, providing the base of two or more numbers expressed in index (exponent) form are the
same, we can perform multiplication and division on these numbers, by adding or subtracting the
indices accordingly.
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We will from now on refer to the exponent of a number as its index, in order to avoid confusion
with particular functions, such as the exponential function, which we study later.

Consider the following literal numbers in index form:

x2  x2 =(x  x)(x  x) = x  x  x  x = x4
X2  x4 =(x  x) (x  x  x x) = x  x  x  x  x  x = x6
x2 x  x
2
  x0  1
x xx

x2 xx 1
4
   x 2
x xxxx xx

What you are looking for is a pattern between the first two literal numbers, which involve
multiplication and the second two which involve division.

For multiplication of numbers with the same base, we add the indices and for division of numbers
with the same base, we subtract the indices in the denominator (below the line) from those in the
numerator (above the line). Remember also that the base number x=x1.

We will now generalize our observations and so formulate the laws of indices.

1.2.3.1 The laws of indices:

In the following laws, a is the common base, m and n are the indices (exponents). Each law has
an example of its use alongside:

1. am × an = am+n 22× 24 = 22+4 = 26= 64

am 34
2. = am-n 2
 34  2  32  9
an 3
EASA – 147 Course Notes
3. (am)n = amn (22)3 = 22x3 = 26 = 64

4. a° = 1 Any number raised to the power 0 is always 1

5. am/n = n
am 27 3  3 274  34  81

1 1 1
6. a -n = 6-2 = 2
=
an 6 36

We need to study these laws carefully in order to understand the significance of each.

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Law 1: As you have already met, it enables us to multiply numbers given in index form
that have a common base. In the example the common base is 2, the first number
raises this base (factor) to the power 2 and the second raises the same base to the
power 3. In order to find the result we simply add the indices.
Law 2: We have again used when dividing numbers with a common base in this case the
base is 3. Note that since division is the opposite arithmetic operation to
multiplication. It follows that we should perform the opposite arithmetic operation
on the indices, that of subtraction. Remember we always subtract the index in the
denominator from the index in the numerator.
Law 3: It is concerned with raising the powers of numbers. Do not mix this law up with
law 1. When raising powers of numbers in index form, we multiple the indices.
Law 4: As you have also met, this law simply states that any number raised to the power 0
is always 1. Knowing that any number divided by itself is also 1, we can use this
fact to show that a number raised to the power 0 is also 1. What we need to do is
use the second law concerning the division of numbers in index form.

9 32
We know that, = 1 or 2 = 3 2-2 = 30 =1 which shows that 3° =1 and in fact
9 3
because we have used the second law of indices, this must be true in all cases.
Law 5: This, rather complicated looking, law simply enables us to find the decimal
equivalent of a number in index form; where the index is a fraction. All that you
need to remember is that the index number above the fraction line is raised to that
power and the index number below the fraction line has that number root.
So for the number 82/3 we raise 8 to the power 2 and then take the cube root of the
result.
It does not matter in which order we perform these operations. So we could have
just as easily taken the cube root of 8 and then raised it to the power 2.
Law 6: This is a very useful law, when you wish to convert the division of a number to
multiplication. In other words, bring a number from underneath the division line to EASA – 147 Course Notes
the top of the division line. As the number crosses the line we change the sign of its
index. This is illustrated in the example, which accompanies this law.
The following examples further illustrate the use of the above laws, when evaluating or
simplifying expressions that involve numbers and symbols.
Example-1: Evaluate the following expressions:

32  33  3 2 3  3 2  3
2

34  .
0 -1/2 -3/4
(a) (b) (6) (2x ) (c) 36 (d) 16 (e)
34

Solution:

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32 33 31 32  3 1
(a)   = (Law 1)
34 1 1 34

36
= = 36-4 (Law 2)
34
= 32 = 9

(b) (6) (2x0) = (6)(2) = 12 remembering that x0 = 1 (Law 4)

1 1
(c) 36-1/2 = 1 / 2 (low 6) = (Law 5)
36 36

1
=  (note  square root)
6

1
(d) 16-3/4 = (Law 6)
163 / 4

1
= 4
(Law 5)
163

1 1
= 3
=
2 8

(e)
23 2 32 (3) = 232 32 1  (Law 3)
34 34

26  33
= 4
 26  33 4 (Law 2)
3
1
= 26  31  64  law 6  64
3 3 EASA – 147 Course Notes
1.2.3.2 Negative and fractional Indices:

A number with a negative power equals its reciprocal with the same power made positive.
Example-2: The number 2-3 is read as “2 to the negative 3rd power,” and is calculated by:
1
2-3=1/23= =1/8
2 2 2
When using a calculator to raise a negative number to a power, always place parentheses around
the negative number (before raising it to a power) so that the entire number gets raised to the
power

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1 1
Example-3: 2-1/2 =  = .707
1 2
22
1.2.4 Binary and other applicable numbering system:

The decimal system of numbers we have been studying up till now use the integers 0-9. There are
in fact 10 integers and for this reason we often refer to the decimal system as the denary (ten)
system. Thus, for example, the denary number 245.5 is equivalent to:
(2 x 102) + (4 x 101) + (5 x 10 0) + (5 x 10-1)
This arrangement of the number consists of an integer ≥1.0 and ≤10.0 multiplied by the base
raised to the power. In the binary system of numbers, the base is 2 and so, for example, the
denary number 43 to the base 10, written as 4310 is equivalent to the number:
25+23+21+20=3210+810+210+110
In the binary system of numbers the base is 2.
As a reminder and source of reference the binary and denary equivalents for some important
numbers related to computing are detailed below:
Binary2 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20

Denary10 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

1.2.4.1 Conversion of Denary to Binary:

To convert denary to binary, we repeatedly divide by 2 and note the remainder at each stage.

Example-4:

to convert the number 2510 to binary, we proceed as follows:

25/2 = 12 remainder 1 Least significant digit (LSD) EASA – 147 Course Notes

12/2 = 6 remainder 0

6/2 = 3 remainder 0

3/2 =1 remainder 1

1/2 = 0 remainder 1 Most significant digit (MSD)

The binary2 equivalent of 2510 is 110012.

Note the order in which the digits of the binary number are laid out from the MSD to the LSD;
i.e. in reverse order to the successive division.

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Example-5:
To convert binary to denary, we lay out the number in successive powers.
For example, to convert binary number 11012 into denary, we proceeded as follows:
11012
= (1 x 23) +(1 x 22)+(0 x 21) + (1 x 2°)
= (1 x 8) + (1 x 4) + (0 x 2) + (1 x 1)
= 8 + 4 + 0 + 1 = 1310
When numbers are placed in binary form, we can see from above that they consist of a number of
ones (1) and naught (0). If in electronic logic circuits we allow the binary digit "1" to represent
"ON" and the binary digit "0" to represent "OFF". We can apply this binary code to electronic
logic systems. It is this powerful application of binary numbers that makes their study important.

Hexadecimal number:
In order to get more digital information down computer communication lines, we can use another
number system that allows us to send 16 individual pieces of information (bytes) down parallel
lines, all at the same time. This type of communication may be coded using hexadecimal
representation. Thus, for hexadecimal numbers their base is 16. However, because in our decimal
number counting system we only have 10 digits (0-9), we make up for this in the hexadecimal
system by allocating capital letters to the remaining decimal numbers 10-15 (remembering that
decimal zero is counted as part of the 16 digit base).
Octal number:
Octal is another number system with fewer symbols to use than our conventional number system.
Octal is fancy for Base Eight meaning eight symbols are used to represent all the quantities. They
are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7. When we count up one from the 7, we need a new placement to
represent what we call 8 since an 8 doesn't exist in Octal. So, after 7 is 10.

Hexadecimal representation, together with their denary, binary and octal equivalents, are shown
in the Table -3.
EASA – 147 Course Notes
1.2.4.2 Conversion of Denary to Hexadecimal:
To convert denary to hexadecimal, we repeatedly divide by 16 in a similar manner to the way in
which we converted denary to binary.
Example-6:
Convert the denary number 513610 to hexadecimal,
We proceed as follows:
5136/16 = 321 remainder 0 LSD
321/16 = 20 remainder 1
20/16 = 1 remainder 4
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1/16 = 0 remainder 1 MSD
So the hexadecimal16 equivalent of 513610 is 141016.
Similarly, to convert the number 9410 to hexadecimal16, we proceed as follows:

94/16 = 5 remainder 14 (=E16)

5/16 = 0 remainder 5

So the hexadecimal16 equivalent of 9410 is 5E16.

Denary10 Binary2 Hexadecimal16 Octal8

0 0000 0 0

1 0001 1 1

2 0010 2 2

3 0011 3 3

4 0100 4 4

5 0101 5 5

6 0110 6 6

7 0111 7 7

8 1000 8 10

9 1001 9 11

10 1010 A 12

11 1011 B 13
EASA – 147 Course Notes
12 1100 C 14

13 1101 D 15

14 1110 E 16

15 1111 F 17

16 10000 10 20

Table-3: Denary, Binary, and hexadecimal number systems representation

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1.2.4.3 Conversion of Hexadecimal to Denary:

To convert hexadecimal to denary, we proceed in a similar manner as for binary to denary.

54210 = (5 x 102) + (4 x 101) + (2 x 10°)

Which is equivalent to 21E16=(2×162) + (1×161)+(E ×160)

Example-7: Convert BA4516 to denary

Solution:

We proceed as follows:

BA4516 = (B x 163) + (A x 162) + (4 x 161) + (5 x 16°)

=(11 x 4096) + (10 x 256) + (4 x 16) + (5 x 1)

= (45056) + (2560) + (64) + (5)

= 4768510

The denary10 equivalent of hexadecimal number BA4516 is 4768510.

To complete our very short study of number systems, it is worth considering how we convert a
denary number that has a decimal fraction as part of the number. The process is quite logical and
relatively easy to follow. When dealing with the fraction part of a binary number we apply
successive multiplication until we reach unity for the fractional part of the denary number.
However, since we have applied multiplication the inverse arithmetic operation to that of divi-
sion, then the MSD is the first remainder in the multiplication process..

1.2.4.4 Conversion of Denary to Octal:

To convert denary to octal, we repeatedly divide by 8 in a similar manner to the way in which we
converted denary to binary.

Example-8: EASA – 147 Course Notes

Convert the denary number 13610 to octal,

Solution: We proceed as follows:

136/8 = 17 remainder 0 LSD

17/8 = 2 remainder 1

2/8= 0 remainder 2 MSD

So, 13610 is equal to octal number 2108.

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1.2.4.5 Conversion of Octal to Denary:

To convert octal to denary, we proceed in a similar manner as for binary to denary.

Example-9:

Convert 4158 to denary,

Solution: We proceed as follows:

4158 = (4 x 82) + (1x 81) + (5 x 8°)

= (4x64) + (1 x 8) + (5 x 1)

= (256) + (8) + (5)

= 26910

The denary10 equivalent of octal number 4158 is 26910.

Example-10:

Convert denary number 39.62510 to binary2.

Solution: Then proceeding in the normal way for the non-fractional part of this number we get:

39/2 = 19 remainder 1 LSD

19/2 = 9 remainder 1

9/2 = 4 .remainder 1

4/2 = 2 remainder 0

2/2 = 1 remainder 0

1/2 = 0 remainder 1 MSD

EASA – 147 Course Notes
Then 3910 = 100111

Also for the decimal fraction, applying successive multiplication, we get:

0.625 x 2 = 1.[250] MSD

0.250 x 2 = 0.[500]

0.500 x 2 = 1.000 LSD

Then 0.62510 = 0.1012

So, the denary number 39.62510 = 100111.1012

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Exercise 1.2.4

1. Convert to binary numbers:

4110,7910,12510,18910,56810,89310,115610,158710

2. Convert to octal numbers:

18910,36810,79310,95610,118710, 129610,157310

3. Convert to hexadecimal numbers:

59310,75610,118710, 132610,157310, 172610,197310,4287310

4. Convert to decimal numbers:

a. 110012,101012,1111002,100000012

b. 3688,7938,9568,11878,

c. 59316,75616, B6E16,A24C16,D1A6E16,F1616

1.2.5 Simultaneous equations and second degree equations with one unknown:

1.2.5.1 Simultaneous Equations:

Example-1.2.21:

3x + 2y = 12 ……………….(1)

4x — 3y = —1………………(2)

Now to solve these equations, all we need to do is to use elimination and substitution techniques,
working on both equations simultaneously.

Let us try to eliminate the variable x, from both the equations. This can be achieved by
multiplying each equation by a constant. When we do this, we do not alter the nature of the
equations. If we multiply equation (1) by the constant4, and equation (2) by the constant 3, we EASA – 147 Course Notes
get:

12x + 8y =48

12x — 9y = —3

Note that we have multiplied every term in the equations, by the constant! Now, how does this
help us to eliminate x? Well if we now add, both equations together we end up with the first term
being, 24x, this is not very helpful. However

if we subtract Equation (2) from (1), we get:

(12x + 8y)-(12x-9y) = 48-(-3)

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12x+8y-12x+9y=48+3

0+ 17y= 51

From which we see that y =3. Now having found one of the unknown variables, we can substitute
its value into either one of the original equations, in order to find the other unknown. Choosing
equation (1), then from, 3x + 2y = 12 we get, 3x + (2)(3) = 12 or

3x = 6, and there-fore x =2. So the required solution is y = 3 and x=2.

When solving any equation, the solutions can always be checked by substituting their values into
the original equation, so substituting the values into Equation (2) gives:

4(2) -(3)(3)= -1 which is correct.

1.2.5.2 Solution of second degree equation with one unknown:

It is not always possible to solve quadratic equations by factorization. When we cannot factorize
a quadratic expression, we may resort to use of the standard formula. Now we know that the
standard form of the quadratic equation is

ax2 + bx + c= 0 and it can be shown that the solution of this equation is:

 b  b 2  4ac
x
2a
Now this equation may look complicated but it is relatively simple to use. The coefficients a,
band c are the same coefficients, as in the standard form of the quadratic. So in finding a solution
for the variable x, all we need to do is substitute the coefficients into the above formulae, for the
quadratic equation we are considering. All you need to remember is that, before using the above
formula, always put the equation to be solved, into standard form. Also note that in the above
formula, the whole of the numerator, including the —b, is divided by 2a.

Example-1:
EASA – 147 Course Notes
Solve the equation 5x(x + 1) — 2x (2x — 1) = 20.

The above equation is not in standard form, infect until we simplify it, we may not be aware that
it is a quadratic equation. So simplifying, by multiplying out the brackets and collecting like-
terms gives:

5x2+5x-4x2+2x = 20 and so x2+7x-20 = 0

This equation is now in standard form and may be solved using the formula. You may have
attempted to try a solution by factorization first. If you cannot find the factors, reason-ably
quickly, then You can always resort to the formula

Then from

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.  b  b 2  4ac
x
2a

 7  7 2  4.1.(20)
x
2.1

And simplifying gives

 7  129
x
2
 7  11 .358
x
Or 2

 7  11 .358  7  11.358
And so x or x
2 2

Giving the values of unknown x, corrected to three significant figures as:

x=2.18 or x= -9.18

1.2.5.2 Transposition and evaluation of more complex formulae and equations

For complex transposition, the following sequence should be followed:
a. remove root signs, fractions and brackets (in an order which suits the particular problem);
b. rearrange the formula for the subject, following the arithmetic operations;
c. collect all terms on one side of the equation that contain the subject;
d. take out the subject as a common factor if necessary;
e. divide through by the coefficient of the subject;
f. take roots, powers, as necessary.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Example 2 If s=ut + at2, transpose the formula for a.
Solution: There is really only one fraction which we can eliminate, it is

if we multiply every term by the inverse of a , i.e 2, we get:

2s=2ut +at2
Subtracting 2ut from both sides gives:
2s−2ut =at2.
Dividing both sides by t2, then:

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Reversing the formula and pulling out the common factor gives:

Alternatively, remembering your laws of indices, we can bring up the t2 term and write the
formula for a, as:
a=2t−2(s−ut)

Exercise 1.2.5

Solve the followings:

1. x2-2x-3=0
2. x2+7x+10=0
3. 2x2-5x+2=0
4. x(2x+1)=10
5. x(x+1)+(x+2)(x+3)=42
6. x(x+2)+(x+1)(2x-1)=17
7. (k+1)(2k+1)=15
8.

9.

10.

11. =0

12. =0

13. =0
EASA – 147 Course Notes
14. make h the subject.

15. . find t in terms of s, p, and q.

16. . Find m in terms of h, k, n, and v.

17. Express x in terms of p, q, r and s.

18. . Express s in terms of g, t, and u.

19. . Solve for b.

20. . Solve for k.

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21. If a natural number is added with its square, it become nine times than its preceding
natural number. Find the number
22. The denominator of a fraction is 4 more than the numerator. When the fraction is squared,
denominator of that fraction is 40 more than the numerator. Find the fraction.
23. The periphery of a rectangular shape is 64 meter and the area is 135 m2.find the length
and width of the rectangle.

1.2.6 Logarithm:

1.2.6.1 Logarithms and logarithm tables:

You are already aware that any positive number can be expressed as a power of 10, from your
previous study of indices. Thus, 1000 = 103. These powers of 10 are called logarithms to the base
10. That is, any number in index form with base 10 has a logarithm as its power. The logarithm
tables in Appendix D provide logarithms for numbers between 1 and 10.

Knowing that the logarithm to the base ten of ten equals 1, i. e. 10 =101 (from the laws of indices
that any number raised to the power one is itself) and that the logarithm to the base ten of 1 is
equal to zero, i.e. 1 =100 (any number raised to the power zero is 1). We know that all the
logarithms in the table must lie between 0 and 1.

So from the table, e.g. log 2.5 = 0.3979. Now we can find the logarithm of numbers with three
decimal place accuracy, using the table in the appendix. We do this by considering the numbers
across the top row and across the differences.

For example, make sure that you can work out from the table that the logarithm to the base 10 of
2.556 is 0.4065 + 10 = 0.4075, i.e. log 2.556 = 0.4075.

To find numbers outside this range we make use of numbers in standard form and use the laws
for the multiplication of indices, which by now you should be familiar with!

Example-1: log 4567=?

Solution:
EASA – 147 Course Notes
4567 = 4.567 × 103
Then, log 4.567 = 0.6597(from log table)
Now, 4567 = 10.6597 × 103
Or, 4567 = 103.6597
Or, log 4567 = 3.6597
A logarithm consists of two parts: a whole number part called the characteristic and a decimal
part called the mantissa, which is found directly from the log table . In the above case 3 is the
characteristic and 0.6567 is the mantissa, found directly from the log tables.

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Note that for positive numbers the characteristic is the positive number of powers of 10 required
to place that number in standard form. Hence, the characteristic of the number 456,000 is 5, we
have to move the decimal place five places to the left to put the number in standard form,
i.e. 4.56 × 105.
Negative characteristics will be found in numbers that are less than 1.0.
Example-2:
0.8767 = 8.767 × 10-1, when placed in standard form. Then:
log 8.767 = 0.9428
0.8767 = 100.9421 ×10-1
= -1 + 0.9428
= 0.0572
The characteristic is therefore -1 and the mantissa is 0.9428. However, it is not very convenient to
write -1+0.9428, so we use a short-hand method of representation where the minus sign is placed
above the characteristic thus: log 0.8767 = .9428

1.2.6.2 Antilogarithms:

The table of antilogarithms contains the numbers which correspond to the given logarithms.
When finding the antilogarithm only the decimal part (mantissa) of the logarithm is used.

Example-3:

Find the number whose logarithm is: (a) 2.7182 and (b) 3.5849

Solution:

(a)To find the number from this logarithm we first use the mantissa to find the required numerals.
Thus from the antilogarithm tables for 0.7182 we find the numerals 5226. Now because the
characteristic is 2, then the number must be 522.6. Therefore, the log 522.6 = 2.7182.
EASA – 147 Course Notes
(b) Again we use the mantissa 0.5849, these give the significant figures 3845. Now since the
characteristic is 3, the number must be 0.003845, i.e. three decimal places to the left of standard
form.

Note that the log 0.003845 = 3.5849 = -3+0.5849=-2.4151 (this logarithm is the value you would
find on your calculator if you inputted the number 0.003845!).

1.2.6.3 Using logarithms to perform arithmetic operations:

Logarithms can be used to simplify, long multiplication and long division as well as finding the
roots and powers of awkward or complicated numbers. In order to achieve these arithmetic
operations using logarithms, we first need to define a simple set of rules:

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1. To carry out multiplication using logarithms, we find the logarithm of the numbers and add
them together, then finding the antilogarithm of the sum gives the required result.

2. For division, find the logarithm of each number, then subtract the logarithm of the
denominator from the logarithm of the numerator. Look back at your study of fractions if you
cannot remember the numerator and denominator!

3 .For powers, find the logarithm of the number and multiply it by the index denoting the power.

4. For roots, find the logarithm of the number and divide it by the number denoting the order of
the root.

The laws of logarithms:

The laws of logarithms are tabulated below; they are followed by simple examples of their use. In
all these examples, we use common logarithms that are logarithms to the base 10. Later we will
look at one other type, the Naperian logarithm, or natural logarithm, where the base is the
number.

Law 1: All these laws look complicated, but you have already used law 1 when you
carried out the calculator exercise above. So again, we know that 1000 = 103.
Now if we wish to put this number into linear form (decimal form), then we
may do this by taking logarithms.
EASA – 147 Course Notes
Following law 1, where in this case a = 1000, b = 10 and c = 3, then 3 =
log10 1000. Now this fact you have already proved on your calculator! So you
are probably wondering why we need to bother with logarithms. Well, in this
case we are dealing with common logarithm that is numbers in index form
where the base of the logarithm is 10. We can also consider numbers in index
form that are not to the base ten, as you will see later. We may also be faced
with a problem where the index (power) is not known.

Suppose we are confronted with this problem: find the value of x where
750 = 10X. The answer is not quite so obvious, but it can easily be solved
using our first law of logarithms. So, again following the law, that is taking

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logarithms to the appropriate base, we get x = log10 750 and now using our
calculator, we get x = 2.875, correct to 4 significant figures.

Law 2: One pair of factors for the number 1000 is 10 and 100. Therefore according to
the second law: loga (10) (100) = loga 10 + loga 100. If we choose logarithms
to the base 10, then we already know that the log101000 = 3. Then using our
calculator again, we see that log1010 = 1 and log10100 = 2. What this law
enables us to do is to convert the multiplication of numbers in index form
into that of addition. Compare this law with the first law of indices, you
studied earlier! Remember also that we are at liberty to choose any base we
wish, providing we are able to work in this base. Your calculator gives you
logarithms to only two bases, 10 and e.

Law 3: This law allows us to convert the division of numbers in index form into
that of subtraction. When dealing with the transposition of more
complex formulae, these conversions can be particularly useful and help
us with the transposition. So using the law directly, for example:

Or, from your calculator 2 = 3 - 1

Law 4: This laws states that if we take the logarithm of a number in index
form Mn this is equal to the logarithm of the base of the number loga
M, multiplied by the index of the number n logaM . So, for example,
log10 (1002) = log10 10 000 = 2 log10 100. This is easily confirmed on
your calculator as 4 = (2)(2).

Law 5: This law is rather different from the others in that it enables us to
change the base of a logarithm. This of course is very useful if we
have to deal with logarithms or formulae involving logarithms that
have a base not found on our calculator! EASA – 147 Course Notes

For example, suppose we wish to known the numerical value of log2

64, then using law 5, we have:

If
we use law 1 in reverse then log2 64 is equivalent to the number 64 = 26,
which of course is now easily verified by your calculator! This example
again demonstrates that given a number in index form, the index of that
number is also its logarithm, providing the logarithm has the same base.

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Exercise 1.2.6

1. Find the value of

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
2. Find the value of x if
a. x=
b. =4
c. =2
d. =-2
e. =3
f. =-2
3. Simplify-
a. 7log -2log +3log
b.
c. log5+16log +12log +3log

d. 12log +5 +3log

e.

f.
g.
4. Find the characteristic of-
a. Log 46.22 EASA – 147 Course Notes
b. Log 5.78
c. Log 0.36
d. Log 0.5845
e. Log 0.0268

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EASA – 147 Course Notes

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EASA – 147 Course Notes

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EASA – 147 Course Notes

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CHAPTER- 1.3
(Geometry)

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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EASA – 147 Course Notes

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1.3 Geometry:

1.3.1 Simple geometrical Construction:

To bisect a given angle, when the arms of the angle meet

1. Let point P be the vertex of the angle. Place the

compass on point P and draw an arc across both sides
of the angle. Label the intersection points Q and R.

2. Place the compass on point Q and draw an arc

across the interior of the angle.

3. Without changing the radius of the compass, place

it on point R and draw an arc intersecting the one
drawn in the previous step. Label the intersection
point W.

4. Using the straightedge, draw ray PW. This is the

bisector of QPR.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

To bisect a given angle when the arms do not meet:

This technique simply involves drawing two lines parallel to the given arms, sufficient to make
them meet at a point and then using the above technique to bisect the angle formed.

From points on AB and CD draw equal arcs(Figure 1.3-1(a)). Then using these arcs draw lines
parallel to AB and CD that meet at point E (Figure 1.3-1(b)). Now bisect the angle at point E
(Figure 1.3-1(c)), using the method shown in Figure 1.3-1.

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Figure-1.3-1: methods to bisect given angle when lines do not meet.

To set out angles using the trigonometric ratios

This is an extremely accurate method providing the triangles used have a large enough scale. The
builders square and the layout of structures, often employ this method. To follow this method you
will need to be aware of the basic trigonometric ratios, you have just met, look back to remind
yourself. We will use a scale factor of 100, to amplify the ratios found from the tables. Figure
1.3-2 shows the method.

Figure 1.3-2(a) shows how to set at an angle using the tangent ratio. In this case the angle is
23◦30', which from our tables gives a value of 0.4348. Then using a multiplier of 100 units the
line AC = 43.48 units. Now set our horizontally the line AB= 100 units, then set out AC at right
angles to AB as shown Join BC, then the angle ABC will now = 23◦30'.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure-1.3-2: Setting out angles using trigonometric ratios.

Similarly Figure-1.3-2(b) shows the angle= 28'36', being set out using the sine rule. We first find
the sine of 28'36' from our Tables as 0.4787. Then using our multiplier of 100 we get R = 47.87
units, which is our arc length from A Set out AB as before 100 units. Then from B draw a line
that just touches our arc (tangent). Angle ABC will now =28◦36'.

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Construct the perpendicular bisector of a line segment.

Or, construct the midpoint of a line segment.

1. Begin with line segment XY.

2. Place the compass at point X. Adjust the compass radius

so that it is more than (1/2)XY. Draw two arcs as shown
here.

3. Without changing the compass radius, place the compass

on point Y. Draw two arcs intersecting the previously drawn
arcs. Label the intersection points A and B.

4. Using the straightedge, draw line AB. Label the

intersection point M. Point M is the midpoint of line
segment XY, and line AB is perpendicular to line segment
XY.

Given a line and a point, construct a line through the point, parallel to the given line.

1. Begin with point P and line k.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

2. Draw an arbitrary line through point P,

intersecting line k. Call the intersection point Q.
Now the task is to construct an angle with vertex P,
congruent to the angle of intersection.

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3. Center the compass at point Q and draw an arc
intersecting both lines. Without changing the radius
of the compass, center it at point P and draw another
arc.

4. Set the compass radius to the distance between the

two intersection points of the first arc. Now center
the compass at the point where the second arc
intersects line PQ. Mark the arc intersection point R.

5. Line PR is parallel to line k.

Given a line segment as one side, construct an equilateral triangle.

1. Begin with line segment TU.

2. Center the compass at point T, and set the

compass radius to TU. Draw an arc as shown.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

3. Keeping the same radius, center the compass at

point U and draw another arc intersecting the first
one. Let point V be the point of intersection.

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4. Draw line segments TV and UV. Triangle TUV is
an equilateral triangle, and each of its interior
angles has a measure of 60.

Construct the center point of a given circle.

1. Begin with a circle, but no center point.

2. Draw chord AB.

3. Construct the perpendicular bisector of chord

AB. Let C and D be the points where it intersects
the circle. (Refer to the construction of a
perpendicular bisector.)
EASA – 147 Course Notes

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4. Chord CD is a diameter of the circle.
Construct point P, the midpoint of diameter CD.
Point P is the center point of the circle. (Refer to
the construction of the midpoint of a line
segment.)

To draw a hexagon given the length of a side:

Draw a straight line AF equal to the given length of the side. With centers A and F, draw the arcs
of radius AF to intersect at O. With the center O draw a circle of radius OA to cut the arcs at B
and D (Figure1.3-3(a)). With centers B and D, draw arcs of radius AF to cut the circle at C and D,
respectively (Figure1.3-3(b)). Finally join the points on a circle to obtain the required regular
hexagon (Figure 1.3-3(c)).

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure-1.3-3 constructing a hexagon given the length of a side.

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To blend an arc in a right angle:

Set out faint intersecting lines at right angles, for the desired arc. From corner A, set out AB and
AD equal to required radius R. From B and D set out arcs of radius R, to intersect at O From O
draw an arc radius R to blend with the straight lines. Finally erase unwanted construction lines
and darken with appropriate grade pencil

To draw an arc from a point to a circle of radius r:

Set out radius R from P and radius R + r from to meet at C. From C draw an arc radius R to touch
the circle and point P. It is also straight forward to blend an arc from a point to blend with the far
side of a circle. In this case set out radius R from P and radius

R — r from O. Then from C drawn an arc of radius R to touch the circle at P

This concludes this short section on geometrical construction.

Figure-1.3-4: Blending an arc in a right angle.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure-1.3-5: Blending an arc from a point to near side of circle.

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1.3.1.1 Classification of angles:
Types of Angles:
(1) Acute angle - any angle which measures less than 90 degrees.

Example: The angle ABC measures 40 degrees. Angle ABC is acute.

(2) Right angle - any angle which measures exactly 90 degrees.

Sample: The angle CAT measures 90 degrees. The angle CAT is a right angle.

(3) Obtuse angle - any angle which measures more than 90 degrees but less than 180 degrees.

Sample: angle DEF measures 125 degrees. Then angle DEF is obtuse.

(4) Straight angle - any angle which measures exactly 180 degrees. EASA – 147 Course Notes

Sample: Points ABC lie on line L forming a STRAIGHT LINE. Then line L is a straight line.

(5) Vertical Angles - Two angles formed by intersecting lines. They cannot be adjacent but are
always equal in measure. They are across from one another in the corners of the "X" formed by
the lines.

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In the above picture, angles 1 and 3 and angles 2 and 4 are vertical because they are across from
each other. Now, angles 1 and 2 and angles 3 and 4 are NOT vertical angles.

(6)Adjacent angles: Angles that share a vertex and a common side

(7) Complementary Angles - Two angles whose measures add up to 90 degrees.

Sample: angle A = 30 degrees and angle B = 60 degrees.

Then angle A + angle B = 90 degrees. We can say angles A and B are complementary.

Angles do not have to be adjacent to be complementary. The following angles are also
complementary as long as the sum of the measures equal 90 degrees

EASA – 147 Course Notes

(8) Supplementary Angles - Two angles whose measures add up to 180 degrees. Supplementary
angles can be placed so that they form a straight line.

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Sample: angle A = 80 degrees and angle B = 100 degrees. Then angle A + angle B = 180 degrees.
We can say that angles A and B are supplementary.

Again, angles do not have to be adjacent to be supplementary. The following angles are also
supplementary as long as the sum of the measures equal 180 degrees.

1.3.1.2 Classification of triangles:

The basic elements of any triangle are its sides and angles. Triangles are classified depending on
relative sizes of their elements. As regard their sides, triangles may be:
a. Scalene
b. Isosceles
c. Equilateral

A triangle is scalene if all of its three sides are different (in which case, the three angles are also
different).
If two of its sides are equal, a triangle is called isosceles.
A triangle with all three equal sides is called equilateral.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

And as regard their angles, triangles may be
a. Acute
b. Right

c. Obtuse

A triangle may have at most one obtuse or even right angle. If one of the angles in a triangle is
obtuse, the triangle is called obtuse triangle. A triangle with one right angle is right triangle.
Otherwise, a triangle is acute; for all of its angles are acute.

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1.3.1.3 Pythagorean Theorem

In mathematics, the Pythagorean theorem or Pythagoras' theorem is a relation in Euclidean

geometry among the three sides of a right triangle (right-angled triangle). In terms of areas, it
states:

In any right triangle, the area of the square whose side is the hypotenuse (the side opposite the
right angle) is equal to the sum of the areas of the squares whose sides are the two legs (the two
sides that meet at a right angle).

Figure-1.3-6: Pythagorean Theorem.

1.3.2 Graphical representation: Nature and use of graphs, graphs of Equation and
Function:

1.3.2.1 Nature and use of graph:

EASA – 147 Course Notes
To plot a graph, you know that we take two lines at right angles to each other (Figure 1.3-7(a).

These lines being the axes of reference, where their intersection at the point zero is called the
origin . When plotting a graph a suitable scale must be chosen, this scale need not be the same for
both axes. In order to plot points on a graph, they are identified by their co-ordinates. The points
(2,4) and (5,3) are shown in Figure 1.3-7 (b) . Note that the x-ordinate or independent variable

is always quoted first. Also remember that when We use the expression plot s against t. Then all
the values of the dependent variable s, are plotted up the vertical axis and the other independent
variable (in this case t) are plotted along the horizontal axis. You met the concept of dependent
and independent variables during your earlier study. Just remember that the values of the
dependent variables are determined by the values assigned to the independent variables. For
example, in the simple equation y =3x +2, if x =2 then y = 8 and if x= - 2 then y= -4 and so on.
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Figure-1.3-7: Axes and co- ordinate of graph.

So to plot a graph all we need to do is:

1 . Draw the two axis of reference at right angles to each other.

2. Select a suitable scale for the dependent and independent variable, or both.

3. Ensure that values of the dependent variable are plotted up the vertical axis.

4. Produce a table of values, as necessary to aid your plot.

If the graph is either a straight line or a smooth curve, then it is possible to use the graph to
determine other values of the variables, apart from those given.

Example-1:
EASA – 147 Course Notes
Plot the graph of y against x, given the following co-ordinates and find the corresponding value
of y when x=5.5 and the value x when y= 38 .

x (m) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

y(m) 2 5 8 11 14 17 20 23 26 29 32

The graph is plotted in Figure 1.3-8, note that when we join the co-ordinate points, we get a
straight line. The x-axis scale is 1 cm =1 m and the y.-axis scale is I cm = 2m.To find the value of
y corresponding to x= 5.5, we find 5.5 on the horizontal axis and draw a vertical line up until it
meets the graph at point P, then draw a horizontal line until it meets the vertical y-ordinate and
read of the value which is 18.5. Should we wish to find a value of x given y, we reverse this
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procedure. So to find the value of x corresponding to y= 38, we first find 38 on the y-axis and
draw a horizontal line across to meet the line. However, in this case the line does not extend this
far, using the tabulated values. It is, therefore, necessary to extend or extrapolate the line. In this
particular case it is possible to do this, as shown above, where reading vertically down we see
that the intercept is at x=12.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure-1.3-8 A straight Line graph.

This process involved extending the graph, without data being available to verify the accuracy of
our extended line. Great care must be taken when using this process to prevent excessive errors.
In the case of a straight line graph or linear graph, this is an acceptable practice. This process is
commonly known as graphical extrapolation

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1.3.2.1 Graphs of Linear Equation:

Figure 1.3-9 show the plot of the Equation y= 2x - 4. To determine the corresponding y-ordinates
shown, for values of x between -2 and 3, we use a table.

-2 -1 0 1 2 3

2x -4 -2 0 2 4 6

-4 -4 -4 -4 -4 -4 -4

Y=2x-4 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2

For example, when x=-2, y=2(-2)-4= -4-4=-8. The scale used on the y-axis is 1 cm =1 unit and on
the x-axis 2cm = 1 unit. This equation, where the highest power of the variable x, y is 1 .0 is
known as an equation of the first degree or a linear equation . All linear equations produce graphs
that are always straight lines.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure-1.3-9: Graph of the equation y=2x-4

Now every linear equation may be written in standard form, i.e.:

y=mx+c
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So for our equation y = 2x -4 which is in the standard form, m = 2 and c = -4 .
Also, every linear equation may be re-arranged so that it is in standard form .
Example-2:
4y +2 =2x - 6 then re-arranging for y, 4y = 2x -6-2 or 4y =2x - 8 and on division 4
2 4
y x or
4 8
1
y x2
2
1
Where m= and c= -2
2
Determining m and c far the equation of a straight line:
In Figure 1.3-10, point A is where the straight line cuts the y-axis and has co-ordinates x=0 and
y=c. Thus c in the equation y = mx + c is the point where the line meets the y-axis, when the
value of .x = 0 or the variable c = they intercept when x = 0.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure-1.3-10: Graph showing relationship for variables c and m.

BC
Also from Figure-1.3-10, the value is called the gradient of the line. Now the length:
AC
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 BC 
BC =   AC =AC x gradient of the line
 AC 

Y=BC+CD=BC+AO

= AC x the gradient of the line + AO

= x multiplied by the gradient of the line+c

But, y = mx + c. So it can be seen that:

m = the gradient of the line

c = the intercept on the y-axis

Example-3:

1. Find the law of the straight line illustrated in Figure 1.3-11.

2. If a straight line graph passes through the point (-1,3) and has a gradient of 4. Find the values
of m and c and then write down the equation of the line.

Solution:

1 . Since the intercept c is at the origin, it can be read-off the graph as -4. The value of m, the
gradient of the line, is found by taking convenient values of x and y, then the gradient m from the
NP
graph = = 10cm/2cm =5 . So the equation of the line y = mx + c is
QP

y = 5x -4

2. We are given the gradient m = 4, therefore, y =4x + c and this line passes through the point

(-1, 3) . So we know that y= 3 when x=-1 and substituting these values into the equation of the
straight line gives 3 =4(-1)+c and so c= 7. Then the equation of the line is y = 4x +7
EASA – 147 Course Notes

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Figure-1.3-11: Figure for Example1.3.3, question 1.

EASA – 147 Course Notes
Example-4: What is the equation of the line perpendicular to the line joining (4, 2) and (3, -5)
and passing through (4, 2)?

Solution: The liner joining (4, 2) and (3, -5) has slope m=

We need to find the equation of the red line.

The line perpendicular to the green dotted line has slope -

The line through (4,2)with slope has equation:

Y-2=

=
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Y=

Example-5:

A line L has slope m=4

a) What is the slope of a line parallel to L?
b) What is the slope of a line perpendicular to L?

Solution:
a) Since parallel lines have the same slope, the slope will be 4.
b) Using m1 × m2= -1, with m1 = 4, we obtain the value for m2:
m2=
EASA – 147 Course Notes
=

Example-6:

A line passes through (-3, 9) and (4, 4). Another line passes through (9, -1) and (4, -8). Are the
lines parallel or perpendicular?
The line through (−3,9) and (4,4) has slope, m1=

The line through (9,−1) and (4,−8) has slope m2=

m1m2 =
Since the product of the slopes is −1, we conclude the lines are perpendicular.
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1.3.2.2 Graph of parabola:

The graph of a quadratic function is a parabola. The parabola can either be in "legs up" or "legs
down" orientation.We know that a quadratic equation will be in the form:

y = ax2 + bx + c.

When y=x2, then the parabola is symmetrical around y axis and it is in the positive y axis.

When y=-x2, then the parabola is symmetrical around y axis and it is in the negative y axis.

When x=y2, then the parabola is symmetrical around x axis and it is in the positive x axis.

When x=-y2, then the parabola is symmetrical around x axis and it is in the negative x axis.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure-1.3-12: Graphs of parabola

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Example-7: Draw the graph of y=x2 - 3x+2, taking values of the independent variable x, between
0 and 4.

x 0 1 2 3 4

x2 0 1 4 9 16

-3x 0 -3 -6 -9 -12

2 2 2 2 2 2

y 2 0 0 2 6

So, from the equation when x=1.5, y=2.25-4.5+2= -0.25

The resulting plot is shown in Figure 1.3-13. Now the points on the curve where it crosses the x-
axis are x =1 and x=2. These are the points on the curve for which y= 0 or

x2 -3x+2=0. Therefore, x= 1 and x=2 are the solutions of the quadratic equation

x2 -3x+2=0.

This is a graph of parabola which is symmetrical around Y axis.

Now from our graph, we can also solve any equation of the type x2 - 3x =k, where k is a constant.
If, for example, we wish to solve x2 - 3x + 1= 0, then comparing this equation with the equation
of the plot, all we need to do is add 1 to both sides to acquire the equation, y = x2 - 3x + 2 = 1. So
that to solve this equation, we need the points on the curve where y =1 . We then draw the line
y=1 and read of the corresponding values of x at these points.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure-1.3-13: Graph of the function y =x2 -3x+2.

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From the dashed line on the graph we obtain the solution of this modified equation as x = 2.6 or x
= 0.4.

Example-8: Find an equation of the parabola with focus at (0, 4) and vertex at (0, 0).

Solution:

The distance from the vertex (0, 0) to the focus (0, 4) is |a| = 4. Since the vertex is at (0, 0) and
the focus is at (0, 4) on the y axis, the parabola opens upward which means a = 4 and its equation
is given by

x 2 = 4a y = 16 y

Example-9: Find an equation of the parabola with vertex at (0, 0), the x axis is its axis of
symmetry and its graph contains the point (-2, 4).

Since the x axis is the axis of symmetry of the parabola and its vertex is at the origin, the equation
of the parabola has the form

y 2 = 4a x
The point (-2, 4) lies on the parabola: 4 2 = 4a (-2)

Solve for a: a = -2; the equation is: y 2 = -8 x

Exercise 1.3.1

1. What is the y-intercept of the equation 4y = 2x + 8?

2. How many times does the x-axis get crossed when y = x2 -3?
3. A line goes through point (5,8) and is parallel to y axis. Find the equation of the line.
4. The graph points (9, 3) and (3, 1). Find the slope.
5. A straight line graph has the equation 3y = 12x–3. Find the gradient
6. Use the graphs to solve the simultaneous equations y = x + 2 and 3y + 2x = 6.
7. A straight line goes through the intersection of 5x-9y+13=0 and 9x-5y+11=0 lines and
EASA – 147 Course Notes
make 45° angle with x axis. Find the equation of the line.
8. A straight line goes through the point 1,2 and parallel to 3x-4y+8=0 line. Find the
equation of the line.
9. What will be the value of k, if 2x-y+7=0 and 3x+ky-5=0 lines are perpendicular to each
other?
10. A (1,1);B(3,4); and C(5,-2) points are three points of triangle ABC. Find the equation of
the line connecting the midpoints of AB and AC.
11. If =1 line goes through the intersection of lines 2x-y=1 and 3x-4y+6=0 and is
parallel to 4x-3y=6, then find the value of a and b.
12. Find the equation of the straight-line that goes through point (2,5) and is perpendicular to
the line 3x+12y=3.

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13. Find the equation of the straight-line that goes through the intersection of lines 5x-y=7
and 4x+y=9 and is parallel to 13x-y=1.
14. Find the equation of the straight-line that goes through point (2,-3) and is perpendicular to
the line connecting (5, 7) and (-6, 3).
15. Use the graphs to solve the simultaneous equations y = x + 2 and 3y + 2x = 6.

1.3.2.3 Graphs for function:

Graphs of Sine Function:

The basic sine curve for y = sinx is a wave which lies between the values +1 and -1; it is
therefore bounded. That is, the value of the dependent variable y reaches a maximum value
of + 1 and a minimum value of -1 (Figure-1.3-14 ). Also the curve is zero at multiples of
180° or at multiples of  rad.

The x-axis in Figure 1.3-14 is marked out in degrees and radians, which measure angular
distance; the maximum and minimum values of y are also shown. Other things to know
about this graph are the fact that it repeats itself every 360° or 2 rad. Also this curve
reaches it first maximum value at 90° or /2 rad; it reaches its second maximum 360° or 2
rad later, at 450° or 5 /2 rad. Similarly, it reaches its first minimum value at 270° or 3/2 rad
and again 360° or2 rad later, at 630° or 7/2 rad. These maximum and minimum values are
repeated periodically at 360° intervals. We therefore say that the sine wave has periodic
motion, where any point on the wave, say pl, repeats itself every 360° or 2 rad. These
repetitions are known as cycles, as shown on Figure 1.3-14, where one complete cycle occurs
every 360° or every 2 rad.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 1.3-14: Graph of y=sin x

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In Figure 1.3-15, we can represent angular measure on the set of rectangular coordinates,
where the angle in degrees or radians is measured from the positive x-axis, and increases as it
rotates in an anticlockwise direction, reaching a positive maximum value at 90° or /2 rad. This
maximum value is +1 when we make the radius of the circle r = 1, as in the diagram.

Figure-1.3-15: Rotating angle and sine function

Now, the actual magnitude of this angle (its distance in the y-direction) is found using the sine
function. For example, the height of the line AB in the triangle OAB can be found by noting that

opp AB
sin 30° = = =AB=0.5
hyp 1


Similarly, as the angle say to 60° or rad, then CD = sin 60° = 0.866. It reaches its first
3
maximum value when OE = sin 90° = 1.0 = radius r; compare this value with the value on the
curve of the sign function, shown in Figure 1.46! Now as the angle continues to increase, it EASA – 147 Course Notes
moves into the second quadrant, where the magnitude of the rotating angle gradually reduces
until it reaches 180° or  rad, when its value becomes zero, once more. As we move into the third
quadrant, the magnitude of the rotating angle (vector) once again starts to increase, but in a
3
negative sense, until it reaches its maximum value at 270° or rad where sin 270° = -1. Finally
2
in the fourth quadrant, it reduces from the negative maximum (minimum) value until it once
again reaches zero. The behaviors of this point is plotted as the curve shown in Figure 1.46,
where the curve is produced by connecting the magnitude of this point for many values of the
angle between 0 and 360°, after which the pattern repeats itself every 360°.

A table of values for the magnitude of the rotating angle is given below. Check that these values
match the plot of the sine curve shown in Figure 1.46
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The above table is similar to that you would need to produce when plotting any sine
function graphically.

For example, suppose you were required to plot the curve for the function y = 2 sin. What
happens to the values of y in the above table? I hope you can see that every value of y is
doubled. That means the first maximum value for this function will be y = 2 sin 90° = (2)
(1) = 2; similarly for all other angles, the y values will be doubled.

I hope you can now appreciate that if y=3 sin, then the magnitude of y values will all be
trebled. Then in general: the magnitude of the plotted y values is dependent on the value of
the constant a, when y = a sin. The magnitudes of the y values are referred to as their
amplitude. Then the maximum amplitude a will occur when sin  is a maximum, that is
when sin  = 1.0. This we know from the table above, to occur first at  = 90° and then to
occur every 360° or 2 rad, later. The minimum value of the amplitude will first occur
when sin = -1.0, this again can be seen to occur first when  = 270° and repeat itself every
360° thereafter.

What do you think happens if we plot the graph of y = sin 2?

  
Well if  = rad, then y = sin (2) = sin = 1.0. If we compare this with the plotted values
4 4 2
EASA – 147 Course Notes
above, then the function y = sin 2 has reached its first maximum, twice as fast as the function y =
sin. The effect of this is to increase the number of oscillations (cycles) in a given angular distance.
This is illustrated in Figure 1.3-16.

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Figure-1.3-16: Graph of y= sin2

You should check a few of the plotted values to verify your understanding.

Graphs of Cosine Function:

So far we have concentrated our efforts on the sine function. This is because the cosine function is
very similar to the sine function, except that it reaches its first maximum and minimum values at
different angles to that of the sine function. In all other respects it is identical.

Consider again Figure 1.3-15. In the case of the cosine function, we start our rotating angle in the
vertical position that is along the line OE. This means that what was 90° for the sine function is now
0° for the cosine function. This is illustrated in Figure 1.3-17.

Now, the cosine of the angle 30° is given by the height of the y-ordinate, in a similar manner to the
sine function, then y = cos 30° = 0.866. Similarly the cosine of 90° is again the height of the y-
ordinate, which can be seen to be zero, i.e. cos 90° = 0, which can easily be checked on your EASA – 147 Course Notes
calculator. The net result is that all the cosine function values for the given angle are 90° in advance
of the sine function.

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Figure 1.3-17: Rotating angle and the cosine function

So, for example, the cosine function starts with its maximum at 0°, which is 90° in advance of the
first maximum for the sine function. A plot of the cosine function y = cos for angles between 0
and 4 rad is shown in Figure1.3-18

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure 1.3-18: Graph of y = cos

It can be seen from Figure 1.3-18 that apart from the 90° advance, the cosine function follows an
identical pattern to that of the sine function. Therefore we can write that:

 
y=cos=  sin   
 2

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We finish this short section with a couple of examples of the use of graphical plots of these
functions and how they can be used to find solutions to simple trigonometric equations.

Example 1:

Draw the graph of the function y= 2 sin  + 3 cos  for values of 0 between  and 90°. From the
graph find:

(a) The maximum amplitude of the function

(b) A value of 0 which satisfies the equation 2 sin  + 3 cos  = 3.5.

Solution:

(a) Our first task is to set up a table of values and find the corresponding values for  and
y. We will use an interval of 10°.

Table-4: Table for example-1(b)

The table shows only two decimal place accuracy, but when undertaking graphical work, it is
difficult to plot values with any greater accuracy. Note also that we seem to have a maximum
value for y when  = 30°. It is worth plotting a couple of intermediate values either side of 
= 30° to see if there is an even higher value of y I have chosen  = 27° and  = 33°. Then
when  = 27°, y = 3.58 and when  = 33°, y= 3.61, the latter value is very slightly higher, so
may be used as the maximum.
EASA – 147 Course Notes
The plot is shown in Figure 1.3-19 where it can be seen that within the accuracy of the plot,
the maximum value of the amplitude for the function is y = 3.6.

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Figure 1.3-19: Graph of y = 2 sin  + 3 cos 

(b) Now the appropriate values for the solution of the equation:

2 sin  = 3 cos  = 3.5 are read off from the graph, where the line y= 3.5 intersects with the
curve y= 2 sin  + 3 cos . The solutions are that when y = 3.5,  = 2.0° and  = 48°.

Example -2:

For the following trigonometric functions, find the first maximum amplitude and the angular
distance it occurs from  = 0°. Comment on the general form of each function.

1. y = 4.2 cos

2. y = 3sin2

  EASA – 147 Course Notes

3. y = sin    
 2

Solution:
1. The maximum amplitude for all the functions is given when the amplitude a is multiplied by 1.0
in each case.

We know that for cos  this first occurs when  = 0, so the maximum amplitude is 4.2 at an angular
distance of 0° from the reference angle.

The graph will follow exactly the form of the graph y = cos 0, except that every value will be
amplified by a factor of 4.2.

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2. In this case the maximum amplitude is 3, and it first occurs when 2 = 90°, that is at +45° to
the reference angle.

This graph will complete each cycle, in half the angular distance, when compared to y= sin .

3. This function has a maximum amplitude of a = 1.0, which first occurs when
 
   rad therefore
2 2

 
=    rad.
2 2

That is the first maximum occurs 180° after the reference angle. When compared to the function

y= sin , each value is found to be lagging by .
2

If you are finding it difficult to envisage what is happening, sketch these functions on the same axes
and make comparisons.

Example-3:

Draw the graph for the function :

t2  t
f (t )   50
1. 2

Distance in metres, f(t) in meters to the time t in seconds between t =0 and t=10s using

intervals of 1.0 s.

2. From your graph find-

(i) the distance at time t= 6.5 s,

EASA – 147 Course Notes
(ii) the time it takes to reach a distance of 90 m.

3.What does the slope of the graph indicates?

Solution:

1.You have drawn graphs of quadratic functions when you studied your algebra. We will Set up a
table of values in the normal manner and then use these values to plot the graph:

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Figure-1.3-20 graph of function

t 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

t2 0 1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 81 100

+t 0 2 6 12 20 35 42 56 72 90 110 EASA – 147 Course Notes

÷2 0 1 3 6 10 15 21 28 36 45 55

+50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50

f(t) 50 51 53 56 60 65 71 78 86 95 105

2.Note that the graph is parabolic in shape which is to be expected for a quadratic function
(Figure- 1.3-20). Then from the graph the distance at time 6.5 s is approximately = 74.5m. The
time it takes to reach 75 m approximately = 8.4 s.

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3. Unfortunately, the gradient or slope of the graph varies (it is curved), but an approximation to
the gradient can be found using a straight line which joins the points (0, 50) and (10, 105) as
shown. Then from the graph it can be seen that:

Dis tan ce 55
Gradient    5.5 ms-1
Time 10

1.3.3 Simple Trigonometry, trigonometrically relationship, use of tables and rectangular

and polar co-ordinates

Figure-1.3-21: The Right angled Triangle

We start by identifying the notation used for right-angled triangles. We label the points(vertices)
of the triangle using capital letters A,B and C as in Figure 1.3-21.

The side AB lies opposite the right angle (90°)and is called the hypotenuse. The side BC lies
opposite the angle A and is called the side opposite to A. Finally in Figure 1.3-21(a), the side AC
is known as the side adjacent to A. Another way of distinguishing between the side opposite the
angle and the side adjacent to the angle is to imagine you are looking from behind the angle with
your eye, then what you see is the side opposite. Figure 1.3-21(b) shows this when we consider
the sides in relationship to angle B. For convenience the sides, opposite their angle, are often
distinguished by a lower case letter, as shown in Figure1.3-21(c).
EASA – 147 Course Notes
When we consider any angle, rather than using capital letters, we use symbols from the Greek
alphabet! The most common Greek letter used is theta (θ), but equally the letters α, β,γ and φ
(alpha, beta, gamma and phi, respectively)may also be used.

1.3.3.1 The trigonometric ratios:

Figure 1.3-22 shows the angle A, which is bounded by the lines OA and OB. If we take any point
P on the line OB and from this point we drop a perpendicular to the line OA to meet it at the
point Q.
Then the ratio:
QP is called the sine of angle AOB
OP

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OQ is called the cosine of angle AOB and

OP
QP
OQ is called the tangent of the angle of angle AOB
The sine ratio:
If we consider the triangle OPQ (Figure 1.3-22) from the point of view of the angle θ, then the
sine (abbreviated to sin) of this angle
opposite QP o
= , i.e sinθ = or sinθ =
hypotenuse OP q

Figure-1.3-22 a.The sine of an angle

opposite OQ p
Similarly, the sine of the angle α= i.e sinα = or sinα =
hypotenuse OP q

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure-1.3-22 b. The right angled Triangle

If we know either the angle θ or α then we can find the value of the sine ratio, for that particular
angle. To do this you may, up to now, have simply used your calculator. Since we are considering
non-calculator mathematics we can only use drawing or tables to find the value of the sine ratio.

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Example- 4:

Find by drawing a suitable triangle, the value of sin 30°

Then using a protractor, or by another method, draw the lines AP and AQ which inter-sect at A,
so that the angle PA Q = 30°, as shown in Figure 1.3-23.Along AQ measure off to a suitable scale
AC (the hypotenuse), say 100 units. From point C, draw line CB perpendicular to AP. Measure
CB, which will be found to be 50 units

Then:

50
Sin 30◦ = =0.5
100

Figure-1.3-23 Triangle ABC

This method could be used to find the sine of any angle; however, it is rather tedious and some-
what limited in accuracy. Tables of sine ratios have been compiled that allow us to find the sine
of any angle. Table-5 shows an extract from the full table of natural sines,

From Table -5 it can be seen that angles are subdivided into degrees (◦) and minutes (′ ) where1
1
min is equal to of a degree. The equivalent decimal fraction of each degree is also given at
60
EASA – 147 Course Notes
the top of the table.

Find, using Table-5:

Example -5:

(a) sin 32° (b) sin 32°24' (c) sin 32°28'.

Solution:

(a)The sine of an angle with an exact number of degrees is shown in the column headed 0'.Thus
sin 32° = 0.5299.

(b)To find sin 32°24'. The required value is found underneath the 24' column as 0.5358.

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(c) If the number of minutes is not an exact multiple of 6, as in this case, we use the tables of
differences, shown on the right of Table -5. Thus since sin 32°24' = 0.5358 and 28'is 4' more than
24'. Then, looking in the difference column headed 4' we find the value10. This is added on to the
sine of 32°24'.Then the sin 32°28' = 0.5358 + 10 = 0.5368

Suppose we wish to carry out the inverse operation to that of finding the sine of an angle. In other
words, if we are required to find the angle whose sine is 0.3878 (in symbols, sin-10.3878) then we
proceed as follows. Look in Table -5 and find the nearest number lower than 0.3878.This is
0.3875, corresponding to the angle 22◦48'.

Now 0.3875 is 0.0003 less than 0.3878.So we look in the difference table at the column marked 3
and at the top of this column find 1'. So the angle who's sine is 0.3878 or

sin-10.3878 =22◦48'+1' = 22'49' or 22.817•.

The cosine ratio:

OQ
Looking back to Figure1.3-22 you can see that the cosine of angle AOB= ; in other words,
OP
adjacent
the cos AOB =
hypotenuse

Before we consider an example using the cosine ratio, we first need to ensure that we can find the
cosine of any angle between 0° and 90°using the table of natural cosines, an extract is shown in
Table-6

The only difference in the use of this table, when compared to the table of natural sines, is that to
find the cosine ratio for the angle, we subtract the numbers in the difference columns.

Example-1.3.10.

Find from Table-5

(a) cos 27°34' and (b) cos-1 0.9666.

EASA – 147 Course Notes
Solution:

(a)We first find cos 27°30' = 0.8870 and looking in the difference column below 4' we find the
value 5 which we subtract from 0.8870, i.e. the cosine of cos 27°34' =0.8870 – 5 = 0.8865.

(b)To find the angle whose cosine is 0.9666 we first find the angle with the nearest value above
that required. In this case 0.9668 which corresponds to the angle 14°48'. Now the difference
between 0.9668 and 0.9666 is 0.0002. Then looking across to the column containing 2, we now
go to the top of the column which shows 3'. This value is now added to 14°48' to give the
required result as 14°51'. Note that we have performed the inverse operation to that of finding the
sine of the angle.

We are now in a position to look at a simple example that uses the cosine ratio.

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Example -6:

In the triangle shown in figure 1.3-24 find the length of side AC, i.e. side "b".

Then the cosine of angle A, i.e.:

Adjacent AC b b
Cos40◦ = = = 
Hypotenuse AB c 160

Figure-1.3-24: Triangle

Now the cosine of 40° = 0.7660 (from Table-6). So that:

b
0.7660 = or (0.7660) x (160) = b, so (that by long multiplication)
160
b= 122.56
The tangent ratio:
QP
Again from Figure 1.3-22 we can see that the tangent of the angle AOB = , i.e. the
OQ EASA – 147 Course Notes
opposite
tan AOB= . Again we will illustrate the use of this ratio by example. Table -7 (see
adjacent
overleaf) is an extract from the table of common tangents

Example -7:
Find the length of the side "a" shown in Figure-1.3-25 Then applying the tangent ratio to angle A
opposite BC a a
we see that, tan A = = = =
adjacent AB c 80

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a
Now from Table-7, it can be seen that the tan 28° = 0.5317 = , from which we see that: side a
80
= (0.5317)(80)= 42.54

Figure-1.3-25: Figure for Example-87

Trigonometric ratios for the 45°/45° and 30◦/60◦. Triangles:

In the special case where the two remaining angles of a right-angled triangle are both 45°,

the sides opposite to these two angles are also equal. In Figure-1.3-26 these two sides have been
given the arbitrary value of 1.0 and by Pythagoras(which you have already met) we have:(AC)2 =
(AB)2 + (BC)2= 12 + 12 = 2; therefore, the hypotenuse side AC =√2, as shown. Therefore:

1 2
sin 45 = = after multiplying both the top and the bottom by √2 , similarly
2 2

1 2
cos 45 = = and
2 2

1
tan45=  1
1
The square root of 2 is equal to 1.4142 corrected to four decimal places and is worth committing
2 1.4142
to memory. Thus, for example, the sine and cosine of 45° = = = 0.7071. you might
2 2
like to check this in Tables-5 and 6! EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure-1.3-26: The 45◦/45◦ right angled triangle.

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Also note an important relationship between the sine, cosine and tangent ratios. From above:

2
sin 45  2  2 
 2      1  tan 45
cos 45 2  2  2 
2

This relationship is not just true for 45◦, but is true for any angle and may be generalized as:
sin 
 tan 
cos 

We now consider the 30°/60° right-angled tri-angle, in a similar way to our 45°/45° triangle. An
equilateral triangle is one in which all the sides are equal.

Figure 1.3-27 shows a triangle ABC in which each of the equal sides = 2 units. A perpendicular
is drawn from C to D, which bisects AB.

Now from Pythagoras for the right-angled triangle ACD, we have that:

(CD)2 = (AC)2 -(AD)2 = 22 — 12 = 3,therefore, side CD =√3

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure-1.3-27: Construction for 30◦/60◦ triangle.

Now noting that all the angles of the triangle ABC = 60 (remembering that there are 180 in a
triangle) and that angle ACD = 30. Then the trigonometric ratios for these two angles are given as
follows:

1 3 1 3
Sin30= , cos30= , tan30= 
2 2 3 3

3 1 3
Sin60= , cos60= , tan60= =√3
2 2 1

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Trigonometric identities:

A few of the more common and most useful trigonometric identities are given below:

General identities

1. cosec θ = 1/sin θ; sec θ = 1/cos θ ; cot θ = 1/tan θ

2. tan θ =
3. sin2 θ +cos2 θ =1 where sin2 θ, is short hand for (sin θ)2, etc.
4. tan2 θ +1=sec2 θ; cot2 θ +1=cosec2 θ
5. sin(A±B)= sinAcosB± cosAsinB
6. cos(A±B)= cosAcosB ∓ sinAsinB

7. tan(A±B)=

8. sin 2A=2 sinAcosA

9. cos 2A=cos2 A−sin2 A=2 cos2 A−1= 1 −2 sin2 A
10. tan 2A=

Sums to products

Product to sum

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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Table-5: Extract from table of natural sines:

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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Table 5(Contd.)

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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Table-6: Extract from table of natural cosines.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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Table-6(contd.)

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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Table-7: Extract from the table of common tangents.

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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Table-7(contd.)

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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Exercise 1.3.2

1. From table, find the values of-

a. sin 21°13’ , sin 18°17’, sin 24°17’, sin 28°11’, sin 26°10’, sin 32°52’, sin 42°41’

b. cos 41°12’ , cos 28°17’, cos 24°17’, cos 51°11’, cos 26°31’,cos32°52’, cos 42°41’

c. tan 14°45’ , tan 38°17’, tan 24°17’, tan 15°16’, tan 19°18’,tan32°52’, tan 42°41’

1 Find the value of:

a.
b.
c.

2 If find the value of tan A

3 If secA+tanA= , find the value of secA-tanA

1.3.3.2 Rectangular and polar co-ordinates

A point on a graph can be defined in a several ways. The two most common ways use either
rectangular or polar co-ordinates.

Rectangular co-ordinates (Figure- 1.3-28) use two perpendicular axis, normally labeled by x and
y. where any point p is identified by its horizontal distance along the x- axis and its vertical
distance up the y-axis. Polar co-ordinates give the distance r, from the origin O and the angle θ of
the line joining the origin and the point p with the x-axis

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure- 1.3-28. Rectangular and polar co-ordinate system.

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Thus, for example, the point (4, -3) are the rectangular or Cartesian co-ordinates for the point, i.e.
4 units to the right along the x-axis(Figure- 1.3-29(a)) and 3 units in the negative y direction, i.e.
downwards.
The point (25<128) gives the polar co-ordinates for the point P (Figure-1.3-29(b)), that is 25 units
in magnitude, from the origin, at an angle of 128°, measured anticlockwise from the horizontal x-
axis.

Figure-1.3-29: Identification of a point P using rectangular and polar co-ordinates.

Converting rectangular and polar co- ordinates

A useful skill is to be able to convert rectangular to polar co-ordinates and vice versa. This is
particularly helpful, when dealing with sinusoidal functions and other oscillatory functions that
you may meet in your later studies.
Consider Figure -1.3-30, which shows a set of rectangular and polar axes combined.
Then to convert rectangular to polar co-ordinates, we use Pythagoras theorem and the tangent
EASA – 147 Course Notes
ratio to give:

y
R= x 2  y 2 and tanθ=
x
To convert polar to rectangular co-ordinates, we use the sine and cosine ratios to give:
y
Sinθ= therefore y = rsinθ
x
x
and, cosθ= therefore x= rcosθ
r

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Figure-1.3-30 Combined rectangular and polar co-ordinates

Example-1:

(a) Convert the rectangular co-ordinates (-5,-12) into polar co-ordinates.

( b) Convert the polar co-ordinates (150<300) into rectangular co-ordinates.

Solution:

(a) Then using Pythagoras and the tangent ratio, we get:

r= (5) 2  ( 12) 2

= 25  144

= 169

=13

 12
and tanθ =  2.4 therefore θ= 67.4◦
5
EASA – 147 Course Notes
So the polar co-ordinates are 13 < 67.4◦

(b) Then using the sine and cosine ratios, to find y and x, respectively, we get:

y= r sinθ = 150 sin 300 = (150)( —0.866)= —129.9

and

x= r cos θ = 150 cos 300 = {150)(0.5) = 75

So the rectangular co-ordinates are (75,—129.9)

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Exercise-1.3.3:

1. Convert into Rectangular Coordinates.

2. Convert (-1,-1) into polar coordinates.
3. Convert the polar coordinates (5, 2.01) and (0.2, 53°) to rectangular coordinates to three
decimal places.
4. Convert the rectangular coordinates (1, 1) and (-2,-4) to polar coordinates to three decimal
places.
Angles of elevation and depression:

If you look up at a distant object, say a low flying aircraft then the angle formed between the
horizontal and your line of sight is known as the angle of elevation. Similarly, if you look down
at a distant object say from on top of a hill, the angle formed between the horizontal and your line
of sight is called the angle of depression. These two angles are illustrated in Figure -1.3-31

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure-1.3-31: Angles of elevation and depression

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Example-1:

To find the height of an airfield radio mast positioned on top of the control tower, the surveyor
sets up his theodolite 200 m from the base of the tower. The surveyor finds that the angle of
elevation to the top of the mast is 20°. If the instrument is held 1.6 m from the level ground, what
is the height of the tower?

Solution:

The situation is illustrated in Figure-1.3-32 Since we have both the opposite and adjacent sides to
the angle of elevation, we use the tangent ratio to solve the problem.

BC
Then from Figure-1.3-32, tan 20 = so BC =tan20×(AB)= 0.364×200=72.8 all we now need
AB
to do is add the height of the theodolite viewing piece from the ground. Then the height to the top
of the mask is

72.8 +1.6 = 74.4 m

Figure-1.3-32 Situation for airfield control tower and radio mast.

Example-2:

A aerial erector is positioned 50 m up a radio mask, in line with two landing lights, who's angles
of depression are 20° and 22°. Calculate the distance between the landing lights.
EASA – 147 Course Notes
The situation is shown in Figure-1.3-33,where in the triangle ABC, angle ABC=-90° — 22° =
68°

Figure-1.3-33: Angles of depression to landing light.

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And in the triangle ABD the angle ABD = 90◦-20◦ =70◦
AC
Then tan BAC=
AB
So that AC= (tan BAC) ×(AB) = tan68◦ ×50
So, that the length AC=123.755m. Similarly

AD
tan ABD= so that:
AB

AD= (tanABD) × (AB)

= tan 70◦ ×50

=2.7475 ×50

So, that length AD= 137.375

Then the distance between the landing lights = 137.375-123.755=13.62m.

Exercise 1.3.4:

1. The angle of elevation at a point 20m from the base of a tower is 60°. Find the height of
the tower.
2. If the angle of elevation of the sun is 60° and length of the shadow of a tower is 240 m,
what will be the height of the tower?
3. The length of the shadow of a tower increases to 24 meter if the angle of elevation of the
sun decreases from 60° to 45°. What is the height of the tower?
4. The angle of depression at the top of a tower from a point at15 m distance in the land is
45°. What is the height of the tower?
5. A 48 m high electric pole has broken at a point and has made 30° angle with the land. At
how much height the pole has been broken?

Bearings:
EASA – 147 Course Notes
The four primary points of the compass are north (N), south (S}, east (E) and west
(W).Remembering that there are 360° in a circle, then the eight points of the compass that include
NE, SE, SW and NW are each off-set from one another by 45° as shown in Figure -1.3-34

A bearing N30°W means an angle of 30°measured from north towards west. A bearing of 520°E
means an angle of 20° measured from south towards east. However, bearings are normally
measured from north in a clock-wise direction, unless stated differently; north is taken as 0°.
Three digits are used to indicate the bearing, so that all points of the compass may be considered.
Figure -1.3-35 shows example bearings measured in this way

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Figure-1.3-34: Bearing

EASA – 147 Course Notes

Figure-1.3-35: Example bearing measured conventionally from north.

Example-1:

A navigator notes a point B is due east of point A on the coast. Another point C on the coast is
noted, 8 km due south of A. The distance BC is10 km. As the navigator calculate the bearing of C
from B.

The most difficult problem with bearings is to picture what is going on, Figure-1.3-36 illustrates
the situation. From the figure we first determine angle B. Then the bearing of position C can be
determined , conventionally clockwise from north.

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Then using the sine ratio:

AC 8
SinB    0.8 , so angle
BC 10

B=53°8´ or 53.133°

Then the bearing of C prom B=270°-53.133°=216.867°

Figure-1.3-36: Situation Diagram

EASA – 147 Course Notes

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Reference Books:

SL. Name of the Book Author Publisher Year of

No. edition

01. Aircraft Engineering Principle Lloyd Dingle, Mike Elsevier, 2006

Tooley Burlington

02. Higher Secondary Algebra Afsaruzzaman Ideal library, 2010

Dhaka

03. Higher Secondary Geometry Afsaruzzaman Ideal library, 2010

Dhaka

04. Ordinary level Mathematica L.Harwood Clarke Heinemann 2010

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