Fluid Mechanics

DAC 22303
Chapter 3: Basic Fluid Equations
3.1 Continuity, Momentum and Energy Equations
• The quantity of fluid flowing in a system per unit time can be expressed by the following three
different terms:
• Q: The volume flow rate is the volume of fluid flowing past a section per unit time.
• W: The weight flow rate is the weight of fluid flowing past a section per unit time.
• M: The mass flow rate is the mass of fluid flowing past a section per unit time.
3.1 Continuity, Momentum and Energy Equations
• The most fundamental of these three terms is the volume flow rate Q, which is calculated from:

Volume Flow Rate: Q = A X V

Where A is the area of the section and V is the average velocity of flow. The units of Q can be derived as follows,
using SI units for illustration:

Q = m2 X m/s = m3/s

• Conversion factors for volume flow rates:

1 L/min = 0.060 m3/h
1 m3/s = 60000 L/min
1 gal/min = 3.785 L/min
1 gal/min = 0.2271 m3/h

Figure 3.1 Fluid distribution system

3.1 Continuity, Momentum and Energy Equations
Weight Flow Rate: W = γ X Q

Where γ is the specific weight of the fluid. The SI units of W are then:

W = N/m3 x m3/s = N/s

Mass Flow Rate: M= p X Q

Where is the density of the fluid. The SI units of M are then:

M=kg/m3 x m3/s = kg/s

Figure 3.1 Fluid distribution system

3.1 Continuity, Momentum and Energy Equations
• Continuity equation is the method of calculating the velocity of flow of a fluid in a closed pipe system depends on the principle
of continuity. Consider the pipe in Figure 3.1. A fluid is flowing from section 1 to section 2 at a constant rate. That is, the
quantity of fluid flowing past any section in a given amount of time is constant. This is referred to as steady flow. Now if there
is no fluid added, stored, or removed between section 1 and section 2,then the mass of fluid flowing past section 2 in a given
amount of time must be the same as that flowing past section 1.
• Figure 3.1 known as fluid distribution system showing variations in velocity, pressure, and elevation. This can be expressed in
terms of the mass flow rate as:
M1 = M2
• Continuity equation for any fluid is a mathematical statement of the principle of continuity and is called the continuity equation.
It is used to relate the fluid density, flow area, and velocity of flow at two sections of the system in which there is steady flow. It
is valid for all fluids, whether gas or liquid:
A1 X V1 = A2 X V2
Q1 = A1 X V1
Q2 = A2 X V2

• If the fluid in the pipe in Figure 3.1 is a liquid that can be considered incompressible. Continuity equation as applied to liquids; it
states that for steady flow the volume flow rate is the same at any section.
3.1 Continuity, Momentum and Energy Equations
Table 3.1 Flow Rates, Definitions and Unit

Symbol Name Definitions SI Unit

Q Volume flow rate Q = AV m3/s

W = 𝛾𝑄
W Weight flow rate N/s
W = 𝛾𝐴𝑉

M = 𝜌𝑄
M Mass flow rate kg/s
M = 𝜌𝐴𝑉
Example 3.1
Convert a flow rate of 600 L/min to m3/s.

Solution:
Q = 600 L/min X (1 m3/s / 60000 L/min) = 0.001 m3/s
Example 3.2
Convert a flow rate of 30 gal/min to L/min.

Solution:
Q = 30 gal/min X (3.785 L/min / 1 gal/min) = 113.6 L/min
Example 3.3
Water flows in a river at 9.00 am the flow past bridge 1 is 37.2 m3/s. At the same instant the flow
past bridge 2 is 26.9 m3/s. At what rate is water being stored in the river between the two bridges at
this instant?
Solution:
Example 3.4
Water flow in a pipe in diameter of 20 mm with velocity 0.5 m/s. Calculate the
velocity at the end of the nozzle with diameter of 5 mm.
Example 3.4
Solution:
Using the continuity equation:

=
3.1 Continuity, Momentum and Energy Equations
• Consider frictionless steady flow of an ideal fluid
along the streamline as shown below. We shall
consider the forces acting in the direction of the
streamline on a small element of the fluid in the
stream tube and we shall apply Newton's second law,
that is F = ma.

• Figure 3.2 shows the cross-sectional area of the Figure 3.2 Element moving along
streamline (ideal fluid)
element at right angles to the streamline may have any
shape and varies from A to A + dA.
3.1 Continuity, Momentum and Energy Equations
• In steady flow the velocity does not vary at a point (local acceleration = 0) but that it may vary with
position (convective acceleration 0). One-dimensional Euler equation:
dp/γ + dz + dv2/2g = 0

p v2
• Energy per unit weight which constant along a streamline: +z+
 2g

p v2
• Energy per unit mass which constant along a streamline: + gz +
 2

• Energy per unit volume which constant along a streamline: p + z +

1 2
pv
2
3.1 Continuity, Momentum and Energy Equations
• Based on Euler’s equation, for an incompressible fluid (γ is constant), the energy per unit weight is given
as:

• Basic assumptions:
• Viscous (particle friction) effects are negligible
• Flow is steady
• Applies along a streamline
• Fluid is incompressible
• No energy is added or removed from the fluid along the streamline
Example 3.5
Liquid with specific gravity, 1.26 in a processing plant flows in a pipe at a rate of 700 L/s. At a point
where the pipe diameter is 600 mm, the pressure is 300 kPa. Find the pressure at a second point
where the pipe diameter is 300 mm if the second point is 1.0 m lower than the first point.

Figure 3.3 Pipe with different cross section

Example 3.5

Figure 3.3 Pipe with different cross section

3.2 Applications of Bernoulli Equation
• Energy is defined as the capacity for doing work.
• Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by a moving body. Quite obviously a moving vehicle has
energy and the ability to do work.
• If a car driven to the top of a hill, it can freewheel down again and do work by virtue of its
elevation. This is called the potential energy of the body. An energy of a fluid when flowing
under pressure, so it is sometimes referred to as pressure energy.
• The third form of energy will be less familiar since it has no direct equivalent in solid mechanics. It
is the energy of a fluid when flowing under pressure, so it is sometimes referred to as pressure
energy for short. For example, water escaping from a high water main can be very damaging and
scour out a large hole.
 KINETIC, POTENTIAL & PRESSURE HEAD OF FLUID
FLOW

❑ Three types of energy / head considered for pipe flow analysis:

=Z
i. Potential Energy ( Static Head )

v2
ii. Kinetic Energy ( Velocity Head ) =
2g

iii. Flow Energy ( Pressure Head ) P

=
g

❑ Therefore, total of energy:

P v2
E= + + Z
g 2g
 BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
❑ Daniel Bernoulli – Swiss – (1890’s): total energy possessed by the
fluid in the section between 2 points does not change with time (no
energy is added / removed).
❑ Bernoulli equation can be represented as (Figure 5.2):

P1 v12 P2 v 2 2
+ + Z1 = + + Z2
g 2g g 2g …..… 5.1

❑ Assumptions made in Bernoulli’s equation:

i. Fluid is incompressible → specific weight of fluid is constant.
ii. Fluid is ideal ( no viscosity) → no energy losses.
iii. No mechanical devices (e.g: pump / turbines) between point
1 and 2.
iv. Flow is steady.
v. No heat is transferred.
3.3 Flow Measurements

❑ Energy Grade Line (EGL) and Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL) will
parallel when v1 = v2 or D1 = D2

❑ EGL = HGL when there is no movement inside a pipe (e.g: flow

inside reservoir / ponding water).
3.3 Flow Measurements
❑ Inside pipe system, the total of energy / head between 2 points is
same (Figure 5.1).

Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL)

P1 v12 P2 v 22
+ + Z1 = + + Z2
g 2g g 2g
P1 P2
g g

1 2

Figure 5.1: Total energy inside 2 points

3.3 Flow Measurements

P1 v12 P2 v 2 2
+ + Z1 = + + Z2
g 2g g 2g

Figure 3.8 Venturi meter with its centerline

horizontal
❑ Inside pipe system, the total of energy / head between 2 points is
same (Figure 5.1).
Total Energy Line (TEL)

v12 h L Neglected !!
Energy Grade Line (EGL)
2g
v 22
Velocity Head

P1 v12 P2 v 22
P1 2g + + Z1 = + + Z2
g 2g g 2g
g Pressure Head
Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL)

Q
1
P2
g
z1 Static Head
2

z2 Datum

Figure 5.2: HGL, EGL & ETL

Example 3.6
Water is drained from a large reservoir using a syphon.
The end of the syphon pipe is 3.2 m below the water level
in the reservoir. At the highest part of the syphon the
centerline of the pipe is 2.3 m above the water surface.
The pipe has a diameter of 200 mm and it discharges to
the atmosphere. Assuming that the water level in the
reservoir remains constant and that there are no energy
losses. Calculate the discharge through the syphon and the
pressure head at the crest (the highest part) of the
syphon.

Figure 3.10 Large syphon

Example 3.7
Water flows through a pipeline of constant diameter that
is inclined upwards as shown in the figure below. On the
centerline of the pipe, point 1 is 0.3 m below point 2. The
pressure at point 1 is 9.3 X 103 N/m2. What is the
pressure at point 2 if there is no loss of energy?
Example 3.8
• Water flows through an expanding pipeline that is
inclined upwards as shown in the figure below. On the
centerline of the pipe, point 1 is 0.3 m below point 2.
The velocities are v1 = 3.1 m/s and v2 = 1.7 m/s. The
pressure at point 1 is 9.3 x 103 N/m2,What is the
pressure at point 2 if there is no loss of energy?
Example 3.9
• Water flow through a pipeline which reduces in cross
section as shown in the figure below. The centerline of
the pipe is horizontal. If v1 = 1.54 m/s, v2 = 2.65 m/s,
p1 = 20.00 X 103 N/m2 and p2 = 16.89 X 103 N/m2.
What is the energy head loss between sections 1 and 2.
Example 3.10
Water flows under a vertical lift gate as shown in the
figure below. The depth of water upstream is 3.4 m while
downstream of the gate is 1.2 m. The velocity distribution
upstream is quite uniform so α1 = 1.10 but there is a
significant variation downstream of the gate so α2 = 1.55.
The channel is 4.0 m wide with a horizontal bed.
Assuming no loss of energy, determine the discharge.
3.4 Forces of Fluids
• Engineers have developed ways to describe fluid flow patterns or forces of fluids to identify
important characteristics of the flow field. This terminology allows engineers to communicate ideas
essential to the design of systems such as bridge piers, air-conditioning ducts, airfoils, and structures
subjected to wind loads and etc.
• There are 2 parts to the forces caused by fluid -dynamic and static. The dynamic forces are due to
inertias -Newton's 2nd law again where F = ma. The static forces are due to pressure, from p = F/A.
The force equation is used to compute the force exerted by fluid as its direction of motion or its
velocity is changed.
• For steady flow in three dimension momentum equations can express with this
component:

Fx = m (vx2 – vx1)
Fy = m(vy2 – vy1)
Fz = m(vz2 – vz1)
3.4 Forces of Fluids
• Consider the case of horizontal flow to the right through the reducer of Figure 3.11(a). A
free-body diagram of the forces acting on the fluid mass contained in the reducer the control
volume (CV) is shown in Figure 3.11(b). We shall apply Fx = m(vx2 - vx1) to this fluid mass to
examine the forces that are acting in the x direction.

(a) (b)
3.4 Forces of Fluids
• The forces P1A1 and P2A2, represent pressure forces that fluid located just upstream and just
downstream exerts on the control volume. The forces Fx represents the force exerted by the
reducer on the fluid in the x direction. Neglecting shear forces at the boundary of the
reducer, the force Fx is the resultant (integrated) effect of the normal pressure forces that the
wall of the reducer exerts on the fluid.

• Applying Momentum equation and assuming the fluid is ideal with F directed as shown,
since the entry and exit velocities are parallel to the x direction:
• Fx = P1A1 – P2A2 – F1 = Q(v2 – v1)
• Fx = P1A1 – P2A2 – Q(v2 – v1)
3.4 Forces of Fluids
If the fluid undergoes a change in both direction and velocity, as in the reducing pipe bend, by
summing up x-forces acting on the fluid in the CV, and equating them to the change in fluid
momentum in the x direction, gives:
Fx = P1A1 – P2A2 cos θ – Fx = Q(v2 – v1x)
Known that v2x = v2 cos θ and v1x = v1.
Fx=P1A1 – P2A2 cos θ - Q(v2 cos θ – v1)

In the y direction:
Fy = 0 – P2A2 sin θ + Fy = Q(v2y – v1y)
Known that v2x = v2 sin θ and v1y = 0,
Fy = P2A2 sin θ + Q(v2 sin θ)
Figure 3.12 Bend Pipe
Example 3.11
A water flows in a pipe which bend to the horizontal axis at 45°. The inlet pipe's diameter is 600
mm and reduce to 300 mm in the end. Given the inlet's pressure and flow rate are 140 kPa and
0.425 m3/s respectively. Calculate the resultant force at the bend.
Example 3.11
Solution:
v1 = Q / A1 = 0.425 / ((0.6)2/4)) = 1.5 m/s
v2 = Q / A2 = 0.425 / ((0.3)2/4) = 6.0 m/s
A1 = ((0.6)2/4) = 0.282 m2
A2 = ((0.3)2/4) = 0.071 m2
Apply Energy equation at Point 1 and 2:
(P1/ρg) + (v12/2g) + (z1) = (P2/ρg) + (v22/2g) + (z2)
Placed in the horizontal axis, z1 = z2
(140X103 / 103X9.81) + (1.52/2 X 9.81) = (P2/103 X 9.81) + (62/2 X 9.81)
P2 = 1.23 X 105 N/m2
For x-direction:
∑Fx = ∑Momentum changes in x-direction:
P1A1 – P2A2cosθ - Fx = ρQ(v2cosθ - v1)
(140 X 103)(0.282) – (123 X 103)(0.071)(cos 45°) – Fx = (103)(0.425)(6 cos 45° -1.5)
Fx = 32260 N
Example 3.11
For y-direction:
∑Fy = ∑Momentum changes in y-direction
– P2A2 sinθ + Fy = ρQ(v2sinθ - 0)
(–123 X 103)(0.071)(sin 45°) + Fy = (103)(0.425)(6 sin 45°)
Fy = 7970 N
Total Resultant Force:

Direction, θ = tan-1 Fx / Fy
= tan-1 32260/7970
= 13.9° (to horizontal)