4.

Differential Equations; Direction Fields

Introduction: An important use of Calculus in scientific research is the modeling of a situation using an equation with one
or more derivatives thereby reflecting the existence of rates of changes. A differential equation is an equation that contains
an unknown function and one or more of its derivatives. There is no method or set of methods that will give easily
expressed solutions to all differential equations. Most solutions are found using approximation techniques and since
scientific applications usually require only approximations, this approach is useful. There are some simple differential
equations, though, that model well known situations and can be solved using the tools developed in earlier sections. That
will be the main focus of this section.

Definition: If a differential equation has an nth derivative where n is the largest integer derivative, then the differential
equation is of order n . The solution to a differential equation is a function that, when substituted into the differential
equation gives a true statement.

Example 1: We shall show that y 3e 2x is Exercise: Show that y x 3 ln x is a solution to the

solution to the differential equation differential equation

dy 6
y 18e 4x x2y 2y 1 x
dx

dy
Solution: We need to find . If y 3e 2x
dx

dy d 3e 2x d 2x
3 e 2x y
dx dx dx
3 e 2x 2
6e 2x y

We start with the left side of the differential x2y 2y 1

equation, substitute the known functions, and
simplify. The result should be the right side.

dy
y 3e 2x 6e 2x 18e 2x 2x 18e 4x
dx

dy
Definition: A first-order differential equation is separable if it can be written as fx gy .
dx

68
 dy
Solving a First-Order Separable Differential Equation: fx gy
dx
1 dy dy
1. Move y variables to the side with dy and move the dx and the f x dx or f x dx
gy gy
x variables to the other side. Constants can be on either side.
2. Integrate each side. Only one constant is needed. 1 dy f x dx
gy
3. Write solution as y as a function of x if possible. If not, write answer as u y vx C where C is a constant. If
possible, combine any constants in the final answer into a single constant.

dy 3x 2 6x 1 dy y2
Example 2: Solve Exercise: Solve
dx e y cos y dx 1 x2

Solution: Move all functions of y to the left side Solution: Write final answer as y as a
and all functions of x to the right side. function of x .

dy 3x 2 6x 1
dx e y cos y
ey cos y dy 3x 2 6x 1 dx
ey cos y dy 3x 2 6x 1 dx

ey sin y 3 x3 6 x2 x C
3 2

ey sin y x3 3x 2 x C C constant

Answer: y 1 C constant
arctan x C

Remark: In general, a differential equation with no additional information will have an infinite number of solutions.
Additional information may allow one to determine a particular solution to the differential equation.

Remark: One of the most important applications of exponential functions occurs in the study of a quantity that grows or
decays at a rate proportional to the quantity itself. We now introduce some everyday situations that follow this model.

Words: In this course ”rate of change of a variable” means ”derivative with respect to time t .” Mathematically, this means

d(variable)
Rate of change of variable
dt

The word ”change” above may be replaced by ”increase” , ”decrease” , ”growth” , or ”decay”.

69
Example 3: (a) Rate of change of population P is dP .
dt
(b) Growth rate of money x is dx .
dt
(c) Rate of decay of y grams of a substance .

Words: ”Variable y is proportional to variable x ” means ”y kx for some nonzero constant number k ”. The graph of this
is a straight line.

k positive y k negative y

As x increases, y
increases
x x

Graph is straight line Graph is straight line

through origin through origin

Exercise: (a) ”Population P is proportional to time t ” means ”P kt where k is a nonzero constant”.

(b) Amount x of money is proportional to time t ” means

Remark: Variables can be proportional to functions.

Example 4: (a) ”Velocity V is proportional to the distance x squared” means V kx 2

(b) ”Variable Q is proportional to the square root of variable t ” means Q k t

(c) ”Variable N is proportional to the natural log of x ” means

Inverse Proportion: ”Variable y is inversely proportional to variable x ” means that y k where k is a nonzero constant.
x

Exercise: (a) ”Period P is inversely proportional to the square root of length x ” means

(b) ”Force F is inversely proportional to the square of the distance r ” means

70
Words: ”Rate of change of variable is proportional to variable” means

d(variable)
k (variable) k is nonzero constant
dt

”Rate of change of variable is inversely proportional to variable” means

d(variable) 1
k k is nonzero constant
dt variable

Example 5: (a) ”Rate of growth of population P is proportional to the population” is represented by

dP kP k is nonzero constant
dt

(b) ”An isotope of carbon decays at a rate proportional (c) ”Money in a bank account grows at a rate proportional
to the amount x of the isotope” is represented by to the amount A in the account” is represented by

Rate of change of P
Example 6: A scientist begins with a colony time t (days) Population P
from t 1 to t

of 100 microbes. Each day the population 0 100

doubles. 1 200 100/day
2 400 200/day
3 800 400/day
4 1600 800/day
What is the relationship between the rate of 5 3200 1600/day
change of P and the value of P ? 6 6400 3200/day
7 12800 6400/day

rate of change of P

Using the general language of proportions,

rate of change of P is

Remark: We now list some variables that follow this type of growth or decay pattern and then give an example of each.

71
 d(variable)
Rate of change of variable is proportional to variable: k (variable) k is nonzero constant
dt

Possible variable: (a) Population (b) Amount of radioactive substance (c) Temperature (d) Amount of money

Example 7: A laboratory culture possesses the following characteristic: The rate of change in the amount N of bacteria is
proportional to the amount present. If the culture starts with 1000 bacteria and in three hours it is up to 1500 bacteria, find
an equation that gives the number of bacteria N in terms of time t in hours.

Solution: The phrase ”rate of change in the amount N of bacteria is proportional to the amount present” means we have

Differential equation: dN kN k is nonzero constant

dt

We shall solve this differential equation by finding an expression for N as a function of t . First separate the variables.

dN kN Multiply both sides by dt . Divide both sides by N .

dt
Constants need not be moved.

dN kdt Take the integral of both sides

N

dN kdt Solve each integral. Use C 1 as the constant.

N

The absolute value sign is not needed since N is always posi-

tive. Raise both sides to a power of e .
Apply e ln x x to left side and x a b x a x b to the right side.

Both e and C 1 are constants. Let C e C1 .

N e kt C
N Ce kt

The words, ”the culture starts with 1000 bacteria” means that at t

then N . At the right, substitute into the above equation

and solve for C .

Substituting back into the equation for N gives N 1000e kt . Now the words, ”in three hours it is up to 1500 bacteria”
means that at t then N . Substitute into the above equation and solve for k . Write the value of k
to three decimal places.

72
 N 1000e kt Write what is done to get to the next step

1500 1000e k 3

1. 5 e 3k

ln 1. 5 ln e 3k

ln 1. 5 3k

ln 1. 5
k 0. 135 Compute value of k to three decimal places
3
Substituting back into the equation for N gives N 1000e 0.135t . This gives the number of bacteria N at time t in hours.

Remark: The above example shows that the value of the constant C is simply the ”starting” amount i.e. the amount
present at time t 0 . This is often called the initial amount and is usually denoted by the variable with a subscript 0 . In
this case, we would denote the initial amount as N 0 .

Exponential Change: Assume N is a variable that changes with time t . If we begin with a specific amount N 0 and if the
rate of change of variable N is proportional to variable N then this property is represented by the differential equation

dN kN k is nonzero constant
dt

and the solution, i.e. the variable N as a function of t , is given by N N 0 e kt . One uses given information to find the
values of N 0 and k .

Newton’s Law of Cooling: If an object at temperature T is placed in an environment where the temperature is a constant
value K , the object will warm or cool at a rate (i.e. the rate of change of the temperature) that is proportional to the
difference between the temperature T of the object and the temperature Q of the surroundings.
(a) Object cooling to temperature Q : dT kT Q when T Q
dt
(b) Object warming to temperature Q : dT kQ T when Q T
dt

Logistic Equation: This model combines the ”rate of growth of a variable is proportional to the variable” with a factor that
also limits growth. It is given by the general differential equation

dy y
ky 1
dx M

where M is a constant representing the largest value attained by the y function.

73
 dy
Example 8: The general solution to the differential equation 2x is
dx
shown below. At right are the graphs of particular solutions associated
with each value of the constant C .

dy
2x
dx
dy 2xdx
1dy 2xdx
2
y 2 x C
2
y x2 C

Every point a, b in the plane lies on one of the curves determined by y x 2 C . By substituting the x-value and y-value
in this equation, one can determine the value of C . Thus for example the point 1, 4 has x value 1 and y value 4 and
so

y x2 C
2
4 1 C
3 C

dy
Thus, the solution y x2 3 passes the point 1, 4 . Since represents the y
dx 6
slope of the tangent line and the differential equation that we started with was
dy dy
2x then slope of tangent line is 2x . At the point 1, 4 , then slope 4
dx dx
dy
of tangent line at 1, 4 is 21 2 . We can draw a small tangent line
dx 2
segment at point 1, 4 having slope 2 to indicate this. The small tangent gives
us some idea of what the solution to the differential equation looks like near
-2 -1 1 2
that point. x

If only the differential equation is available, we can draw small

tangents like this for selected points in the plane to see how the
various solutions compare with one another. The diagram at
dy
right does this for the differential equation 2x . At each
dx
point a, b , a little tangent with slope 2a is drawn. You can
see that the positions of the arrows roughly follow the curve
of a parabola. This type of diagram is called a direction
(or slope) field. At certain points, it displays a small piece
of the tangent line.

74
 dy 1
Exercise: The direction field for the differential equation is shown below.
dx x 2
(a) Draw a rough sketch of the solution (a curve) that passes through the point 0, 1 .

dy 1
(b) Solve the differential equation for the solution that contains the point 0, 1 . Write the constant to three
dx x 2
decimal places.

dy 1 At point 0, 1 , x 0 and y 1.
dx x 2
1 Substitute and find C.
dy dx
x 2
1dy 1 dx
x 2
y 1 ln x 2 C
1
y ln x 2 C

(c) The solution to the differential equation that passes through 4

y
point 0, 1 is

2
y ln x 2 1 ln 2

The graph is shown at the right. It should look similar to the one -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
x
that you drew on the slope field.
-2

-4

Remark: Up to this point, we studied differential equations such as dP kP where the rate of change of the variable P
dt
75
depended upon something involving just the variable P (in this case, kP) and constants. A specific example involved the
rate of change of population being proportional to the amount present. We now look at an example of differential
equations involving two variables that ”interact” with one another.

Predator-Prey Model: Usually this model involves two species, namely a predator and a prey. Simply put, the prey is the
food supply for the predator. Two predator-prey species that have been studied are wolves-rabbits and owls-mice. Let W
represent the quantity of predators (you can think of them as the wolves) at a particular time t and R as the quantity of
prey (you can think of them as the rabbits) at a particular time t . The predator-prey model has the following assumptions.

Assumptions
1. Both variables, W and R , are functions of time t .
2. In the absence of predators, the prey have enough food to support a growth rate proportional to the number present i.e.
when there are no predators around, dR kR . The assumption is that the population of prey will grow exponentially.
dt
3. When the predator and the prey are in the same environment, the main cause of death in the prey population is the
consumption of it by the predator. The size of the predator population will depend in part on the number of prey around.
4. Both populations are affected by the number encounters of the two species. We represent this by the product of the two
populations. The larger the sizes of the populations, the more predator-prey interaction there will be.

Predator-Prey Equations (Lotka-Volterra Equations)

dR aR bRW dW uW vRW a, b, u, v constants, a, b 0

dt dt

Exercise: Consider the predator-prey equations and answer the following.

(a) What happens to the rate of growth of the rabbit population if the number of wolves becomes very large?

(b) What happens to the rate of growth of the wolf population if the number of rabbits becomes very large?

Remark: We can combine the two differential equations with the help of the chain rule.

dW
dW dt uW vRW
dR dR aR bRW
dt

(a) dW 0 if and only if dW 0 (b) dW if and only if dR 0.

dR dt dR dt

76
 W

We can construct a slope field for dW uW vRW and

dR aR bRW
because of the placement of W and R in dW , the graph
dR dR/dt = 0
will have R along the horizontal axis and W along the dW/dR = 
vertical axis. From the equation for dW , it is apparent that
dR
if dW 0 then dW 0 and so the slope field will have a
dt dR dW/dR = 0
horizontal tangent at that point. If dR 0 then dW dW/dt = 0
dt dR
and so the slope field will have a vertical tangent at that point.
R

dy dy
Definition: Assume a slope field given by dx f x, y and g x, y . A nullcline is a set of points for which 0
dt dt dt
(in this case, called a horizontal nullcline) or dx 0 (vertical nullcline). An equilibrium point (or equilibrium solution) is a point
dt
dy
on the slope field where both dx and are equal to zero.
dt dt

Remark: The tangents along a horizontal (respectively, vertical) nullcline are horizontal (respectively, vertical).

Exercise: In an environment that is inhabited with wolves and rabbits, we assume the conditions of the predator-prey
system with the following constants: a 0. 05 , b 0. 001 , u 0. 08 , v 0. 0002 . Assume time units of months.

(a) Write the predator-prey equations:

For the direction field in this exercise, we shall have the variable R along the horizontal axis and W along the vertical axis.
Find the nullclines and describe the graphs.

0 dR 0. 05R 0. 001RW 0 dW
dt dt
0 R 0. 05 0. 001W

Equations: R 0 : vertical line Equations: vertical line

W 50 : horizontal line horizontal line

Points R, W where dR 0: 0, W and R, 50 Points R, W where dW 0:

dt dt

77
 (c) Find the equilibrium point(s) i.e. find the R Points where dW 0
dt
and W values where the growth rates are both R, 0 400, W
zero. Each entry in the chart below must satisfy Points where 0, W

the points in the row and column. dR 0 R, 50

dt

Point(s):

At the equilibrium solution above, the environment contains just the right number of wolves and rabbits to keep the
numbers in balance.

(d) We now look at what kind of information can be gathered about the solutions to these differential equations without
actually determining the solutions. The t variable does not appear on the right side of either differential equation and so
we can , using the chain rule, determine a differential equation relationship between W and R .

dW
dW dW dt dt 0. 08W 0. 0002RW
dR dt dR dR 0. 05R 0. 001RW
dt

We now look at the direction field associated with

these variables. The horizontal axis will be the
R variable and the vertical axis will be the
dy
W variable. This corresponds to when we
dx
are using the xy-coordinate plane. This is also
referred to as the phase plane. Draw the nullclines
and locate the equilibrium solution(s) in the
phase plane at the right.

(d) Find the point 400, 20 in the phase plane above and sketch the solution to the differential equations that passes
through it. The solution curve is called a trajectory. At this point, think of the time at 400, 20 as t 0 and as time goes on,
one moves around the curve in a counterclockwise direction. Describe what is happening in this environment of wolves
and rabbits as one moves around the curve.

78
Additional Examples and Information

Example 9: An object with an initial temperature of 150 0 F is allowed to cool in a room whose temperature is a constant
25 0 F. After 10 minutes, the temperature of the object has dropped to 120 0 F. We shall determine an expression that gives
the temperature T , in 0 F, in terms of time t in minutes. Write computed values to no more than three decimal places.

Solution: dT k T 25
dt
dT kdt
T 25
dT kdt
T 25
ln|T 25| kt C 1 T 25 and so absolute value not necessary.
e ln T 25 e kt C 1
T 25 e kt e C 1 Let C e C1
T 25 e kt C
T 25 Ce kt

The object is at an initial temperature of 150 0 F which implies that at t 0 then T 150 . Substitute these values in
T 25 Ce kt and solve for C .

150 25 Ce k 0
150 25 C1
125 C

The equation is now T 25 125e kt . After 10 minutes, the temperature of the object has dropped to 120 0 F and this
implies that t 10 implies T 120 . We solve for k .

120 25 125e k 10
95 125e 10k
95 e 10k
125
ln 95 ln e 10k ln e f x fx
125
ln 95 10k
125
1 ln 95 k
10 125
k 0. 027

Substituting this value of k back into the function yields T 25 125e 0.027t . This will give the temperature T of the
object at any time t .

Remark: Many situations involving exponential increase (also referred to as growth) or decrease (also referred to as decay)
are with respect to time i.e. the x-variable above is time t .

79
Radioactive Decay: One of the basic units of matter is the atom. At an elementary level, we can describe the atom as
consisting of a nucleus containing protons and, with some exceptions, neutrons with electrons moving about the nucleus in
paths dictated by their energies. It is possible for two atoms of the same element to have nuclei (plural of ”nucleus”)
containing different numbers of neutrons. These atoms are isotopes. Isotopes are atoms whose nuclei contain the same
number of protons but a different number of neutrons. Some atoms are radioactive i.e. their nuclei are unstable.
Radioactive decay occurs when the nucleus emits a particle and/or gamma ray, forming a lighter, more stable nucleus.
This decay will not occur all at once but will take place over time.
Radioactive decay follows an exponential decay model with N representing the amount of the substance that has not
changed at time t . We use N 0 to represent the initial amount (i.e. the amount at time t 0) and then the exponential
model is given by

N N 0 e kt k, N 0 constants

Exponential Models

1. General Exponential Model: y Ce kx k, C constants

2. Exponential Growth or Decay: N N 0 e kt k, N 0 constants N 0 is the initial amount

Example 10: The radioactive decay of a certain element follows an exponential decay model. Initially, there is 100 grams
of the substance and after 30 days, there is 94 grams.

(a) Determine the exponential model giving amount N , in grams, of the element in time t , in days. Write computed
constants to no more than three decimal places.

Solution: The exponential model (both increase and decrease) is given by N N 0 e kt where constants N 0 and k are to be
determined. According to the problem, at

t 0 N N0 100

Substituting back into the equation gives N 100e kt . According to the problem, at t 30 then N 94 . Substitute back
into equation and solve for k .

N 100e kt
94 100e k 30
94 e 30k
100
0. 94 e 30k
ln 0. 94 ln e 30k ln e A A
ln 0. 94 30k
ln 0. 94
k 0. 002
30

Substituting back into the equation gives N 100e 0.002t .

(b) How much of the substance remains after 300 days? Answer to one decimal place.
Solution: We are looking for the value of N when t 300 .

80
 N 100e 0.002 300 54. 88116361

After 300 days, there is 54. 9 grams of the substance remaining.

(c) How many days will it take for the amount of the substance to be half of the amount it started with? Answer to the
nearest whole number.

Solution: We are looking for the value of t when N 1 N0 1 100 50 . Substitute and solve for t in the same way
2 2
that k was solved for in part (a) .

50 100e 0.002t

0. 5 e 0.002t
ln 0. 5 ln e 0.002t ln e A A
ln 0. 5 0. 002t
ln 0. 5
t 346. 5735903
0. 002

After 347 days, the amount of the substance will be half of its initial amount.

Definition: The half-life of a radioactive substance is the time it takes for a given amount of the substance to decay to
one-half its original size.

When t half-life then N 1 N0

2

Example 11: A radioactive substance has a half-life of 231 years.

(a) If the radioactive decay model is N N 0 e kt then find the value of k . Write value to three decimal places.

Solution: According to the definition, at t half-life 231 then N 1 N 0 . Substituting yields

2

N N 0 e kt
1 N0 N 0 e k 231 The N 0 cancels from both sides.
2
0. 5 e 231k
ln 0. 5 ln e 231k ln e A A
ln 0. 5 231k
ln 0. 5
k k 0. 003
231

(b) If we start out with 800 grams of the substance, how much will remain after 2000 years? Write answer to one decimal
place.

Solution: In the exponential model, we have k 0. 003 and are given the initial amount N 0 800 . Thus, the equation is
given by

81
 N 800e 0.003t

The words ”how much will remain after 2000 years” asks what is N when t 2000 . Substitute and find N .

N 800e 0.003 2000 1. 983001741

To one decimal place, the amount is 2. 0 grams.

Example 12: The rate of change of W with respect to r is proportional to the square of r .
(a) Write a differential equation that models this and then solve it.

Solution: dW kr 2 k constant
dr
dW kr 2 dr
1dW kr 2 dr
3
W kr C C constant
3
W k r3 C
3

(b) When r 0 then W 30 and when r 3 then W 24 . Write W as a function of r .

Solution: If r 0 and W 30 then

30 k 0 3
C
3
30 C

Substitute this into the general expression for W and use the fact that when r 3 then W 24 .

24 k 3 3
30
3
54 9k
6 k

Thus, substituting these values for k and C yields W 6 r3 30 or W 2r 3 30 .

3

Example 13: The rate of change of variable v with respect to variable x is inversely proportional to the square root of x .
When x 1 then v 7 and when x 4 then v 13 . Find an algebraic expression giving v as a function of x .

Solution: ”The rate of change of variable v with respect to variable x is inversely proportional to the square root of x ”
means,

dv k k constant
dx x
1
dv k x 2 dx

82
 1
dv k x 2 dx
1

v k x1 2
C C constant
2
v 2k x C

”When x 1 then v 7 and when x 4 then v 13 ” gives us two equations in k and C .

7 2k 1 C 13 2k 4 C
7 2k C 13 4k C

Subtract the first equation from the second and solve for k .

13 4k C 13 4k C
add equations:
7 2k C 7 2k C
6 2k or 3 k

Substituting 3 k into 13 4k C yields 13 43 C or C 1 . Thus, the equation is v 23 x 1 or v 6 x 1.

Example 14: The rate of change of variable P is inversely proportional to the square of P . When t 2 then P 0 and
when t 11 then P 3 . Show that P 3 3t 6 .

Solution: ”The rate of change of variable P is inversely proportional to the square of P ” means

dP k k constant
dt P2
P 2 dP kdt
P 2 dP kdt
P3 kt C C constant
3

When t 2 then P 0 means 03 k2 C or C 2k .

3

When t 11 then P 3 means 33 k 11 C or C 11k 9 . Equating these values of C yields

3

2k 11k 9
9k 9
k 1

3
Using this value of k gives C 2k 21 1 . Thus, the relationship is P 1 t 2 . We use this to solve for P .
3

P3 t 2 Multiply both sides by 3

3
P3 3t 6 Take the cube root of both sides
P 3 3t 6

83
Example 15: In many population growth problems, there is an upper limit beyond which the population cannot grow. Let
us suppose that a bacteria environment cannot support a population of more than 10 million bacteria. If there is initially a
population of 1.2 million and P is the population (in millions) after t years then an appropriate model of growth is given
by the differential equation,

dP kP 1 P k positive constant
dt 10

Solving this yields dP kP 1 P dt

10

1 dP k dt
P 1 P
10

10 1 dP k dt
10 P 1 P
10

10 dP k dt
P 10 P

10 dP k dt
P 10 P

We now split 10 into partial fractions. We look for constants A and B such that
P 10 P

10 A B
P 10 P P 10 P

Isolate A by multiplying both sides by the denominator P of that fraction.

P 10 P A B
P 10 P P 10 P
10 P A P B
10 P P 10 P
10 A PB Let P 0 to eliminate B and solve for A
10 P 10 P
10 0 B
A
10 0 10 0
1 A

Substitute this value of A . Then isolate B by multiplying both sides by the denominator 10 P of that fraction.

10 P 10 10 P 1 B
P 10 P P 10 P
10 10 P 1 10 P B
P P 10 P
10 10 P B Let P 10 to solve easily for B
P P
10 10 10
B
10 10
1 B

Substituting these values of A and B yields 10 1 1 . Now we may proceed from the equation
P 10 P P 10 P
involving integrals

84
 10 dP k dt
P 10 P
1 1 dP k dt
P 10 P
1 dP 1 dP k dt
P 10 P
ln P 1 ln 10 P kt C Only one constant C is needed.
ln P ln 10 P kt C Apply ln A ln B ln A
B
ln P kt C
10 P

We have ”initially a population of 1.2 million” which means that at t 0 then P 1. 2 . Substitute these into the above
and determine a value for C .

ln 1. 2 k0 C
10 1. 2
ln 3 C
22

Substitute this back into the equation and simplify.

P ln kt ln 3 Combine the ”ln” terms

10 P 22
ln P ln 3 kt Apply ln A ln B ln A
10 P 22 B
P
ln 10 P kt
3
22
ln P 22 kt
10 P 3
ln 22P kt
30 3P

We usually like to write these as P as a function of t . To accomplish this, we raise both sides to the e power.

ln
22P
e 30 3P e kt Apply e ln A A
22P e kt
30 3P

Since population P is positive and never larger than 10 (million), then 22P is always positive and so the absolute
30 3P
value sign is not necessary. We solve for P .

22P e kt
30 3P
30 3P 22P 30 3P e kt
30 3P
22P 30 3P e kt
22P 30e kt 3Pe kt
22P 3Pe kt 30e kt
22 3e kt P 30e kt
P 30e kt We simplify this form.
22 3e kt
1
P 30e kt e kt
22 3e kt 1
e kt

85
 P 30
22 kt1 3
e
P 30
22e kt 3
P 30
3 22e kt

This is the final form for this type of relationship. We need more information in order to find the value of k . The constant
k is also known as the growth constant. We note that as t ,

P 30 30 30 10
3 22e kt 3 22 0
3 22 1kt
e

as was indicated at the beginning of the problem. In other words, the equation confirms that the population will not exceed
10 million. The equation P 30 is called the logistic model (or logistic equation) for this type of growth. The
3 22e kt
differential equation dP kP 1 P is referred to as the logistic (differential) equation.
dt 10

dy ln x
Example 16: (a) Find the general solution to the differential equation x y .
dx

dy
Solution: Think of as a fraction and multiply both sides of the equation by dx . Algebraically, move all x terms to the
dx
right side and all y terms to the left side.

ln x
xdy y dx

xydy ln x dx

ln x
ydy x dx

Now integrate both sides.

ln x
ydy x dx
ydy ln x 1x dx Let u ln x du 1 dx
x
ydy udu
y2 u2 C1
2 2
y2 ln x 2
C1 Multiply by 2
2 2
2
y2 ln x 2C 1 Let 2C 1 be single constant C .
2
y2 ln x C

2
General solution: y 2 ln x C.

(b) Find the specific solution containing the point 1, 2 .

Solution: Substitute x 1 and y 2 into the general solution to find the value of C .

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 2
y2 ln x C
2 2
2 ln 1 C
4 02 C
4 C

2
Specific solution: y 2 ln x 4.

Example 17: Write the differential equation that represents the following statement and solve for the general solution using
the separation of variables technique.

”The rate of change of variable y with respect to x is proportional to the reciprocal of y .”

Solution: The words ”rate of change of variable y is proportional to the reciprocal of y ” means

dy
k 1 1y k1 constant
dx
dy k1
dx y
ydy k 1 dx
ydy k 1 dx
y2
k1x C1 C1 constant
2
y2 2k 1 x 2C 1

2k 1 and 2C 1 are both constants and so replace them with single constants k and C respectively. The general solution is
y 2 kx C

Example 18: Show that y x2 2x 5 satisfies the differential equation 3y 1y x 8 and the initial condition that
2
x 3 and y 8.

Solution: We first show that the function satisfies the differential equation. If y x2 2x 5 then

y 2x 2 and y 2

We start with the left side.

3y 1y x 32 1 2x 2 x 6 x 2 x 8
2 2

This means that y x2 2x 5 satisfies the differential equation 3y 1y x 8 . We now check the initial condition.
2

2
When x 3 y 3 23 5 9 6 5 8

Thus, the initial condition is satisfied as well.

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 dy
Example 19: Consider the differential equations dx 2x 2 x xy and x 4 y 3 .
dt dt
(a) Find the equations of the nullclines

dx dy
Solution: 0 2x 2 x xy 0 x 4 y 3
dt dt
0 x 2x 1 y
x 4 0 y 3 0
x 0 2x 1 y 0 x 4 y 3
y 2x 1

Equations of nullclines: x 0, y 2x 1, x 4, y 3

(b) Find the equilibrium solution(s).

dy
Points where 0
dt
Solutions: These are the values where both dx 0 4, y x, 3
dt
dy
and 0 . Points on the line x 0 are of the form Points where 0, y none 0, 3
dt
0, y ; on y 2x 1 they are of the form x, 2x 1 ; dx 0 x, 2x 1 4, 9 1, 3
dt
on x 4 they are of the form y, y ; on y 3 they
are of the form x, 3 .

(c) Place results to (a) and (b) on the phase plane below. (d) Draw, below left , the trajectory through the point 2, 4 .

88
Assignment 4

1. Rate of change of variable Q with respect to the variable x is proportional to the square root of x .
(a) Write a differential equation representing this and then solve it. Write your answer Q as a function of x . Your answer
should contain two unknown constants.
(b) When x 0 then Q 12 and when x 9 then Q 84 . Find the constants in your answer to (a) and then write Q
as a function of x .
(c) What is the value of Q when x 36 ?

2. Variable F is changing with respect to variable r at a rate that is inversely proportional to the square of r .
(a) Write a differential equation representing this and then solve it. Write your answer F as a function of r . Your answer
should contain two unknown constants.
(b) When r 1 then F 0 and when r 10 then F 9 . Find the constants in your answer to (a) and then write F as
a function of r .
(c) What is the value of F when r 2 ?

3. The rate of change of variable y with respect to the variable x is proportional to the product of x by 24 x.
(a) Write a differential equation representing this and then solve it. Write your answer y as a function of r . Your answer
should contain two unknown constants.
(b) When x 0 then y 3 and when x 3 then y 30 . Find the constants in your answer to (a) and then write F as
a function of r .
(c) What is the value of y when x 6 ?

4. The rate of change of variable N is proportional to N .

(a) Write a differential equation representing this and then solve it. Write your answer N as a function of t . Your answer
should contain two unknown constants.
(b) When t 0 then N 4 and when t 3 then N 10 . Find the constants in your answer to (a) and then write N as
a function of t . Write computed values to three decimal places.
(c) What is the value of N when t 2 ? Answer to three decimal places.

5. An object is heated to 92 0 C (i.e. degrees Celsius) and then put in a large vat of water that is kept at a constant
temperature of 20 0 C . It cools according to Newton’s Law of Cooling. After 12 minutes the temperature of the object has
dropped to 68 0 C . In each part below, write computed values to three decimal places.
(a) Start with the differential equation representing Newton’s Law and solve it so as to find a mathematical expression that
gives the temperature T as a function of time t .
(b) What will the temperature be after 20 minutes? Answer to the nearest degree.
(c) What will be the time when the temperature is 40 0 C ? Answer to one decimal place.

6. An object is pulled from a freezer where the temperature is 10 0 F and is placed in a room where the temperature is a
constant 72 0 F . The warming of the object also follows Newton’s Law. After 6 minutes, the object is at 2 0 F .
(a) Start with the differential equation representing Newton’s Law and solve it so as to find a mathematical expression
involving the temperature T and time t . Write computed constants to three decimal places.
(b) What will be the time when the temperature is 32 0 F ? Answer to one decimal place.
(c) What will the temperature be after 18 minutes? Answer to the nearest degree.

7. The radioactive decay of the element Einsteinium follows an exponential decay model. Initially, there is 48 grams of the
substance and the half-life of the substance is 270 days.
(a) Determine the exponential model giving amount N , in grams, of the element in time t , in days. Write computed
constants to five decimal places.
(b) How long will it take before the amount falls to 40 grams? Answer to the nearest whole number.

89
(c) How much of the substance will be left after 810 days? Answer to the nearest whole number.

8. Iodine-131, a fission product created in nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons explosions, has a half-life of 8 days. A
person is exposed to Iodine-131 and 3 days after ingestion of the radioactive substance, 30 micrograms ( g) of Iodine-131 is
detected in the person’s tissue site.
(a) Determine the exponential model giving amount N , in grams, of the element in time t , in days. Write computed
constants to three decimal places.
(b) How much of the substance will be left after 24 days? Answer to one decimal place.
(c) How long will it take before the amount falls to 1 g ? Answer to the nearest whole number.

9. The population P of a certain species of fish is growing at a rate that is proportional to the square root of the amount
present. Initially, there are 1600 fish and after 12 days there are 2704 fish.
(a) Start with the differential equation representing this situation and solve it so as to find a mathematical expression that
gives the population P as a function of time t .
(b) How long will it take for the population to grow to 4900 ?
(c) What will the population be after 72 days?

10. Show that the following are solutions to the given differential equations. For (b), you must use implicit differentiation
to find y .
(a) Differential equation: y y 6y 4e 2x Solution: y 2e 3x e 2x
(b) Differential equation: y2 y x Solution: 2y 3 3x 2 0
(c) Differential equation: xy y 0 Solution: y ln x
(d) Differential equation: 1 x2 y 2xy 6y 0 Solution: y 3x 2 1
Initial condition: when x 0 , y 1
(e) Differential equation: 2 sin x y x3 Solution: y 1 x 4 2 cos x 5
4
Initial condition: when x 0 , y 3

11. Solve the following differential equations using the separation of variable technique and simplify to given form.
Represent the constant by the letter C .
dy 1 x2 3
(a) Form for answer: y 3x x3 C
dx y2
dy
(b) y2 sin x Form for answer: y Ce 2x cos x
dx
3
dy 4y 3 1 2
(c) Form for answer: 8 4y 3
dx 1 x2 arctan x C
(d) y xe x
2
1 y2 Form for answer: arcsin y 1 e x2 C
2
(e) y 2y 5 Form for answer: x 2y 5 C 0
y sec 2 3x 2
(f) y Form for answer: 3 ln y tan 3x C
2 ln y

12. Evaluate the following integrals.

(a) 4x 4 3x 2 4 dx (c) x 2 cos 2x dx (e) 2x 10 dx (g) sin 3 x cos 4 x dx

2x 3 x 2 2x 8
(b) 16x dx (d) e x sin 3x dx (f) 6 cos 2 3x dx (h) sec 5 x tan x dx
2
e 4x

90
13. Solve the following differential equations with the given initial condition. Simplify to the given form.

Initial condition Form for answer:

dy
(a) 2xy x 1 x 1, y 2 y2 x ln x 3
dx
(b) y y 2 sin x x , y 1 1 cos x 2
y
dy
(c) x 3 y2 x 4, y 8 6 3 y x2 4
dx
(d) y 1 x 0, y 2 y2 2 arcsin x 4
y 1 x2

14. Consider the differential equations dx x 2 x 3y

dt
dy
and y 1 2x .
dt
(a) Find the equations of the nullclines, and points repre-
sented by them.
(b) Find the equilibrium solution(s).
(c) Place results to (a) and (b) on the phase plane at right.
Show the equilibrium points.
(d) Draw, in the first quadrant below left , the trajectory
through the point 1, 1 .
(e) Draw, in the first quadrant below right , the trajectory
through the point 1, 1 .

15. Assume an animal population P (in thousands) is modeled by the differential equation dP 0. 0004 P 1 P
dt 30
where the environment cannot support more than 30 thousand animals. Initially, there are 2 thousand animals. Start with
the differential equation, solve for P , and show that the formula for the population P 30
1 14e 0.0004t

91
 16. Consider the differential equations dx 3x y 10
dt
dy
and x 2y 20 .
dt
(a) Find the equations of the nullclines, points represented
by them, and then describe the graphs.
(b) Find the equilibrium solution(s).
(c) Place results to (a) and (b) on the phase plane at right.
In terms of arrows, what are you seeing along each null-
cline?
(d) Draw, in the first quadrant below left , the trajectory
through the point 5, 35 .
(e) Draw, in the first quadrant below right , the trajectory
through the point 20, 20 .

17. The following set of differential equations can be used to model an epidemic. Assume a boarding school has 763
students and one catches the flu. We have the following variables and differential equations.

S number of susceptibles i.e. the number of students who do

not have the flu but are exposed to . We say these students dS 0. 0026IS
dt
are susceptible to getting the flu. (horizontal axis)
dI 0. 0026SI 0. 5I
dt
I number of inflected students i.e. the number of students who
are experiencing the flu. Once a student becomes infected,
that student is no longer is susceptible. (vertical axis)

92
 (a) What should happen to the S variable if the
number of infected students rises?
(b) Find the equations of the nullclines, points
represented by them, and then describe the graphs.
Write any computed value to no more than one
decimal place
(c) Find the equilibrium solution(s). Given the
situation, interpret this answer.
(d) At time t 0 , one student had the flu (i.e.
one was infected) and 762 did not. Since the 762
were around the student who did have the flu, all
of them were susceptible. Thus, we are interested
in the solution that passes through point 762, 1
(the x-axis will be the S variable and the y-axis
will be the I variable). Draw the trajectory in the
figure at right through point 762, 1 . Use this
trajectory to explain what happens to the number of infected and susceptible students over time.
(e) The largest I value on the trajectory in (d) is a little over 300 students. Does that mean that only 300 of the students
came down with the flu? Explain your answer.

18. Find the following.

x 1 cos x
(a) lim (d) lim x e x 1 (g) lim (j) lim x2 1 x2 4
x 7 x 7 x x x 2
x

sin x 2 ln x 3
(b) lim (e) lim 1x 1 (h) lim e 2x 2x 1/x
(k) lim
x 0 2x x 0 x x x 0 ln x 4
x x x
(c) lim e x 1 (f) lim ln x 1/x
(i) lim e x e (l) lim x sin x
x 0 x2 x x 0 x 0

19. Find the following using the differentiation rules. Write answers without negative exponents or fractional exponents.
5 dy x 5 , find D x y
(a) If y 8x 2 x 6 x , find (d) If P 8x 7 arccos 3x , find P (g) If y
3x dx tan x
(b) If f x tan 4 2x 4 , find f x (e) f R sin 1 3x 4 , find dR (h) Find d arctan e 7x
dx dx
8 d 2 dy
(c) Find D u 5u 4 u2 8 (f) Find 3 ln x 2 4 (i) Find if x 3 5x 2 y 10y 4 cos y
dx dx

93
Assignment 4 Answers

1. (a) Q 2kx x C k, C constants (b) Q 8 x x 12 (c) 588

3 3

2. (a) F k C , k, C constants (b) F 10 10 (c) 5

r r

3. (a) y 12kx 2 kx 3 C (b) y 4x 2 x3 3 (c) 117

3 9

4.(a) N Ce kt (b) N 4e 0.305t (c) 7.362

5. (a) T 20 72e 0.034t (b) 56 0 C (c) 37. 7 minutes

6(a) T 72 82e 0.017t (Since T is always positive and less than 72 , then 72 T is always positive and so we can also
write this as 72 T 82e 0.017t or T 72 82e 0.017t without the absolute value sign) (b) 42. 2 minutes (c) 11. 6 0 F

7. (a) N 48e 0.00257t (b) 71 days (c) 6 grams

8. (a) N 38. 947e 0.087t (b) 4.8 g (c) 42 days

2
9. (a) P t 40 (b) 30 days (c) 12,544 fish

12. (a) x 2 3 ln x1 (b) 4x22 C (c) 1 x 2 sin 2x 1 x cos 2x 1 sin 2x C

2 x2 C e 2 2 4
x 3e x cos 3x e x sin 3x x 4 3 1 sin 6x
(d) e sin 3x dx C (e) ln C (f) 3x C
10 10 x 2 2
cos 7 x cos 5 x sec 5 x
(g) C (h) C
7 5 5

14.(a) nullclines where dx 0 : lines with equation x 0 and y 1 x 2 ; points: 0, y , x, 1 x 2

dt 3 3 3 3
dy 1 1
nullclines where 0 : lines with equation y 0 and x ; points: x, 0 , ,y .
dt 2 2
(b) Equilibrium solution: points 0, 0 , 1 , 1 , 2, 0
2 2
(c)

94
(d) (e)

16.(a) vertical nullcline where dx 0 : lines with equation y 3x 10 ; points: x, 3x 10 .

dt
dy 1 x 10 ; points: x, 1 x 10 .
horizontal nullcline where 0 : lines with equation y
dt 2 2
(b) Equilibrium solution: point 8, 14

(c)

(d)

(e)

95
 17. (a) The value of S should decrease since those who
become infected then are no longer susceptible.
(b) vertical nullcline where dS 0 : lines with
dt
equations I 0 and S 0 .
horizontal nullcline where dI 0 : lines with
dt
equations I 0 and S 192. 3 .
Points: 0, I , S, 0
(c) Equilibrium solution: point 0, 0 . If no student
is susceptible then no student will be infected. At
192. 3, 0 The number of students becoming infected
and the number getting the flu are equal which means
that there is constant number of susceptibles (192.3)
(d) See figure at right. The trajectory shows that the
number of student getting infected rises until it reaches
a little over 300 students and then the number declines
to zero.
(e) The largest I-value is interpreted as follows: the largest number of students who had the flu AT ANY ONE INSTANT
IN TIME was just over 300 . The trajectory does not tell us the total number of students infected.

18. (a) (b) 0 (c) 1 (d) (e) (f) 1 (g) 1 (h) e 2

2 2
(i) 2 (j) 0 (k) 3 (l) 1
4

19. (a) 20x x 5 6 x ln 6 (b) 32x 3 sec 2 2x 4 tan 3 2x 4 (c) 8 20u 3 2u 5u 4 u2 8 7

3x 2
6x 3 cos 1 3x 4
(d) 56x 6 arccos 3x 24x 7 (e) (f) 4x
1 9x 2 1 3x 4 3 x2 4 3 ln x 2 4
5x 4 tan x x 5 sec 2 x 7e 7x 3x 2 10xy
(g) (h) (i)
tan 2 x 1 e 14x 40y 3 5x 2 sin y

96