PANTONE

P 108-16 C

THEMATIC SERIES
No matter of choice:
displacement in a changing climate
This thematic series explores the scale, patterns, drivers and impacts of internal displacement associated with slow-onset
environmental change and disasters to inform policies and practices for managing and reducing displacement risk

THEY CALL IT EXODUS

Breaking the cycle of distress migration in Niger
SEPTEMBER 2019

www.internal-displacement.org
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was coordinated by Chloe Sydney. It would not have been possible without the support of local
enumerators Mamane Sani Seini, Samira Aboubacar Namao, Moustapha Moumouni and Samiratou Idi Abou-
bacar. We would also like to thank NRC Niger, the United Nations Development Programme, the Early Warning
System Coordination Unit, and the National Food Crisis Prevention and Mitigation Mechanism for facilitating
the research in Maradi. This research was made possible thanks to the generous support of the Federal Foreign
Office of Germany.

Authors: Chloe Sydney

Editor: Jeremy Lennard
Design and layout: Rachel Natali
Cover photo: Livestock market in Isawane commune, Niger
Photos: IDMC/Chloe Sydney, July 2019, unless otherwise specified
 THEY CALL IT EXODUS
Breaking the cycle of distress migration in Niger
SEPTEMBER 2019
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

| Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

| Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
|| Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

| The Maradi region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

|| Livelihood zones. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
|| Mobility patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

| Stressors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
|| Food insecurity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
|| Climate change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
|| Population growth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

| Voluntariness of adaptive migration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

|| Exodus as obligation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
|| Unusual movements of pastoralists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

| Avoiding distress migration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

|| Household-level strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
|| National mechanisms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

| Conclusion: breaking the cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

|| Endnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

4 THEY CALL IT EXODUS

 SUMMARY

IDMC embarked on a new research programme in | Demographic growth and climate

December 2018 to investigate internal displacement change increase the pressure to
associated with slow-onset environmental change.1 This
migrate
study, based on more than 100 interviews conducted
in the Maradi region of Niger, attempts to explore the Climate change is resulting in less regular and less
patterns, drivers and impacts of phenomenon. It arrives predictable rains. Reduced crop yields and livestock
at the following findings. losses aggravate already high levels of food insecurity,
increasing the pressure to migrate. At the same time,
| Seasonal exodus is no matter of population growth is leading to the fragmentation of
choice land ownership, and plots are no longer able to meet
large households’ needs. Some farmers are moving
Vulnerable farmers in Niger have no choice but to north into previously pastoralist areas in response,
migrate seasonally to urban areas in search of alterna- reducing the availability of resources for the herders’
tive income to ensure their households’ survival. These livestock.
movements, referred to locally as “exodus”, increase
during times of drought. Seasonal migration driven by | Opportunities exist to break the
poverty is a strategy, but it is not a choice. It is a clear cycle
form of distress migration, and should be considered
displacement.2 Household-level strategies exist to break the cycle of
poverty-driven migration in Niger. For large livestock
| Unusual movements of pastoral- owners, destocking ahead of a drought can reduce
ists increase in times of drought losses. Farmers can adapt to unpredictable rainfall by
increasing their use of fertilisers, enhanced seed and
Pastoralists in Niger migrate seasonally with their live- alternative water management systems. A national early
stock in search of water and pasture, but traditional warning mechanism is also in place to respond to food
periods and patterns of transhumance are disrupted security crises with distributions, subsidies and cash
during periods of drought, when whole families are transfers, but longer-term development investments
forced to seek out alternative routes. When drought are needed.
leads to a significant loss of livestock, pastoralists may
be forced to abandon their way of life altogether.

Breaking the cycle of distress migration in Niger 5

 INTRODUCTION

Niger has the world’s lowest human development index ment. Cyclical rural-to-urban migration is a core poverty
ranking, indicating below-average life expectancy, poor reduction strategy in many parts of the world, and far
education levels and low per-capita income.3 The bulk from a new phenomenon.11 Seasonal migration driven
of the country’s economy is dependent on rain-fed agri- by poverty in Niger stems from an interaction of envi-
culture, and periods of drought and associated drops in ronmental and economic factors, and is not generally
crop yield fuel recurrent food security crises.4 considered displacement. Such movements, however,
referred to locally as “exodus”, are no matter of choice.
The World Bank’s Groundswell report on internal climate
migration warns that “the poorest and most climate-vul- Vulnerable farmers with limited assets are exposed
nerable areas will be hardest hit”, and the sub-Saharan yearly to food insecurity, which increases during periods
Sahel region is already feeling the impacts.5 Rainfall of drought and leaves them with no option but to seek
has decreased by more than 20 per cent since the early temporary employment elsewhere to ensure their
1970s in what has been referred to as “one of the households’ survival. Rather than a positive strategy to
most dramatic long-term changes in climate observed optimise and diversify income, it is a response to exis-
anywhere in the world”.6 tential threats to which no remedies exist in situ.12 It is,
in essence, forced displacement in the form of distress
Niger suffered severe droughts in 1973 and 1984, and migration.13
unreliable rainfall continues. A significant forage deficit
in 2018 led to thousands of school dropouts as pasto- With demographic growth and climate change
ralists’ children were forced to follow their parents in expected to contribute to further yield losses, and
search of pasture.7 Drought also disrupts traditional given the absence of sustainable adaptation mecha-
patterns of transhumance, leading pastoralists to under- nisms to strengthen communities’ resilience and coping
take unusual movements. When drought leads to severe capacities, such population movements are likely to
livestock loss, some are forced to abandon their way of continue.14 To better understand their forced nature,
life altogether and adopt sedentary lifestyles, which for IDMC conducted a study in Niger’s Maradi region as
pastoralists represents a form of displacement.8 the basis for this report, which addresses the following
questions:
Among farming communities, demographic growth
is fragmenting land ownership, and ever smaller plots 1. What is the relationship between mobility,
are increasingly unable to meet households’ needs. drought and socioeconomic factors such as
Population expansion is also contributing to deforest- employment and food security?
ation, which in turn leads to land degradation and 2. What is the tipping point for distress migration?
desertification, undermining both crop and livestock When does mobility become unusual or perma-
production. Climate change and deteriorating land nent?
quality may reduce crop yields by half in some regions 3. What strategies do governments and affected
of Africa by 2050.9 Given that the continent’s popula- communities put in place to mitigate the impacts
tion is predicted to double by the same time, this has of drought?
particularly worrying implications for food security.10 4. Who is displaced and what support do they
receive?
To reduce pressure on limited household resources and 5. What constitutes a durable solution in situations of
alleviate food insecurity, many young people migrate irreversible change?
seasonally from rural to urban areas in search of employ-

6 THEY CALL IT EXODUS

 Local enumerators conducted a survey on mobile
| DISTRESS MIGRATION phones using KoboToolbox, developed by the Harvard
Humanitarian Initiative for research in challenging envi-
“Conceptual distinctions can be made between ronments. The enumerators were given two days of
distress migration, in which household decisions thorough training on the objectives and wording of the
are largely ad hoc responses to external environ- survey, use of the software and qualitative and quanti-
mental processes and events; and economic migra- tative data collection techniques.
tion, which suggests the existence of forward and
strategic planning on the part of the household. Given the challenge of conducting research with hard-
Where economic migration has been shown to to-reach populations in different settings, respond-
create new opportunities and income sources, ents were identified through a convenience sample,
distress migration has often been accompanied drawing on the local knowledge and social networks
by new risks and vulnerabilities”.15 of researchers, partners and participants. A total of 102
surveys were conducted. The sample is not represent-
ative, but offers valuable insight into people’s experi-
METHODOLOGY ences, challenges and aspirations in Maradi.

The enumerators were also asked to record short summa-

The research for this report began with a thorough ries of any stories the participants shared, which comple-
review of the existing literature, which provided an initial mented the survey findings with qualitative narratives.
understanding of mobility patterns and climatic varia- Additional qualitative data was collected through key
tions in Niger. This was built on by primary research in informant interviews with local authority officials and
Maradi in July 2019. The region was chosen because guided walks through the fieldwork locations.
of reports of school dropouts associated with drought.

The research covered both displaced people and host

communities in urban areas, and non-displaced people
in rural areas affected by drought and food insecurity.
Fieldwork locations were selected in partnership with
departmental directors of agriculture who suggested
relevant and accessible locations in their areas.

Figure 1: Fieldwork locations in Maradi

Azagor

Mayahi Isawane

Dan Saga
Maradi
Adarawa

NIGER

Niamey Maradi

Enumerators conduct interviews in Adarawa.

Breaking the cycle of distress migration in Niger 7

A large herd of sheep block the road to Azagor

BOX 1. MONITORING
Development Programme (UNDP) to This points, as in other countries,
DISPLACEMENT
better understand drought displace- to the need for data to be better
ASSOCIATED WITH
ment in Niger and improve ways of consolidated and harmonised for
DROUGHT IN NIGER
accounting for it. The aim was to increased interoperability.
assess the existing data ecosystem
IDMC has been monitoring in order to understand what type of In order to bridge these data
displacement associated with information was available and what gaps, we are working closely
conflict and violence in Niger for else was required. The workshop with government and UN agen-
many years, but it has not yet been focused on numerous indicators cies, local and international NGOs
able to compile estimates for that associated with drought displace- and farmers’ unions to develop
associated with drought. ment, including food insecurity, live- a common understanding of the
lihood opportunities and climatic main indicators associated with
The slow-onset nature of drought variations. drought displacement, and a
displacement makes it difficult to model that would explain some of
monitor. Given the lack of systematic No single organisation collects the triggers, dynamics and inter-
data collection and disaggregation, it data on drought displacement in actions between the indicators.
is also hard to differentiate between Niger, but the workshop revealed We envision a more robust, coor-
displacements triggered drought that most of the information dinated and data-driven process of
and conflict, which are inherently needed already exists. It is just not collection and verification, which
interlinked in many regions. consolidated into one database. should then enable us to monitor
Nor is the available data always displacement associated with
We organised a joint workshop in easy to access. Not all of it, for drought in Niger.
Niamey in July 2019 with the UN example, has been digitalised.

8 THEY CALL IT EXODUS

 THE MARADI REGION

Maradi, in southern Niger, has been in the news recently

because of an influx of refugees from Nigeria.16 The
host population, however, faces its own challenges. The
region has the highest percentage of inhabitants living
below the poverty line, at 57.8 per cent compared with
the national average of 48.2 per cent.17 It has been rela-
tively unaffected by the insecurity generated by militant
Islamic groups in the Diffa, Tillaberi and Tahoua regions,
but food insecurity is chronic despite high levels of millet
and sorghum production.18

LIVELIHOOD ZONES

Maradi is divided into three major livelihood zones: the

agricultural south, the agropastoral centre, and the
predominantly pastoralist north.19 Around 78.7 per cent of
households across the region as a whole are dependent on
agriculture.20 Among the survey participants, three-quarters Adamou travels around the region working as a tailor to supplement his
income from farming
engage in farming, and just over half practice subsistence
farming, growing crops solely for food. Millet and cowpeas
are the most common crops, followed by sorghum. Most respondents engage in a variety of activities
to make ends meet, complementing farming and
Livestock ownership is also extensive, even among nomi- husbandry with other income-generating activities
nally agricultural households. Just over two-thirds of and trade. Amadou (pictured above) has land south of
respondents own livestock, with goats by far the most Maradi but finds agriculture alone insufficient, so he has
prevalent. The majority of respondents own less than five started a small mobile tailoring business.
animals, but some own much larger herds (see figure 2).

Figure 2: Percentage of respondents who own livestock, by size of herd

Goats
Size of herd
1-5
6 - 10
Sheep 11 - 20
21 - 50
50+

Cows

0 20 40 60 80 100

Breaking the cycle of distress migration in Niger 9

MOBILITY PATTERNS as far as Nigeria and beyond, and on the northbound
leg some go as far as the neighbouring Agadez region,
Key informants and the existing literature confirm two where their livestock has access to salt-rich land.
major mobility patterns in Maradi: pastoralists’ transhu-
mance with their livestock and the exodus of sedentary Satellite imagery (see figure 3) provides a clear expla-
farmers and agropastoralists (see figure 4). nation for these movements. As the vegetation in the
Sahel dies off during the dry season, the further south
The former involves a single large north-to-south pastoralists travel the more grazing land is available.
migration around November once the government has Many have established longstanding relationships with
provided an official greenlight for transhumance after farmers in the south, and return yearly to the same
the harvest, and then a south-to-north migration at fields: the animals eat the leftovers from the harvest,
the start of the rainy season around May when farmers and in exchange the land benefits from their manure.
start to plant. During the migration south some travel

Figure 3: NASA MODIS, Vegetation Index (March-August 2018)

MARCH AUGUST

Figure 4: Timeline of seasonal movement in the Maradi region of Niger21

Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Lean season Harvest
Urban migration of farmers Rainy season
Pastoralists in the South Pastoralists in the North

10 THEY CALL IT EXODUS

Although pastoralists are generally considered to have a living outside their areas of origin – had the research
nomadic lifestyle, it is usually only the young men who taken pace after the harvest, this percentage would likely
travel with the livestock. Other household members stay have been higher. Over 40 per cent of those currently
in their home area with a small part of the herd, mostly living in their area of origin said they had migrated in
dairy cows to support the household’s needs. In Dan the past, the majority each year for between three and
Saga, we came across three women selling milk while six months.
their husbands and sons were away with the majority
of the herd (see picture below). Showcasing the gendered dimension of migration in
Niger, over 80 per cent of men but less than a fifth of
The exodus of sedentary farmers and agropastoralists women interviewed in their area of origin said they
takes place between the harvest and the following rains. had migrated in the past. Many of the women who do
Any migration during the rainy season, by contrast, is migrate work as domestic workers in urban centres,
a sure sign of crisis. “Either local rains have evidently returning to their village in time for the growing season.
failed, or they are in dire need of cash to cover acute “I had a girl of about 14 who was working as a maid in
gaps from the previous season.”22 my house. At the very first rains, she quit and returned
to her village,” one official in Dakoro said.
As a rule, one or more members of the household travel
to urban centres to engage in daily labour, or to the When conditions become extreme, whole families
south-west of Maradi where irrigated farms provide a participate in the exodus. This was the case in Azagor
source of employment for agricultural workers all year commune in 2016-17, when harvests were poor and
round.23 Others leave the country, hoping to benefit many were forced to move to urban areas in search of
from better economic opportunities abroad, and return an income, returning with the onset of the rains. This
to their village to plant with the onset of the rainy season. unusual movement driven by food insecurity in their area
of origin is a clear case of displacement.
The research for this study took place during the rainy
season, so only a quarter of the survey respondents were

Wives of pastoralists sell dairy products while their husbands are away on transhumance

Breaking the cycle of distress migration in Niger 11

 STRESSORS

Figure 5: Food insecurity in Niger as of June 2019

FOOD INSECURITY
PRODUCTION OF LAST HARVEST

Nearly half of the survey respondents who grow crops Much more
said they had produced less or much less than usual
at their last harvest (see figure 5). More than half of More
the Maradi region was experiencing stress-level food
Same
insecurity as of June 2019, pending the next harvest.24
The region also fares badly in terms of nutrition. Around Less
18 per cent of the population is estimated to have poor
food consumption, the highest figure in the country.25 Much less

Faced with widespread food insecurity, three-quarters of

respondents said they had resorted to coping strategies Other strategies included borrowing food from a friend
in the past month (see figure 6). Buying food on credit or relative and reducing the number of meals a day, but
was the most common, but it was not always an option. most concerning was that almost a fifth of respondents
Boubacar, for example, said traders in his village were had resorted to eating some of next season’s seed stock,
no longer willing to extend his credit until they could despite its obvious repercussions for food security the
be sure his land was going to be productive in the next following year. Fatouma said she had mixed some of her
agricultural cycle. seed with gravel to avoid the temptation.

Figure 6: Coping strategies reported by participants

None
Purchase food on credit
Borrow food from friends or relatives
Reduce number of meals per day
Limit portion size at meals
Adults eat less to save food for children
Rely on less preferred and cheaper foods
Consume next season's seed stock
Skip entire days without eating
Send children to eat with neighbours
Send household members to beg
Ealt wild food or immature crops
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

12 THEY CALL IT EXODUS

Food insecurity is also a barrier to education. “Children Just over three-quarters of respondents felt the climate
often refuse to go to school when they are hungry and environment had changed compared with previous
and there are no school meals”, said Samira, reflecting decades, and their perceptions - desertification, higher
the view of many parents. This is also a key factor in temperatures, less rainfall and less predictable patterns
school dropouts among pastoralist children, as discussed - reflect reality. Maradi received average annual rainfall
below. The provision of school meals could go a long around 600 millimetres between 1939 and 1954, but
way to resolving the issue. The dropout rate in schools only 153 millimetres in 2018.27 A similar pattern is borne
where the World Food Programme (WFP) provided out nationwide, along with a rise in average annual
meals was 1.3 per cent in 2014, compared with 12.4 temperatures (see figures 7 and 8).
per cent in schools where it did not.26
Two-thirds of respondents said that changes in the
CLIMATE CHANGE weather had affected their ability to make a living, and
more than a third of those who had lower yields from
the last harvest blamed lack of rain. “I personally expect
“This year we haven’t seen much rainfall … One of to harvest about a third of what I harvested last year.
30mm, one of 15, one of 14 and one of 25 the day There’s just no rain,” said the mayor of Isawane. “We’re
before yesterday,” said a local official in Isawane already in mid-July, and a lot of people are only just
commune. “There have been changes in the climate. planting. When the rains start, we breath a collective
We used to plant early June, but people are only just sigh of relief.”
planting now [mid-July] after the latest rains. In the
past we had four months of rains, now we have barely
two months.”

Figure 7: Average annual rainfall in Niger (in mm)28

1,000

800

600

400

200

0
1945

1950

1955

1960

1965

1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

1995

2000

Figure 8: Average annual temperatures in Niger (°C)29

30°

29°

28°

27°

26°

25°
1900

1910

1920

1930

1940

1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

2000

2010

Breaking the cycle of distress migration in Niger 13

Cost of water has increased in Dan Saga due to water scarcity.

Almost 70 per cent of respondents who had left their The lack of land in the south has pushed people to
areas of origin said their livelihoods had previously migrate north, where they have established farming
depended on the weather, but just over half said this villages in previously pastoral areas “drawn by vast and
was still the case in their current location. This appears vacant land with good soil fertility”.33 Hamza, who
to reflect a shift in livelihood strategy. is originally from the south of Dakoro department,
moved north to the village of Azagor for this reason.
POPULATION GROWTH The phenomenon is not new, and was discussed in one
study dating back to 1965.34

Population growth in Niger is among the highest in the Population growth has also led to water shortages in
world, at over three per cent a year, and more than half some areas. The population of Dan Saga is thought
of the population is under 15.30 31 The survey respond- to have doubled in the past 40 years, and scarcity has
ents had an average of 6.7 children, and 15 of them had pushed up water prices significantly. A 25 litre jerrycan
10 or more. Ibrahim has three wives and 25 children. costs around 15 francs ($0.03) in most villages, but in
Dan Saga the price is 50 francs ($0.09).
The “increasing fragmentation of smaller farm parcels”
as a result of population growth has heightened food
insecurity in southern Maradi.32 As the head of the land
and property commission in Isawane put it: “There are
a lot of people and limited fields.” Djibson in Adarawa
now finds it ever hard to produce enough to eat. “There
used to be more fields, but they have become houses,”
he said.

14 THEY CALL IT EXODUS

 VOLUNTARINESS OF
ADAPTIVE MIGRATION

EXODUS AS OBLIGATION origin, households whose crop yields are not enough to
meet their needs and are unable to afford to buy food
have little choice but to move to ensure their survival.37
According to the deputy director for agriculture in
Maradi: “The drought of 1984 pushed high numbers Many Nigeriens believe opportunities to generate
of people to migrate from north to south, even into income to be better abroad, and so cross the border into
Nigeria. It’s from then onwards that the town really Libya or Nigeria despite insecurity. “We warn people not
experienced population growth. It also marked a shift to go to countries where there is a lot of insecurity, but
in behaviours in the whole region. People who grow they say ‘why would we stay, we would die of hunger’,”
crops realise that their production is insufficient and said the civil registrar in Isawane, to which hundreds of
migrate to urban centres during the dry season. There migrants who found the situation in Libya untenable
they engage in odd jobs, small seasonal businesses, have returned.
until the return of the rains, and then they go back and
survive on the income they were able to accumulate
until the next harvest.”

Others trace the beginning of work migration back to

the 1973 drought, during which the DesInventar data-
base records 500 relocations in the Maradi region.35 It
also records 817 in 1984, but the true figures are likely
to be much higher. “There’s migration all the time, but it
increases during periods of drought”, said the mayor of
Isawane. “When you see that what you have harvested
isn’t enough to feed your family, those who are able to
work are forced to leave. You can’t just cross your arms
and wait to die.”
Isawane’s civil registrar with paperwork of a returnee from Libya

Among the research participants for this study, more

than 80 per cent of those outside their area of origin said Exodus serves as a core poverty reduction strategy,
they had left because of poverty and lack of economic but it appears to have only short-term effects. It does
opportunities. Some said crop failures had forced them not significantly reduce households’ long-term vulner-
to join the exodus, and others mentioned food insecurity ability. Faced with recurrent challenges, some seasonal
as a factor. workers eventually settle permanently in urban centres.
Farouk used to go back and forth between Mayahi town
These findings reflect those of other studies, one of and his village, but he eventually got a job as a guard
which found that 78 per cent of migrant households and stayed. Rachid has had a similar experience. Since
identified the search for employment as their main moving to Mayahi, he has made enough money through
reason for moving. Sixteen per cent cited food inse- trading to buy a plot of land.
curity.36 Given the lack of alternatives in their areas of

Breaking the cycle of distress migration in Niger 15

UNUSUAL MOVEMENTS OF search of new livelihoods. Many Tuareg pastoralists are
said to have become security guards in urban centres.
PASTORALISTS
One local NGO has established a viability threshold
When the rains begin in the south before they do in expressed in tropical livestock units (TLUs). The threshold
the north, as is often the case, the start of the planting for purely pastoralist households is 3.5 units per member,
season means pastoralists have to leave even if there which means a family of five would need at least 17.5
is still no water or pasture in the north. This effectively units to make ends meet. Based on the conversion table
leaves them stuck in transit between the southern farm- below, that might be made up of 25 goats, 15 cows,
lands and the arid north, which if conditions persist may two donkeys and a camel. The threshold for agropas-
lead to unusual movements.38 toralist households is 1.9 units per member.

Pastoralists are still able to move their livestock outside Figure 9: Tropical livestock units 41
the usual transhumance periods, so long as they follow Animal TLU conversion rate
designated corridors that keep them away from farm-
Cow 0.8
land (see map below). In times of drought, however,
they may be forced to seek out different routes and Sheep 0.15
narrower corridors, and these unusual movements often
bring them into conflict with farming communities. Goat 0.15

Camel 1
Unusual movements caused by the 2017 drought led
to children dropping out of school. “This was a direct Horse 1
impact of the drought. They followed their families … Donkey 0.5
the whole area was abandoned to go further south
in search of pasture,” said the permanent secretary
of the National Food Crisis Prevention and Mitigation Below these thresholds, survival requires increasing
Mechanism. More than 10,500 children in the regions access to land for farming or other alternative liveli-
of Agadez, Maradi, Tahoua and Zinder are estimated to hoods.42 Najaah and her formerly pastoralist family
have dropped out of school as a result of the drought.39 settled in Azagor two years ago. They used to own
hundreds of animals, but the gradual depletion of their
Droughts can also push pastoralists to abandon their herd left them with little choice but to farm. Families
traditional lifestyle altogether, as happened as a result of without access to land often split up. Some move to
livestock losses following the 1984 drought.40 According urban areas, some become agricultural workers and
to the head of Niger’s early warning system, so many some look after others’ livestock.
animals died that many pastoralists had to leave in

A map of Issawane commune in the town hall showing designated transhumance corridors

16 THEY CALL IT EXODUS

 AVOIDING DISTRESS
MIGRATION

HOUSEHOLD-LEVEL According to local authorities, many farmers sell animals

during the growing season to meet their needs until
STRATEGIES harvest, after which they buy new animals to breed and
sell the following year.
| Sale of livestock
For pastoralists, the sale of livestock ahead of a drought
Livestock is a vital source of resilience for both pastoral- minimises losses. Selling before markets become satu-
ists and farmers, and in normal conditions husbandry rated during a crisis also makes it more likely they will
provides a reliable means of accumulating wealth. When get a favourable price. According to Maradi’s deputy
necessary, livestock can also be sold for cash.43 At Aguie director for agriculture, while the sale of livestock was
market, a bull cost an average of 282,000 francs ($475) previous frowned open, pastoralists are becoming
as of October 2018, representing a significant asset. A increasingly open to destocking. “As soon as they realise
ram cost around 42,500 francs ($70) and a goat about there is going to be a crisis, a lot of them start reducing
14,500 francs ($25).44 the size of their herd to keep only a minimum that they
can maintain until the end of the lean season. Those
Lack of livestock contributes to the vulnerability of poor who don’t do this lose a lot of animals”.
households, while wealthier households are made more
resilient to drought and other shocks thanks to their Oxfam, the International Committee of the Red Cross
livestock.45 The ability to purchase grain, in particular, and other organisations have already begun to incor-
often depends on the sale of livestock.46 Nearly half of porate destocking into their programming.48 The secre-
the research participants who did not own livestock tary general of Azagor commune, however, feels that
had been forced to eat fewer meals a day in the past more could be done through sensitisation campaigns
month, compared with less than a third of those who to further encourage pastoralists to decrease the size
owned animals. of their herds ahead of a crisis.

Just under a fifth of all research participants said live- “Pastoralists are hostile to change. They want to keep
stock sales were a source of income. Many respondents their animals even if they are going to lose them,” he
owned fewer animals than in previous years, having said. “We would like to see pastoralists reduce their
been forced to sell their animals to make ends meet. number of animals ahead of a drought, perhaps selling
Among respondents who did not own any livestock but a third to buy food and another third to have cash in
had done in the past, more than 90 per cent said they the bank. They could keep a third for breeding, and
had been forced to sell their animals. Jihane used to have this way they wouldn’t be hit so hard by the drought.
10 goats, but she eventually sold them all to be able They’d have money and stocks of grain to fall back on.”
to buy enough to eat. Selling reproductive females is
considered a coping strategy of last resort, and is tracked
nationally as an indicator of vulnerability.47

Breaking the cycle of distress migration in Niger 17

Livestock market in Issawane

| New farming techniques for each growing season rather than using stock saved
from previous harvests may also be a barrier. “Farmers
Some research participants said they had been able need to understand the usefulness of enhanced seeds,”
to increase their crop yields compared with previous said the secretary general of Azagor commune. “They
years despite the trying conditions, mainly through grow quicker, provide better value for money and enable
the increased use of both natural and manufactured you to use smaller areas.”
fertilisers. Previous studies in Niger show that the use
of manure can increase millet yields by 50 per cent and Irrigation also helps to improve yields. One village we
inorganic fertilisers by 110 per cent.49 But fertiliser use visited on the outskirts of Maradi town had an irrigated
is still relatively rare among small-scale farmers.50 The perimeter, which enables three to four harvests a year.
average for the country as a whole is estimated at 0.4 Louali said he was able to make a living all year round,
kilogrammes per hectare of arable land, compared with and that he no longer needed to leave the village to
5.5 in neighbouring Nigeria and a global average of 140.51 feed his family. “Here we can’t really talk about drought
because we have irrigation”, said Djibson. Irrigation is
The mayor of Isawane, meanwhile, recently bought not uncommon in the south-western department of
enhanced seeds in the hope of increasing his yields. Madarounfa, but opportunities in the drier parts of
“We have to find strategies to survive”, he said. A Maradi are limited.53
number of key informants also noted the potential of
using enhanced seed as an effective response to climate Across sub-Saharan Africa as a whole only three per
change impacts. Irradiation has already been used to cent of cultivated areas are irrigated, and alternative
alter plants’ DNA and produce higher yields of sorghum water management systems are needed to mitigate scar-
and cowpea in Namibia, a seed-coating that holds water city.54 Techniques such as micro-catchment harvesting,
during germination has helped to grow grass in Saudi in which rainfall is captured for later use, and furrows to
Arabia and seeds coated in bio-pesticides are showing maximise rainwater infiltration around crop roots, could
promise in Kenya.52 have a transformational effect.55 More than a quarter
of households affected by drought in Niger could be
The potential of enhanced seeds is, however, still poorly made more resilient through the adoption of improved
understood, and the fact that they have to be bought cropping technologies.56

18 THEY CALL IT EXODUS

NATIONAL MECHANISMS

Niger was the first country in Africa to domesticate the

Kampala Convention by adopting a law on the protec-
tion and assistance of its internally displaced people
(IDPs) in 2019. The law’s definition of an IDP includes
people displaced by natural hazards, and it states that
such displacement should be prevented when possible
and responded to when not.57

The extent to which the unusual movements of pasto-

Illustration of a free cereal distribution: 100 kgs per household of 7
ralists and the seasonal exodus of sedentary farmers are people
covered by the law is unclear, even though these move-
ments are no matter of choice. Niger does, however, The subsidised sale of cereals provides a second means
have a strong system in place to predict, prevent and of support, enabling people in affected areas to buy
respond to food insecurity, which has the potential to grain below market price. The average market price
reduce these involuntary movements. for 100 kilogrammes of millet is between 25,000 and
30,000 francs ($45 and $50), but those eligible for the
The system involves community-level early warning subsidy pay only 13,000 francs ($22).59 Around a quarter
systems which share information weekly with observa- the of research participants said they had benefitted
tories that monitor vulnerability at the commune level. from the subsidy.
The information is then collated to monitor vulnerability
at the departmental and regional levels, which in turn Other measures include cash-for-work programmes
feeds biannually into national-level meetings to identify and cash transfers. In Azagor, for example, a cash-for-
areas in need of support. work programme was set up in 2018 to build three
classrooms. This enabled young people who would
The most vulnerable households in those areas are otherwise have participated in the exodus to remain in
targeted with free cereal distributions, particular during their village while improving its education infrastructure.
the lean season before harvest. A family of seven is enti- Oxfam has similar programmes to regenerate vegetation
tled to a 100-kilogramme sack of millet. More than a and agricultural land, which helps to reduce the impact
third of the research participants said they had received of future droughts.60
free cereal distributions.
Cash transfers are considered by many to be “a weapon
These interventions are not, however, without issues. A against migration”, but they may also provide the means
consultant involved in previous post-distribution moni- for migration.61 Government cash transfers provide
toring revealed that some listed beneficiaries did not beneficiary households with 10,000 francs ($17) a
exist, or were not in real need of assistance. In other month for two years.62 Capacity building initiatives also
cases, households exaggerated their size to be able take place in parallel, after which recipients are expected
to claim more assistance. This is not unique to Niger. to become self-sufficient. International agencies also
Providing “the right aid to the right people” without provide cash transfers in Niger. WFP disbursed more
misappropriation is a challenge for food distributions than $12 million in 2018.63
worldwide.58
Most of the above interventions appear to be predom-
inantly humanitarian and short-term in nature,
responding to food insecurity rather than supporting
longer-term development.

Breaking the cycle of distress migration in Niger 19

 CONCLUSION:
BREAKING THE CYCLE

Given high vulnerability and limited capacity in rural National efforts are made to support vulnerable house-
areas of Niger, annual exodus has emerged as a means holds and provide alternatives to poverty-driven migra-
of adapting to increasing exposure to drought and asso- tion, but the measures lack a long-term perspective.
ciated food insecurity. It is a coping strategy, but it is Rather than responding each year to recurrent food
not a choice.64 Neither does it appear to have positive crises, opportunities exist to break the cycle, whether
long-term impacts. Rather, households remain trapped through new farming techniques or the diversification
in poverty.65 The same is true of unusual movements of of livelihoods.67
pastoralists.
Even in the absence of irrigation, enhanced seed provides
Without measures to reduce vulnerability and increase farmers with more reliable yields, and destocking
communities’ capacity to cope in a changing climate, ahead of drought minimises livestock breeders’ losses.
displacement will continue. In the absence of effective Increased awareness of alternative and sustainable live-
investments, this is likely to lead to permanent change as lihood practices, combined with effective investment
people abandon their traditional way of life altogether.66 in rural development, has the potential to maximise
people’s resilience to the effects of a changing climate,
and so to minimise displacement.68

Irrigation in Adarawa increases farmers’ resilience to drought.

20 THEY CALL IT EXODUS

ENDNOTES with displacement: Can ‘‘social protection’’ facilitate
long-term adaptation to climate change? Global Envi-
1 IDMC (2018) No Matter of Choice: Displacement in a ronmental Change, 20, pp. 648–655
Changing Climate. 16 REACH (2019) Rapid Briefing Note: Niger - Maradi
2 Johnson, C.A. and Krishnamurthy, K. (2010) Dealing 17 Niger National Office for Statistics, Annuaire Statistique
with displacement: Can ‘‘social protection’’ facilitate du Niger 2010-2014 : Consommation et conditions de
long-term adaptation to climate change? Global vie
Environmental Change, 20, pp. 648–655 ; FAO 18 Niger National Office for Statistics, Annuaire Statistique
(2016) Migration, Agriculture and Rural Develop- du Niger 2010-2014 : Agriculture, élevage, pêche et
ment: Addressing the root causes of migration and forêt
harnessing its potential for development. 19 FEWSNET (2019) Assessment of Chronic Food Insecu-
3 HDI (2018) Human Development Indices and Indicators: rity in Niger
2018 Statistical Update, Niger 20 Niger National Office for Statistics and Early Warning
4 Republic of Niger (2011) Study of household food secu- System Coordination Unit (2018) Joint assessment of
rity in Niger : Executive summary (French) vulnerability and food insecurity among households in
5 World Bank (2018) Groundswell: Preparing for Internal Niger (French)
Climate Migration, Policy note 1: Internal migration in 21 FEWSNET (2019) Assessment of Chronic Food Insecu-
sub-saharan Africa. rity in Niger
6 Brooks, N. (2006) Climate change, drought and pasto- 22 FEWSNET (2019) Assessment of Chronic Food Insecu-
ralism in the Sahel, Discussion note for the World Initi- rity in Niger; ACF, Transhumant movements in Niger
ative on Sustainable Pastoralism 2015-2016 (French); Mainet, G. (1965) Breeding in the
7 OCHA (2018) 2019 Humanitarian Needs Overview: Maradi region (French)
Niger 23 OXFAM, SCUK and ACF (2008) Transhumance and
8 IOM (2017) The Atlas of Environmental Migration Transition: Report on a household economy survey of
9 Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (2018) pastoral and agro-pastoral Fulani in Dakoro District,
Summary for policymakers of the thematic assessment Niger
of land degradation and restoration 24 FEWSNET (2019) Niger, Perspectives on food security
10 World Population Review (2019) Africa Population from June 2019 to January 2020 (French)
11 ODI and UNDP (2017) Climate change, migration 25 Niger National Office for Statistics and Early Warning
and displacement: the need for a risk-informed and System Coordination Unit (2018) Joint assessment of
coherent approach; Jacobson, C., Crevelllo, S., Chea, vulnerability and food insecurity among households in
C. and Jarihani, B. (2018) When is migration a mala- Niger (French)
daptive response to climate change? Regional Environ- 26 WFP (2015) School meals in Niger
mental Change. 27 Mainet, G. (1965) Breeding in the Maradi region
12 Jacobson, C., Crevelllo, S., Chea, C. and Jarihani, B. (French); World Weather Online (2019) Maradi Weather
(2018) When is migration a maladaptive response to History
climate change? Regional Environmental Change ; 28 World Bank, Climate Knowledge Portal
Betts, A. (2010) Survival migration: new protection 29 Ibid.
framework. Global Governance, 16(3), pp.361-382 30 Republic of Niger (2011) Enquête sur la sécurité alimen-
13 Johnson, C.A. and Krishnamurthy, K. (2010) Dealing taire des ménages au Niger: Résumé exécutif
with displacement: Can ‘‘social protection’’ facilitate 31 Demographic Dividend, Niger
long-term adaptation to climate change? Global 32 FEWSNET (2019) Assessment of Chronic Food Insecu-
Environmental Change, 20, pp. 648– 655; FAO rity in Niger
(2016) Migration, Agriculture and Rural Develop- 33 Ibid.
ment: Addressing the root causes of migration and 34 Mainet, G. (1965) Breeding in the Maradi region
harnessing its potential for development. (French)
14 Watts, N. et al (2017) The Lancet Countdown on health 35 OXFAM, SCUK and ACF (2008) Transhumance and
and climate change: from 25 years of inaction to a Transition: Report on a household economy survey of
global transformation for public health pastoral and agro-pastoral Fulani in Dakoro District,
15 Johnson, C.A. and Krishnamurthy, K. (2010) Dealing Niger ; UNDRR, DesInventar

Breaking the cycle of distress migration in Niger 21

36 Niger National Office for Statistics and Early Warning 53 FEWSNET (2019) Assessment of Chronic Food Insecu-
System Coordination Unit (2018) Joint assessment of rity in Niger
vulnerability and food insecurity among households in 54 World Bank (2016) Confronting Drought in Africa’s
Niger (French) Drylands: Opportunities for Enhancing Resilience.
37 Jacobson, C., Crevelllo, S., Chea, C. and Jarihani, B. Africa Development Forum series
(2018) When is migration a maladaptive response to 55 Ibid.
climate change? Regional Environmental Change ; 56 World Bank (2016) Confronting Drought in Africa’s
Betts, A. (2010) Survival migration: new protection Drylands: Opportunities for Enhancing Resilience.
framework. Global Governance, 16(3), pp.361-382 Africa Development Forum series
38 Association pour la Redynamisation de l’Élevage au 57 Republic of Niger (2019) Law relative to protection and
Niger AREN assistance for internally displaced people (French)
39 OCHA (2018) 2019 Humanitarian Needs Overview: 58 FAO (2003) Food aid and livelihoods: challenges and
Niger opportunities in complex emergencies
40 OXFAM, SCUK and ACF (2008) Transhumance and 59 Interview with the secretary general of Azagor
Transition: Report on a household economy survey of 60 Oxfam, Cash for work in Niger: helping fight future
pastoral and agro-pastoral Fulani in Dakoro District, drought
Niger 61 De Sardan, J. P., Hamani, O., Issaley, N., Issa, Y.,
41 Early Warning System Coordination Unit (2018) Sheet Amadou, H. and Oumarou, I. Cash transfers in Niger:
for the identification of vulnerable areas the manna, the norms and the suspicions
42 Bonfiglioli, A. M. (1990) Pastoralisme, agro-pastoral- 62 Interview with Maradi’s regional director for agriculture
isme et retour: itinéraires sahéliens 63 WFP, Cash-based transfers and commodity vouchers
43 Ibid. 64 ODI and UNDP (2017) Climate change, migration
44 Early Warning System Coordination Unit (2018) Sheet and displacement: the need for a risk-informed and
for the identification of vulnerable areas: Commune coherent approach
of Aguie, Maradi 65 Jacobson, C., Crevelllo, S., Chea, C. and Jarihani, B.
45 FEWSNET (2019) Assessment of Chronic Food Insecu- (2018) When is migration a maladaptive response to
rity in Niger climate change? Regional Environmental Change.
46 OXFAM, SCUK and ACF (2008) Transhumance and 66 ODI and UNDP (2017) Climate change, migration
Transition: Report on a household economy survey of and displacement: the need for a risk-informed and
pastoral and agro-pastoral Fulani in Dakoro District, coherent approach
Niger 67 Population Reference Bureau (2014) Migration and the
47 Early Warning System Coordination Unit (2018) Sheet Environment
for the identification of vulnerable areas 68 Johnson, C.A. and Krishnamurthy, K. (2010) Dealing
48 Oxfam, ICRC and VSF-B (2011) Opération de with displacement: Can ‘‘social protection’’ facilitate
Déstockage au Niger: leçons apprises en 2010 long-term adaptation to climate change? Global
49 Maman, N. and Mason, S. (2013) Poultry manure and Environmental Change, 20, pp. 648– 655; FAO
inorganic fertilizer to improve pearl millet yield in Niger; (2016) Migration, Agriculture and Rural Develop-
International Food Policy Research Institute (1995) ment: Addressing the root causes of migration and
Population and food in the early twenty-first century: harnessing its potential for development.
Meeting future food demand for an increasing popu-
lation
50 AGRA and OFRA (2018) Optimization of fertilizer
recommendations in Niger
51 World Bank, Fertilizer consumption
52 Smart Water Magazine (2019) Drought-tolerant crops
to contribute to food security in Namibia; Barenbrug,
Drought tolerant water saver grass in desert Saudi
Arabia ; BioInnovate Africa, Bio-enhanced seeds:
creating the next generation of seeds

22 THEY CALL IT EXODUS

The Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC) is the leading source of information and
analysis on internal displacement worldwide. Since 1998, our role has been recognised and endorsed
by United Nations General Assembly resolutions. IDMC is part of the Norwegian Refugee Council
(NRC), an independent, non-governmental humanitarian organisation.

The Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre www.internal-displacement.org

3 rue de Varembé, 1202 Geneva, Switzerland www.facebook.com/InternalDisplacement
+41 22 552 3600 | [email protected] www.twitter.com/IDMC_Geneva