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TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

Professor Bruce Fortado
MAN 4301/6305
University of North Florida

An Instructional System is composed of (1) Problem Diagnosis (Performance Analysis, Need

Analysis or Skills Gapping), (2) Program Design, (3) Program Delivery, and (4) Program
Evaluation.
The systems approach gives important impetus to the establishment of objectives and
evaluation criteria. A small pilot test may be conducted to validate the program before it is fully
implemented (Dessler, 2009: 162). Training/development is never a finished product. There are
always continued revisions to meet goals, situations change, and goals also change. It should be kept
in mind that there may be a "sleeper effect" where it takes time for results to show up back on the
job. One also does not know how long the impact will last. Interest in training and development has
risen due to the need for a wider array of skills, awareness of the entire production system, the need
to be responsive to mishaps, changing customer needs, interest in building clusters of internal team
experts, more vocal concern over employment security, career growth, and retraining costs.
An Institutional System

Assessment Phase Training & Development Phase Evaluation

Phase

Assess
instructional
need

Develop criteria
Derive
Objective
Select training
media and learning
principle

Pretest trainees

Conduct training

Monitor training

Evaluate training

Evaluate transfer

Note: There are many other instructional-system models for military, business and educational systems. Some of the components of this
model were suggested by other systems. Taken from I. L. Goldstein (1986). Improving the Effectiveness of Performance Appraisal, in
Perpectives on Personnel/ Human Resource Management, H. G. Heneman III and D. P. Schwab (eds.), 212-218. Homewood, IL: Irwin.
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HR Training and Development Methods

Employee Orientation (Onboarding) = Basic background information is provided. The history of the
organization, culture and the basics of various HR subjects are covered. The aim is to make the
employee feel welcome, provide a general understanding of the organization, and start to socialize
them with regard to the policies and procedures (how one should act) (Dessler, 2011: 142)

Job Instruction = The trainer explains the job in its proper sequence and demonstrates how it should
be done. The trainee tries to replicate the methods, and receives feedback from the trainer.

Coaching (Understudy Method) = On a day-to-day basis the manager notes what the employee is
doing properly and improperly. The trainer should provide advice on how the trainee can do his/her
job more easily and effectively. Some supervisors, however, are reluctant to challenge or criticize.

Informal Learning (The Buddy System) = Employees learn much from peers. Surveys have found as
much as 80% of what employees learn on the job, they learn informally (Dessler, 2011: 148).

Project Teams (Action Learning) = A temporary team, often consisting of people from different
areas or functions, that works on real projects (Dessler, 2011: 156). The results are taught to others.

Mentoring = A figure who is often 8 to 15 years older, and 2 or 3 levels above provides career
advice, hints on how to tackle problems, and demonstrates interpersonal/political skills by example.
The trainee often picks up the mentor's friends and enemies (i.e. "guilt by association"). The process
should be monitored so the trainee is not exploited (e.g. the mentor taking credit for his/her ideas).

Apprenticeship = This normally involves craft positions (plumbers, carpenters, electricians, linemen,
etc.). It normally lasts 2 to 5 years (the average being four years). It primarily involves on the job
training under the direction of an experienced person. It also frequently has a classroom component.
The skilled workmen may want to limit the number of new craftsmen to further their own interests.
A client may be charged the craftsman's rate despite the fact a trainee did some of the work.

Business (Management) Games = Simulations of what it is like to make top management decisions.
When I was in college, I took a course that utilized a software package that simulated an industry
with four to six competitors. On a weekly basis thirty decisions had to be submitted (product price,
quantities to be manufactured, wage rates, staffing levels, distribution by region, advertising,
inventory levels, debt levels, the amount of stock outstanding, production capacity, etc.). Ideally, this
would show students how all the varied functions fit together. Each organization was represented by
a team of 5 to 6 students. These students were selected from different disciplinary backgrounds.
The students had to organize themselves. The students' grades were determined by their finish (stock
price, dividends, etc.). Board meetings were held with students from other industries so the team
could explain their strategy and get new ideas. Political fights did break out in the team discussions
due to the composition of the groups and the stakes involved. Some students attempted to spy on
other groups. A key question is where does the economic information within the simulation come
from? Does the data reflect current realities, or does it foster outdated thinking?
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Case Studies = Trainees are given in-depth descriptions (5 to 30 pages) of the experiences of
disguised organizations. This allows them to see the experiences of numerous managers in a short
period of time. Hopefully, the trainees will not repeat the same mistakes as the characters in the
case. The case, however, is pre-gathered information. Therefore, the trainees do not practice
researching problems. They do normally try to analyze the given information, diagnose problems,
and pose solutions (Dessler, 2011: 156). They never see an actual implementation, nor have a
chance to enact revisions. Essentially, the middle stages of handling problems are stressed, while the
initial and final steps are left out. If groups analyze cases, and grades are at stake, aspects such as
social loafing and political infighting may emerge.

Discussion Method (Incident Method) = Short controversial scenarios (one to three pages), like "An
Exam for Mrs. Smith," are used to spark discussion. There are no "right answers." One can learn
from the experiences of others, and should come to better appreciate others' views. The trainee
should also develop his/her analytic skills and management style. Some people who long for exact
answers dislike the disorganized and open-ended nature of these discussions. This method can only
be effectively carried out in small groups. The nature of the feedback needs to be monitored ("Well,
in my company we had a different experience" versus "No, you are wrong. That would never work.")

In-basket Exercises = The trainee is given a stack of memos, phone messages and letters. In the
upcoming time frame (one week), the person has too much to do. Therefore, the problems must be
prioritized. Time management must be exercised. In some cases, responses must be drafted. If the
material is really job related, this can be a very useful developmental tool.

Sensitivity Training (T-groups) [Ropes Course, Outward Bound Program, Team Building] = This
method is intended to change interpersonal relationships. A series of somewhat bizarre exercises
will be carried out. The trainee will then discuss the experiences with the other participants (group
analysis). Later, the trainee will put his/her reflections in writing (self analysis). These multiple
analytic processes are intended to give the trainees greater insight into the behavior of others and
themselves. Ideally, it will build greater understanding and tolerance. People should be able to
develop new ways of interacting. Attitudes are quite likely to change. One must beware the damage
that can be done by inappropriate feedback. When people bare their innermost thoughts, they can be
really hurt if a person says "That's stupid," or the like. This technique can only be properly carried
out in small group. It is obviously not being properly done if people rush from exercise to exercise
with little group analysis or personal reflection. A tradeoff exists. If you do the exercises with
people from your workplace, they will have greater difficulty opening up. Yet, changes are more
likely to transfer back to work. Conversely, if one's superior does not become more "sensitive," it is
unlikely any of that person's subordinates will sustain much of the changed behavior they initially
display. This method was more popular in the 1960s than it is today (Dessler, 2011: 161).

Lecture = The most common training method. This is an economical way to convey information to
large numbers of trainees with a small number of trainers. The amount of content for the time
consumed is generally very high. Normally, this consists of a simple one-way presentation of
information. The lack of social interaction and individualized material is a drawback. The extensive
usage of lectures sometimes results in boredom. The lack of reinforcement and the ability to practice
can pose problems in skill training.
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Programmed Instruction (Auto Instructional Techniques) = Modules like the SRA reading program
and computer software packages (CDs, Web sites, Learning Portals, etc.) that promote self paced
learning. There is a question, respond, and feedback cycle (Dessler, 2005: 278). Ideally, this method
will be challenging and individualized. Computers and modules do not get impatient. Travel time to
human presentations is eliminated. Advocates assert the same amount of material can be learned in
one-third the time. The immediate feedback the employee can receive from self-tests, and the
branching the software programs provide to locate the person's level and build him/her up from there
are a plus. Unfortunately, trainees may cheat on the self tests. Why? They may want to impress or
keep up with peers in classroom situations. The lack of social interaction raises questions about
whether critical interpersonal skills are being neglected. Overall, the costs of the manuals or
software can be compared to the benefits of accelerated learning (Dessler, 2005: 279)

Role Playing = Simulations where the trainees learn by doing. They carry out their prescribed roles
and in the process develop their interpersonal skills. I use this method in the negotiations classes I
teach. It is far more interesting and involving than a simple lecture format. Some of the exercises
have superiors and subordinates switch roles so they can better understand each other (i.e. put
oneself in the other's shoes). In any event, you should get feedback on what you are doing well and
what you are doing poorly from your counterparts. Since people can become very competitive,
bluff, lie, etc, one needs to monitor the process to make sure things do not get out of hand.

Behavioral Modeling = First, the trainees are exposed to "model behavior." After observing, they
practice the techniques, get feedback as well as praise, and make revisions. This training should then
be transferred back to the job (Dessler, 2011: 150). For instance, some of my former students have
received videotapes of top salespeople closing deals. By mimicking these methods, consistency is
fostered. New recruits can pick up proven methods and feel more confident in doing their jobs. You
are naturally going to lose some individuality and creativity. One of my former students argued that
after you pick up the fundamentals, you can add your own personal ideas.

Vestibules/Simulators = Train on the same or at least similar equipment in order to learn how to
operate planes, ships, or autos. You should have an opportunity to practice, sequenced learning,
knowledge of results and reinforcement. It is costly to build realistic simulators. Those used in the
military are great, whereas most auto simulators are lame. The investment is justified where the cost
of an accident is high in terms of lives, material and bad publicity. Some of the military simulators
are so sophisticated it is possible to use them for other purposes, such as tracing the reasons for
accidents. A simulator saves on maintenance costs, pilot cost, fuel cost, and the cost of not having a
plane or ship in regular service. Video game simulations have even been created by the US Army to
develop urban warfare skills (Dessler, 2005: 282).

Common Concerns and Suggestions for Improvement

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(1) A lack of ongoing measurement and revision has long been a major problem. A Hay
Associates study found that fewer than 1 in 100 (a sample of 1200 major firms) even claimed to
assess the millions spent on training (Sonnenfeld, 1985: 295). Another study of training and
development directors that revealed 75% had no formal methods to evaluate their activities.

Do many people use a “quasi experimental design” with pretests and post-tests as well as
a test group and a control group? One survey found less than half of the companies responding
used before and after measures and only a negligible number utilized control groups (Dessler,
2005: 299). Ideally, the desired outcomes should be linked to the organization’s mission and the
objectives based on this. Currently, only 10-35% of are transferring what they learned to their
jobs one year after their training was conducted (Dessler, 2011: 162).

Good intentions and large sums of money do not necessarily equal good education. What are
some possible evaluation criteria?

- knowledge acquisition
- changing attitudes
- problem solving skills
- interpersonal skills
- participant acceptance (trainees’ reactions- enjoyment?)
- knowledge retention
- knowledge transfer

One might simplify this to considering measures of participant reactions, what was learned, changed
behaviors, and end results (Dessler, 2005: 299). Still, people are reluctant to criticize a program the
boss is associated with, or one that will help them move up (Wexley and Latham, 1991: 278).

A study of 100 firms who have tried to evaluate found 75% measured employee reactions, 20%
behavior changes, and 15% results in terms of supervisory ratings. Evidently only a few measures
are being examined, and the most popular is "employee acceptance" which is the hardest to properly
interpret. Trainee reactions do not tell you much about what they learned or how it will transfer back
to the way they will behave at work. Using a narrow spectrum of measurement could easily produce
deceptive results.

(2) Big ticket training involves a very real risk that you will become the talent supplier for your
competitors. Firms with good training programs may well attract better candidates. The question is
whether they retain most of them and recoup their training investment. Competitors may feel it is
best to let others do the training and then they can skim off the cream. One would certainly want to
monitor turnover rates, who was leaving (your best or your worst), and explore "string options" to
hold people long enough to make it worthwhile (e.g. you must stay on X years, or you can not go to
a direct competitor for Y years).

(3) Some consultants or outside trainers may be more interested in delivering their "tried and true"
program than in sensing the organization's needs. A key question is whether the trainer is
supplying his/her own limited knowledge or what the organization really wants and needs.
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Managers must beware of trainers who become "instant experts" to obtain jobs (your money). Ask
the trainer what his/her area of expertise is before mentioning the specific project you have in mind.
Try to find some former clients to check on the trainer's prior work.

(4) One should not send mixed or improper signals. Ideally, training should produce improved
performance that will be reinforced via subsequent rewards. Trainees should certainly not be
punished for performing more work. Yet, this often happens when added work is dumped on the
desks of the most capable and hard working subordinates, while the deadwood sits idly by. Why
learn new skills if it will only result in a further exaggeration of an already inequitable situation?

(5) One needs to try to strike the right balance. Utilizing a variety of training methods is usually
praised as being stimulating. Nevertheless, some employees may be confused or feel overwhelmed
by the unfamiliar waters. People learn in different ways and at different speeds. It is obviously
easier to properly design material and appropriately pace programs in smaller classes.

(6) Efforts can be made to enhance the meaningfulness of programs. Some trainees criticize
training as being unrealistic in that they cannot apply it on their jobs. Some trainers are also not
actual practitioners, or have been removed from the field for such a long period that they have little
useful knowledge to convey. A few organizations have addressed these concerns by periodically
rotating in experienced people from the field to conduct training programs. For example, IBM
rotates in some of their best salespeople to conduct its sales training classes. While the
meaningfulness of the material and participant acceptance should be enhanced, there are still some
concerns. Just because a person is a good salesperson does not necessarily make him/her a good
trainer. Is the person interested in training? Is the person a capable trainer? Will the person be
willing to convey all of the tricks of the trade it took him/her years to discover? Is the person
essentially training competitors? Of course, as one nears retirement, such concerns may be
alleviated. Other issues must also be considered, such as who will service the person's accounts in
the interim, and will the person be losing money by foregoing his/her sales commissions?

We will conclude with a list of Human Resource Development Principles. Many of these principles
were mentioned in the discussion above. These are important factors to consider in each situation.

* Distributed Learning = conducting the program over a long enough period of time for the trainees
to be able to digest and apply the material (not trying to do too much, too fast).

* Rewards = The trainees should be able to see what is in it for them (praise, recognition,
promotion, etc.).

* Feedback = Trainees need to know what progress they are making and what mistakes need
correction.

* Motivation = Trainees must want to learn. Some people do not believe it is very easy to motivate
people. If so, you better pick people who are already motivated.

* Transfer = The training should apply to the job activities.

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* Opportunity to Practice = Trainees should be able to try the techniques they are being taught in
order to make these methods part of their repertoire.

* Learning from Many Sources = This heightens the probability you will get the material through by
(a) hitting the mode the person computes on, and (b) providing a broad base for the points being
made which provides helpful reinforcement.

* Individual Differences = The trainee's intelligence, motivation, aptitudes and interests should be
taken into account.

REFERENCES

Dessler, G. (2011). A Framework for Human Resource Management, Sixth Edition. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Goldstein, I. L. (1986). A Systematic Approach to Training. In H. G. Heneman and D. P. Schwab

(eds), Perspectives on Personnel/Human Resource Management, pp. 212-18. Homewood, Il:
Irwin.

Sonnenfeld, J. (1985). Education at Work: Demystifying the Magic of Training. In R. E. Walton

and P. R. Lawrence (eds), HRM Trends and Challenges, pp. 285-317. Boston, MA: Harvard
Business School Press.

Wexley, K. M. and Latham, G. P. (1991). Developing and Training Human Resources in

Organizations. New York: Harper Collins.