Department of Environmental Sci.

& Technology, ITM University, Gwalior

Unit-II: Natural Resources Management

INTRODUCTION: A resource can be defined as any material that can be transformed into a more
valuable and useful product or service. Ever since his appearance on earth, man has been dependent on the
resources that nature provides. While air, water, soil, minerals, wind, solar energy and so on are non-living
or abiotic resources of nature, plants, animals and other organisms are biotic or living forms of natural
resources.

Everything that nature provides has some utility for mankind but its utilization is possible only with the help
of appropriate technology. For example, coal and mineral oil have been present beneath the earth’s surface
for centuries but earlier we had no technology to help us make proper use of them. Thus, naturally found
materials can be converted into a natural resource only after a suitable technology is discovered for its
utilization and conversion to a more valuable product. Therefore, depending on the origin, natural resources
are either biotic or abiotic. Similarly, based on availability and utility, natural resources may be classified
into renewable resources and non-renewable resources.

Natural Resources: Classification

Physical resources are useful materials present in the earth and the atmosphere as a source of energy. This
involves rocks, land and soil, water and energy. These provides us the rocks , water , land, soil within
them and provide us with all sorts of useful materials - such as building stones, metals and raw materials for
countless different chemicals. Rocks can also contain water, and energy in the form of fossil fuels and
nuclear fuels. Today’s inorganic world also provides other sources of energy not contained in rocks .
Among these are sunlight, wind, waves and tides.
Biological resource: Forests, a range of agriculture lands, fisheries, wildlife; rare, threatened and
endangered species of plants and animal species constitute biological resources. Each shares unique
problems and a unique management history but all share important characteristics. While biological
resources are essential for the growing human population and less than adequate management practices lead
a loss of biological diversity and a decrease in the productive capacity of the biosphere. Biological resources
are renewable but vulnerable. They provided food, fuel, fodder and many economically useful materials.

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Natural Resources: Classification

Physical Resources
1. Land and Soil
2. Water
3. Energy
4. Mineral

Biological Resources
5. Forest Resources
6. Grassland Resources
7. Livestock Resources
8. Fisheries and other Aquatic Resources

Water Resources (availability, quality, water budget):

Water is one of our most precious resources. It is more abundant than anything else; it is virtually the only
natural inorganic liquid which occurs as gas, liquid and solid; it has a remarkably high solvent power, and it
is the source of all life on earth. Large volumes of water are being consumed in agriculture and industry, and
domestic and municipal use also imposes a further demand on this resources.
Water is, literally, the source of life on earth. It is the major constituent of the hydrosphere that consists of
the oceans, seas, rivers, streams, glaciers, lakes, reservoirs, polar ice caps and the shallow ground-water
bodies that interflow with the surface water. Approximately 70.8% of the earth’s surface is covered with
water mainly in the form of oceans. It is estimated that the hydrosphere contains about 1,360 million cubic
km of water. Of this about 97% is in the oceans and inland seas, where the high soil content does not permit
its use for human consumption. About 2% of the water resource is locked in the glaciers and ice caps, while
the rest (less than 1%) is available as fresh water, for human consumption and other uses, in surface water
sources (such as rivers, streams, lakes and reservoirs) and ground water sources.
The total stock of ocean water and fresh water has been fairly constant throughout geological history. But
the ratio between ocean water and fresh water has always changed according to climatic conditions. When
the climate is very cold, much of the sea water is absorbed by glaciers and ice caps and fresh water increases
at the expense of the sea water. When the climate is hot, glaciers and ice caps melt and sea water gains at the
cost of fresh water. Sea level observations during the last ten decades or so indicate that the sea level is
rising slowly. This means, the global climate is getting warmer and warmer.
World water distribution
Location Volume, in million cubic km % of total
Land area

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Fresh water lakes 0.125 0.009

Saline lakes and inland seas 0.104 0.008
Rivers 1.25 ×10-3 0.0001
Soil moisture 0.067 0.005
Ground water 8.3 0.61
Glaciers and ice caps 29.2 2.14
Total land area water (approx.) 37.0 2.8
Atmosphere (as water vapour) 0.013 0.001
Oceans 1,320 97.3
Total world water (approx.) 1,360 100

Major Water Compartments

The distribution of water often is described in terms of interacting compartments in which water resides for
short or long times.

Oceans: Together, the oceans contain roughly 97 per cent of all the liquid water in the world. Over 90 per
cent of the world’s living biomass is contained in the oceans.
In tropical seas, surface waters are warmed by the sun, diluted by rain water and runoff from the land, and
aerated by wave action. In higher latitudes, surface waters are cold and much denser. This dense water
subsides or sinks to the bottom of deep ocean basins and flows towards the equator. Warm surface water of
the tropics stratifies or floats on top of this cold, dense water like cream on an unstirred cup of coffee.

Glaciers, Ice, and Snow: Of the three per cent of all water that is fresh, about three-fourths is tied up in
glaciers, ice caps, and snowfields. Glaciers are really rivers of ice flowing downhill very slowly. They now
occur only at high altitudes or high latitudes.
An ice sheet that is similar in thickness but much smaller in volume covers most of Greenland. There is no
landmass at the North Pole. A permanent ice pack made of floating sea ice covers much of the Arctic
Ocean. Although sea ice comes from ocean water, salt is excluded in freezing so the ice is mostly fresh
water.

Ground Water: After glaciers, the next largest reservoir of fresh water is held in the ground as ground
water. Precipitation that does not evaporate back into the air or run off over the surface percolates the soil
and into pores and hollows of permeable rocks in a process called infiltration. Upper soil layers that hold

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both air and water make up the zone of aeration. Lower soil layers where all spaces are filled with water
make up the zone of saturation. The top of this zone is the water table.
Porous, water-bearing layers of sand, gravel, and rock are called aquifers. Areas in which infiltration of
water into an aquifer occurs are called recharge zones.

Rivers and Streams: Precipitation that does not evaporate or infiltrate into the ground runs off over the
surface, drawn by the force of gravity back toward the sea. Rivulets accumulate to form streams, and
streams join to from rivers. Although the total amount of water contained at any one time in rivers and
streams is small compared to the other water reservoirs of the world, these surface waters are vitally
important to human and most other organisms. Most rivers, if they were not constantly replenished by
precipitation, meltwater from snow and ice, or seepage from groundwater, would begin to diminish in a few
weeks.
The best measure of the volume carried by a river is its discharge, the amount of water that passes a fixed
point in a given amount of time. This is usually expressed as liters or cubic feet of water per second.

Lakes and Ponds: Ponds are generally considered to be small temporary or permanent bodies of water
shallow enough for rooted plants to grow over most of the bottom. Lakes are inland depressions that hold
standing fresh water year-round.
While lakes contain nearly one hundred times as much water as all rivers and streams combined, they are
still a minor component of total world water supply.

Wetlands: Bogs, swamps, wet meadows, and marches play a vital and often unappreciated role in the
hydrological cycle. When wetlands are distributed, their natural water absorbing capacity is reduced and
surface waters run off quickly, resulting in floods and erosion during the rainy season and dry, or nearly dry,
stream beds the rest of the year.

The atmosphere: The atmosphere is among the smallest of the major water reservoirs of the earth in terms
of water volume, containing less than 0.001 per cent of the total water supply. It also has the most rapid
turnover rate.

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Water Budget: India’s water budget shows that if average annual rainfall of entire country and its total area
are taken the total water resources are of the order of 167 million hectare meters. Only 66 million hectare
meters of water can be utilized by us for irrigation. By 1951 only 9.7 million hectare metre of water was
used for irrigation, by 1973 as much as 18.4 million ha metres.

Agriculture sector is the major use of water for irrigation. It is at present nearly 40%, that may go up to
73%. Irrigation use is very sufficient 25-30% efficiency and methods of irrigation are to be changed
drastically. From the following data on water use it is clear that irrigation (including for livestock) and
power use is 79.6% and 13.7% water respectively. It is followed by domestic (3.5%) and industrial (3.3%)
uses.

Uses Taken Consumed Returned

Irrigation 869 783 86

Power 150 5 145

Industry 35 10 25

Domestic 38 8 30
1092 806 286

Following table water use (India) 2000 00(available water 1900 million cubic metre per year).

Water Conservation: However this resource is generally renewable but is subject to abuse and misuse.
Most of our water problems, however, are not those of quantity or even necessarily of quality, but are rather
caused by our way of thinking and attitudes. If man learns to live with man, not on a competitive but a
cooperative basis, the water problem, like many other ecological problems, could be solved.
Most of the water from the rivers goes into the sea. Monsoon rains, floods and wanton tree falling,
wash valuable nutrients in the soil into the sea. The Ganga river system drains about one quarter of India’s
land area. It is estimated that if properly cultivated and developed, this area could grow crops to feed the
world.
Drinking water becomes doubly important in a developing country because it serves as a source of
micronutrients that are so essential for good health. Deficiency or excess of the essential trace elements can
cause disorders.
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The use of wells to develop groundwater supplies can in some instances be an economical
alternative to dams and surface reservoirs for the purpose of flow regulation and storage.
As with so many other resources problems, close examination of the water situation suggests that the most
economical and environmentally benign way to increase supplies at all, is to rather to reduce consumption
by more efficient use.

The strategies for sustainable water management would include interventions such as:
Rainwater harvesting for ground water recharge to stabilize drinking water and irrigation wells in the
dry land areas.
Water harvesting structures in canal irrigated areas to improve the ground water percolation.
Rehabilitation of irrigation tanks especially rain fed tanks through Kudimaramath.
Renovation of Village Ponds, Temple Tanks, and other traditional storages through Kudimaramath.
Scientific use of water in canal irrigated areas and reduction of water loss.
Introduction of water saving irrigation methods like Drip and Sprinkler irrigation on a large scale.
Construction of community wells to promote conjunctive use of surface and ground water.

Water Resources Management Organizations

In India Central and corresponding state organizations concerned with specific aspect of water resources
management are as follows:
1. Central Water Commission - Surface Water
2. Central Ground Water Board - Ground Water
3. Indian Meteorological Department- Precipitation
4. Central Pollution Control Board- Water Quality
5. Ministry of Agriculture and ICAR- Water use for agriculture
6. Department of Environment, forests and wildlife (Ministry of Environment and Forests)-
Environment Impact of Assessment
7. Central Public Health and Environmental Engineering (Ministry of Urban Development)-
Water supplies sanitation and sewage disposal
8. Department of Power - Hydro-electric power
9. Department of Forests - Watershed management

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Unfortunately, none of these agencies Central Water Commission gave much priority to water conservation.
Like land and forests, Water is a State subject. State Govt., may enforce legislations for surface and
subsurface. Union Govt. is empowered for making laws in interstate areas and river valleys in public
interest. There are a number of such laws on irrigation water, flood control, field channels.

Mineral Resources (distribution, availability and future perspectives):

Mineral

Introduction: Mineral resources are non-renewable, as the rate of their regeneration is slower than the arte
at which they are used. Minerals include chemical elements, inorganic compounds, complex aggregation of
elements and compounds (e.g., iron is element, asbestos is a mixture of compounds). Deposits of minerals
that have been identified and are recoverable are called mineral reserves. It is possible to extend life of
mineral reserves by searching new deposits, mining sea, using recycled materials, finding substitutes,
improving extraction of minerals.

The mineral utilization has two major problems: (i) how to reduce the amount of energy required to extract
minerals? (ii) several environmental problems are related to mineral utilization. Pollution of air and water,
and damage of land are major environmental problems associated with processes involved in mining- viz.,
extraction, processing, transportation, fabrication and discarding.

Using recycled materials has many advantages including: (i) energy saving, (ii) less pollution, (iii) less
mining wastes and, (iv) decreased water use. Recycling is easy when products are basically made of one
mineral, such as aluminum or steel. But most products have more than one mineral and separating one from
other is difficult.

Mineral Aggregates

As much of the mineral aggregate resources as is realistically possible will be made available to supply
mineral resource needs, as close to markets as possible.

Mineral aggregate operations will be protected from activities that would preclude or hinder their expansion
or continued use or which would be incompatible for reasons of public health, public safety or

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environmental impact. Existing mineral aggregate operations will be permitted to continue without the need
for official plan amendment, rezoning or development permit under the Planning Act.

In areas adjacent to or in known deposits of mineral aggregates, development which would preclude or
hinder the establishment of new operations or access to the resources will only be permitted if:

a. resource use would not be feasible; or

b. the proposed land uses or development serves a greater long term public interest; and
c. issues of public health, public safety and environmental impact are addressed.

Wayside pits and quarries and portable asphalt plants used on public authority contracts will be permitted,
without the need for official plan amendment, rezoning, or development permit under the Planning Act in all
areas, except those areas of existing development or particular environmental sensitivity which have been
determined to be incompatible with extraction and associated activities.
Progressive rehabilitation to accommodate subsequent land uses will be required.

In prime agricultural areas, on prime agricultural land, extraction of mineral aggregates is permitted as an
interim use provided that rehabilitation of the site will be carried out whereby substantially the same areas
and same average soil quality for agriculture are restored.

On these prime agricultural lands, complete agricultural rehabilitation is not required if:

a. there is a substantial quantity of mineral aggregates below the water table warranting extraction; or
b. the depth of planned extraction in a quarry makes restoration of pre extraction agricultural capability
unfeasible; and
c. other alternatives have been considered by the applicant and found unsuitable1; and
d. agricultural rehabilitation in remaining areas will be maximized.

Non-Metallic Minerals: These minerals do not contain metal content. Sulphur, phosphates and nitrates are
examples of non-metallic minerals. Cement is a mixture of non-metallic minerals.

Uses and Exploitation of Minerals:

The mineral resources can be divided into several broad categories, depending on their use, such as elements
for metal production and technology, building materials, minerals for the chemical industry, and minerals
for agriculture. When we think about mineral resources we oftenly think of metals, but, with the exception

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of iron, the predominant mineral resources are not metallic. When we consider the annual world
consumption of a few selected elements, the following pictures emerges:

Sodium and iron are used at a rate of about 0.1 to 1.0 billion metric tons per year;
Nitrogen, sulphur, potassium and calcium are used at a rate of about 10 to 100 million metric tons
per year, primarily as fertilizers;
Zinc, copper, aluminium, and lead are used at a rate of about 3 to 10 million metric tons per year;
Gold and silver are used at a rate of about 10 thousand metric tons per year or even less; and
Of all the metallic minerals, iron makes up 95% of all the metals consumed.

Thus, with the exception of iron, the non-metallic minerals are consumed at much greater rates than are the
elements used for their metallic properties. Some of the important minerals, along with their uses, are listed
in Table 1.

Table.1 Important Minerals and their Uses

S.No. Mineral Uses

Metallic
1. Aluminium Building materials, electrical wiring, utensils, aircraft, rockets

2. Beryllium Refractories, copper alloys

3. Chromium Refractory, metallurgy, chemicals

4. Cobalt Alloys, radiography, catalyst, therapeutics

5. Columbium Stainless steel, nuclear reactors

6. Copper Alloys, electrical products

7. Gold Monetary purposes, jewellery, dentistry

8. Iron Steel, building materials, numerous industrial uses

9. Lead Batteries, paints, alloys, public health fittings, gasoline

10. Magnesium Structural refractories

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11. Manganese Alloy Steels, disinfectants

12. Molybdenum Alloy steels

13. Nickel Used in over 3,000 alloys

14. Thorium Nuclear bombs, electricity generation

15. Tin Soldering, chemicals, tin plates

16. Tungsten Alloys, chemicals

17. Titanium Alloys, pigments, aircraft

18. Uranium Nuclear bombs, electricity generation, tinting glass

19. Vanadium Alloys

20. Zinc Galvanizing, chemicals, soldering, die-casting

Non-Mettalic
21. Asbestos Roofing, insulation, ceramics, textiles, gasoline, solid propellants

22. Corrundum Abrasives

23. Felspar Ceramic flux, artificial teeth

24. Fluospar Flux, refrigerants, propellants, acid

25. Nitrates Fertilizers, chemicals

26. Phosphates Fertilizers, chemicals

27. Potassium Fertilizers, chemicals

28. Salt Chemicals, glass, metallurgy

29. Sulphur Fertilizers, acid, iron and steel industry

Distribution of Mineral Resources:

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The finite stock of minerals on earth is non-renewable; and not only that, the geographical distribution of
essential minerals is unequal.

India’s mineral resources arte sufficiently rich and varied to provide an adequate base for the industrial
development of the country. The position is especially enviable in ferrous based metallic minerals including
the ores of iron, manganese, chromite and titanium; and the high-grade refractories including magnesite,
kyanite and sillimanite. The reserves of nuclear energy minerals, mica and bauxite are also among the
largest in the world. India is not only self-sufficient in the production of these minerals but also export them.
The position is also satisfactory in coal, feldspar, limestone, fluoride, dolomite gypsum, precious and semi-
precious stones and gold. However, India’s reserves as well as production are inadequate in petroleum; non
ferrous metallic minerals including the ores of copper, lead, zinc, tin, graphite, tungsten and mercury; and
the mineral required in chemical fertilizer industry such as sulphur, phosphorus and potassium.

The geographical distribution of mineral resources is very uneven in India. Broadly, it can be said that with
few exceptions, the peninsular rocks east of a line from Mangalore to Kanpur have the major reserves of
metallic minerals, coal, mica and many other non-metallic minerals. The sedimentary rocks on the eastern
and western flanks of the peninsular formations in Assam and Gujarat respectively have most of the reserves
of petroleum; while Rajasthan, with the rock system of the peninsula, has reserves of many non-ferrous
minerals. Outside this area, most of the states including Jammu & Kashmir, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh,
Haryana, Uttaranchal, Tripura, Nagaland and Gangetic West Bengal are very poor in mineral resources.

Environmental Effects of Extracting and Using Mineral Resources:

The environmental effects of extracting and using mineral resources depend on such factors as ore quality,
mining procedures, local hydrological conditions, climate, rocks types, size of operation, topography and
several others related factors. The environmental impact varies with the stage of development of the
resource, viz., exploration, mining, processing and dereliction stages. For instance, exploration and testing
stages cause considerably less impact on environment than do the mining, processing and dereliction stages.
In addition, the use of mineral resources has a significant social impact.

The mining and processing of mineral resources usually have a considerable impact on land, water, air and
biological resources; they also have a social impact because of the increased demand for housing and
services in mining areas. Some of the major environmental impacts of mining and processing operations are:

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degradation of land.
pollution of surface and ground water resources due to the release of harmful trace elements
(cadmium, cobalt, copper, lead, and others) by leaching, even if drainage is controlled.
serious adverse impact on the growth of vegetation due to leaching out of trace elements and
minerals.
air pollution due to emission of dust and gases.
deforestation including loss of fauna and flora.
adverse impact on historical monuments and religious places.
physical changes in the land, soil, water and air associated with mining directly and indirectly affect
the biological environment: kills caused by mining activity or contact with toxic soil or water are
examples of direct impacts, whereas indirect impacts include changes in nutrient cycling, total
biomass, species diversity, and ecosystem stability due to alterations in groundwater or surface water
availability or quality.
accidental or periodic discharges of low-grade pollutants through failure of barriers, or water
diversions or through breach of barriers during earthquakes, floods, etc. also cause damage to local
ecological systems.
rehabilitation of affected population including tribals.

Social impacts associated with large-scale mining results from a rapid influx of workers into areas
unprepared for growth. This may cause:

stress on local services, such as water supplies, sewage and solid waste disposal systems, schools,
and housing;
land use shifts from open range, forest and agriculture to urban patterns.
increased stress on nearby recreation and wilderness area (some of which may be in a fragile
ecological balance) due to additional people.
construction activities and urbanization affect local streams/rivers through sedimentation, reduced
water quality and increased runoff.
air pollution due to more vehicles, dust from construction and generation power.

Dereliction (closing or abandoning mines, i.e. deserting and left to fall into ruin) results from the ruthless
exploitation of natural resources without consideration for the future. In fact, most dereliction is the result of
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thoughtless and uncontrolled mineral extraction and processing. Dereliction arises because mining operators
are unwilling to spend money on rehabilitation which will give them no direct financial return. The harmful
effects of dereliction include:

waste of agricultural and industrial land.

ugliness.
health and accidental hazards: land over underground mines may subside, causing houses to
collapse or creating hummocky ground unsuitable for any use and often full of pools of polluted
water.
shafts that are not filled in may lead to accidents.
old quarries and open-cast pits may also be dangerous.
permanent damage to landscape.

Unlike biological resources, minerals are difficult to produce a sustainable yield because the supply is
infinite. Therefore, recycling and conservation can only help, but eventually the supply will be exhausted.

Conservation of Minerals:

The limited stock of minerals once exhausted cannot replenished, therefore, consumption of minerals needs
immediate attention. Following measures can be adopted to conserve the mineral resources.

1. Recycling. In recycling used and discarded items are collected, remelted and reprocessed into new
products e.g. iron scraps, aluminium cans, etc. Some minerals present in products can be recycled
e.g. gold, silver, lead, nickel, steel, copper, aluminium, zinc etc. However, minerals in other products
are lost through normal use, e.g. paints containing lead, zinc or chromium.
2. Reuse. Certain items can be controlled and can be used over and over again, e.g. reuse of glass
bottles. The reuse of items is more beneficial than their recycling. However, all products may not be
reused.

Recycling and reuse not only renew the mineral resources but also help in (a) saving unspoiled land
from the disruption of mining, (b) reducing the amount of solid waste that must be disposed and
reducing energy consumption and pollution.

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3. Substitution. The use of scarce minerals can be substituted with more abundant minerals keeping in
mind the environmental implications. For instance, in recent years, plastics, ceramics, high strength
glass fibres and alloys have been substituted for scarcer materials like steel, tin and copper in many
industries.
4. Decreased Consumption. To maintain the extended supply of minerals for a longer time,
consumers must decrease their mineral consumption by becoming a low waste society. Products that
are durable and repairable should be used again instead of discarding them as waste.
5. Use of Waste. The manufacturing industries may use the waste products of one manufacturing
process as the raw materials for another industry.

Mineral reserves: Mineral reserves are resources known to be economically feasible for extraction.
Reserves are either Probable Reserves or Proven Reserves. Generally the conversion of resources into
reserves requires the application of various modifying factors, including:

mining and geological factors, such as knowledge of the geology of the deposit sufficient that it is
predictable and verifiable; extraction and mine plans based on ore models; quantification of
geotechnical risk-basically, managing the geological faults, joints, and ground fractures so the mine
does not collapse; and consideration of technical risk-essentially, statistical and variography to
ensure the ore is sampled properly:
metallurgical factors, including scrutiny of assay data to ensure accuracy of the information supplied
by the laboratory-required because ore reserves are bankable. Essentially, once a deposit is elevated
to reserve status, it is an economic entity and an asset upon which loans and equity can be drawn-
generally to pay for its extraction at (hopefully) a profit;
economic factors;
environmental factors;
marketing factors;
legal factors;
governmental factors; and
social factors.

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Forest Resources

Forest Resources: "Forest resource" means the various types of vegetation normally growing on Oregon's
forestland, the associated harvested products and the associated residue, including but not limited to brush,
grass, logs, saplings, seedlings, trees and slashing. Forest resources and forest lands should be sustainably
managed to meet the social, economic, cultural and spiritual human needs of present and future generations.
These needs are for forest products and services, such as wood and -wood products, water, food, fodder,
medicine, fuel, shelter, employment, recreation, habitats for wildlife, landscape diversity, carbon sinks and
reservoirs, and for other forest products. Appropriate measures should be taken to protect forests against
harmful effects of pollution, including air-borne pollution, fires, pests and diseases in order to maintain their
full multiple values.

Forests are important renewable resources. A forest is a biotic community, predominantly of trees, shrubs or
any other woody vegetation usually with a closed canopy. Forest vary a great deal in composition and
density and are distinct from meadows and pastures. Forests contribute substantially to the economic
development of a country. They are the vast natural resources for man that have been providing a broad
array of commodities, amenities and environmental services. Fuel wood, timber, wildlife habitat, pasture for
livestock, industrial forest products, animal products, recreation, soil moisture retention, climate regulation,
production of atmospheric oxygen, a source of new agricultural or grazing land and spiritual renewable are a
few examples.

Forest Distribution
The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization
(FAO) estimates the world’s land area as of 1994 to be 30%
33%

144.8 million sq km (or about 29% of the surface of the

globe), of which forest and woodland account for 30%
(Fig. 2). The FAO defines forest and woodland as land
under natural or planted strands of trees, whether 11%
26%

productive or not, including land from which forests have

been cleared but which will be reforested in the near Other (like tundra, desert, bare rock, snow , etc.) Cropland Pasture Forest

future.
Fig.2. World land use distribution.

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Thousands of years ago, before large-scale human disturbances of the world began, forests and woodlands
probably covered nearly 6.0 billion hectares. Since, then, about 16% of that area has been converted to
cropland, pasture, settlements or unproductive wastelands. The FAO estimates the world’s area of forest and
woodland as 1994 to be about 4.7 billion hectares. About four-fifths of the forest is classified as ‘closed
canopy’ in which tree crowns spread over 20% or more of the ground and has potential for commercial
timber harvesting; and the rest is ‘open canopy’ forest or woodland, where tree crowns cover less then 20%
of the ground.
The distribution of the forest by region is shown in Fig.3. Russia, Canada and U.S.A. have vast areas of
temperate deciduous or boreal coniferous forests. Together with Brazil, these countries account for about
56% of all closed forests. South America and Central Asia have the largest remaining closed-canopy, broad
leaved, seasonal or deciduous tropical forests. Africa has the largest areas of open woodlands.

14%

33%
Africa
14% Europe
Latin America
North America
Asia
Former USSR
11%
3%

25%

Fig.3. World forest by region.

As per the State of Forest Report 1999, the total forest cover of India is 637,293 sq km which is 19.39% of
the total geographical area of the country. Out of this, dense forest (crown density more than 40%) accounts
for 11.48%, open forest (crown density 10 to 40%) represents 7.76%, while mangrove forest accupies

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0.15%. Scrub and no-forest are the other classes in the scheme of classification. Among the 16 different
forest types of the country, the most common is the tropical dry deciduous (38.7%), followed by tropical
moist deciduous (30.9%) and tropical thorn (6.9%) type. These three types of tropical deciduous forests
account for more than three-fourth (about 76.5%) of forest area in India. Nearly, 96% of the forests are
owned by the Government, 2.6% by corporate bodies and the rest are in private ownership.
Types of Forests in India
A. Moist Tropical Forests
1. Tropical Wet Evergreen- Western Ghats (Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala).
2. Tropical Semi-Evergreen- Lower hills of Western Ghats (Karnataka, Kerala).
3. Tropical Moist Deciduous- Dehradun, Mahabaleshwar and Eastern Ghats (Andhra Pradesh, Tamil
Nadu).
4. Littoral and Swamp Forests- Sundarbans, Bengal Delta, Andamans.
B. Dry Tropical Forests
5. Tropical Dry Deciduous- M.P, U.P.
6. Tropical Thorn Forest- Delhi, Punjab, Gujrat
7. Tropical Dry Evergreen- Eastern Ghats (AP, Tamil Nadu).
C. Montane Sub-Tropical Forests
8. Sub-Tropical Forests- Shilliong (Meghalaya), Nilgiris (Tamil Nadu).
9. Sub-Tropical Pine Forest- Arunanchal Pradesh, Kashmir.
10. Sub-tropical Dry Evergreen- Foothills of Himalayas.
D. Montane Temperate Forests
11. Montane Wet Temperate- Nilgiri, Palni Hills (Tamil Nadu).
12. Himalayan Wet Temperate- Assam, Himachal Pradesh.
13. Himalayan Dry Temperate- NW Kashmir.
E. Sub-Alpine Forests
14. Sub-Alpine- Ladakh, Sikkim.
F. Alpine Scrubs
15. Moist Alpine Scrub- High Himalayan.
16. Dry Alpine Scrub- Sikkim.

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Key Functions of Forests

More than 80% of biodiversity and nearly 50% of organic carbon in terrestrial vegetation (1200 Pg carbon;
Pg = petagram is 1015 gC are stored in forests of the world. About 170,000 plant species or two-third of all
plant species of the earth occurs in tropical forests alone (Noble and Dirzo 1997). Forests are precious
resources having both consumptive and non-consumptive uses and provide important environmental
services to mankind. These services originate from the following key functions of the forest:

(ii) Productive functions include production of wood, fruits and a wide variety of compounds, such
as resins, alkaloids, essential oils, latex, pharmaceuticals, etc. Apart from timber and firewood,
forests are sources of numerous non-timber forest products (NTFPs) including resin, dye, oil
seeds, nuts, medicinal; plants, silk, honey, wax, natural rubber, tannins, essential oils, fodder and
fibres. The leaf litter is collected from the forest floor and composted for manuring crops in
many areas, which serve as a source of nutrients.
(iii) Protective functions include conservation of soil and water; preventing drought, sheltering
against wind, cold, radiation, noise, sights and smells, etc. Costanza et al., and Noble and Dirzo
(1997) estimated that forests of the world on average provide services worth $ 1000 ha -1 year-1.
(iv) Regulative functions involve absorption, storage and release of gases (CO 2, O2), water, mineral
elements and radiant energy. Such regulative functions improve atmospheric and temperatures
conditions, and enhance the economic and environmental value of the landscape. Forests
effectively regulate floods and drought, and the global biogeochemical cycles, particularly of
carbon.

Importance of Forests

Forests are immense value to the life and prosperity of human beings and of nations. They provide a rich
variety of goods useful both to the affluent industrial societies and the rural poor. The importance/uses of
forests include:
1) Wood: Wood is the major forest produce. In developing countries, the heaviest demand on forest is
fuel wood for cooking and heating. Fuelwood, in fact, accounts for almost half of all wood harvested
worldwide. About 1.5 billion people depend on fuelwood as their primary energy source. About 58%

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of the total energy used in Africa and 42% in South East Asia comes from fuelwood. The world
consumption of fuelwood is estimated to be more than 1,000 million cubic meters in 2025.
2) Timber: Industrial timber and roundwood (unprocessed logs) obtained from forests are used to
make lumber, plywood, veneer, boards, doors, windows, furniture, carts, ploughs, tool handles,
sports goods, etc. it is also a raw material for the manufacture of paper, rayon and film.
3) Minor forest products: Besides timber, the contribution of minor forest produce to economy is not
negligible. Forest provide resins, thatch, rattan, fruits, nuts, herbs, medicinal plants, pharmaceutical,
oil, forage, commercial flowers, spices and syrups. Bamboos (also called the poor man’s timber) are
used in rafters, roofing, walling, flooring, scaffolding, matting, basketry, and cartwood; and also
used as a raw material in paper and rayon industry. Canes are used for making furniture, ropes,
walking sticks, umbrella handles and sports goods. Oils obtained from a variety of forest plants such
as sandalwood, rosha grass and khas are used in the manufacture of cosmetics, soaps,
pharmaceuticals, tobacco, confectionary and incense. Several types of tanning materials, dyes, gums
and resins obtained from forest plants are utilized in many industries. Lac, honey, wax, and silk are
items of economic value obtained from forest insects. Forest plants also provide hundreds of drugs,
spices, insecticides, and poisons. Other forest products of economic value include- Tendu leaves for
wrapping bidis (Indian cigar), Ritha and Shikakai as soap substitutes, sola pith and Rudraksha are
important commercial forest products.
4) Vital role in the life and economy of Tribals: Forests play a vital role in the life and economy of
forest dwellers and tribes living in forests. Forests provide food (fruits, roots, tubers and leaves of
plants and meat from animals), medicines and many other commercial products that are necessary
for forest-based subsistence pattern.
5) Ecological significance of forests: Forest ecosystems provide a host of environmental services
including maintaining biological diversity, providing wildlife habitat, cycling nutrients, producing
oxygen, reducing atmospheric pollution by collecting the suspended particulate matter and by
absorbing carbon dioxide and affecting regional rainfall patterns. They also regulate streamflow,
reduce flooding, store water, moderate wind erosion and reclaim degraded land. Forests prevent
erosion of soil by wind and water and provide shade which prevents the soil from becoming too dry
and friable (easily crumbled) during the summer. Further, they improve the quality of soil by
increasing its porosity and fertility by contributing humus to it.

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6) Aesthetic and other values: Forests have a great aesthetic value. There is hardly any part of the
earth where people do not appreciate the beauty and tranquility of forests. Additionally, forests areas
for ecosystem research; provide opportunities for recreating and spiritual renewal; and inspire
literature, music, religion and art.
7) Regulative functions involve absorption, storage and release of gases (CO2, O2), water, mineral
elements and radiant energy. Such regulative functions improve atmospheric and temperatures
conditions, and enhance the economic and environmental value of the landscape. Forests effectively
regulate floods and drought, and the global biogeochemical cycles, particularly of carbon.

Deforestation
Deforestation is defined as the reckless felling of trees by human beings for their ulterior ends. Forests are
burned or cut down for various reasons, like clearing of land for agriculture, harvesting of timber, expansion
of cities, and many, and many more; but the aim behind all these reasons is ‘economic grains’. But we
forget that these economic grains are short-lived, while the long-term damaging effects of deforestation are
disastrous and irreversible. At present we are losing forests at the rate of 1.7 crores hectares annually
worldwide.

Causes of Deforestation: Although the forest area in some developed regions has expanded (For example,
former USSR, North and Central America and Europe) as economic development has encouraged the
reversion of agricultural lands to forest. However, in developing countries, the trend is toward deforestation,
particularly in tropical forests. Although the broad issues of poverty, rapidly increasing population
pressures, unequal political power, lack of opportunities to make a living, landlessness and inadequate
knowledge and means to exploit the tropical forest without destroying it are at the root of deforestation, but
there are more specific causes too. Such as:
1) Shifting cultivation (also called ‘Jhum Cultivation’), that is slash and burn agriculture, practices by
landless indigenous people or tribals who clear trees to grow subsistence crop is the principal cause
of deforestation in the tropics, accounting for 70, 50 and 35 per cent respectively in Africa., Asia
and tropical America. Because of low productivity of most tropical forest soils, the farmers move
to new sites after few years leaving behind abandoned patches (called ‘forest fallows’). These
forest fallows may revert back to forest if left undisturbed; however because rising populations and
the ensuing competition for land are forcing farmers to return to these fallows at increasingly

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shorter intervals. As a result, little of this is allowed to revert to forest. According to an estimate,
about 500 million people (nearly 10% of the world population) and 240 million hectares of closed
forest are involved in shifting cultivation, which is increasing at an annual average rate of 1.25%.
2) Deforestation also occurs due to overgrazing and conversion of forest to pasture for domestic
animals.
3) Fuelwood gathering is also an important deforestation agent in dry forests.
4) Commercial logging is another deforestation agent. It may not be a primary cause of deforestation
in the tropics (except in parts of West Africa) because the number of trees left after logging may be
sufficient to classify the site as forested. However, it is often a secondary cause because new
logging roads permit shifting cultivators and fuelwood gathers to gain access to logged areas and
fell the remaining trees. Further, if logging is performed poorly, it results in a degraded forest.
5) Deforestation also occurs due to mining, quarrying, and irrigation and industrial projects.
6) Expansion of agribusiness that grows oil palm, rubber, fruit trees and ornamental plants has also
resulted in deforestation.
7) Finally, government-sponsored programmes that resettle landless farmers on forested sites have
contributed to deforestation all around the world.
The forest resources are thus threatened due to overgrazing and other forms of over-exploitation, both for
commercial and household needs, encroachments, unsustainable practices like unscientific cultivation and
development activities.

Effects of Deforestation: Deforestation adversely and directly affects and damages the environment and
humans both. Some of the ill-effects of deforestation (due to timber extraction, mining, construction of
dams, etc.) on forests and tribal people are as under:
1) Soil erosion. In the absence of forests/trees, especially on slopes, the soil gets washed away with
rain water.
2) Expansions of deserts. Denuded land mass gradually gets converted into sand deserts due to action
of strong winds laden by fragmented rock dust. This effect is more pronounced in rain scared areas.
3) Migration of local and tribal population from deserts to other fertile land in search in food, leaving
behind vast tracks of sands only.
4) Decreases in rainfall. Forests bring rains due to high rate of transpiration and precipitation. In the
absence of forests, rainfall declines considerably.

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5) Loss of fertile land. Less rainfall results into the loss of fertile land owing to less natural
vegetational growth.
6) Effect on climate. The climate of a region is mainly controlled by the rainfall, snowfall, etc.
Deforestation causes decreases in rainfall, which in turn increases the climatic temperature.
7) Lowering of water table. Decrease in rainfall results into a lowered water table due to lack of
recharging of underground reservoirs.
8) Economic losses. Deforestation will cause loss of industrial timber and non-timber products and loss
of long-term productivity on the site.
9) Loss of flora and fauna. Certain species of flora and fauna are getting extinct from the face of
planet, mainly due to deforestation.
10) Loss of biodiversity. Loss of flora and fauna has resulted into loss of biodiversity, leading to
disturbances in ecological balance worldwide.
11) Loss of medicinal plants. There are many species of plants which have medicinal and other
advantages, like Neem (Indian Margosa) which has been used in India for centuries as insecticide,
fungicide, in medicine and in biofertilizers. Deforestation may lead to the extinction of these types of
valuable plants.
12) Environmental changes. The air we breathe is purified by forests. So, deforestation will lead to
increase in carbon dioxide and other air pollutants concentration. This will lead to global warming,
which is serious effect as well as threat.
13) In many places the lack of fuelwood due to deforestation challenges local/tribal people, especially
where fuelwood had already been scarce.
14) Agriculture may be negatively impacted if deforestation causes soil loss or compaction, or
sedimentation of irrigation systems.
15) Indigenous people may be forced into a new way of life for which they are unprepared.
16) Human life and downstream structures may be endangered by floods that may be intensified by
clearing forests on upstream watersheds.
17) Disturbance of forest ecosystems in a particular location may result in important changes in other
ecosystems that may be separated by great distances.
18) Shortage of firewood may cause serious among the tribal womenfolk. For example, shrinkage of
forests has resulted in such an acute scarcity of fuelwood that gathering alone takes 360 women days
a year per family in Gambia.

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Effects of Timber Extraction: There has been unlimited exploitation of timber for commercial use.
Commercial/industrial demand could out-strip supply leading to decimation of forests, particularly the
wood.
The major effects of timber extraction on forests and tribal people include:
poor logging results in a degraded forest.
soil erosion, especially on slopes.
sedimentation of irrigation systems.
floods may be intensified by cutting of trees on upstream watersheds.
loss of biodiversity.
climatic change, such as lower precipitation.
new logging roads permit shifting cultivators and fuelwood gatherers to gain access to logged
areas and fell the remaining trees.
loss of non-timber products and loss of long-term forest productivity on the site affect the
subsistence economy of the forest dwellers.
species of plants and animals, which may occupy narrow ecological niches and whose potential
value to human is unknown, may be eliminated.
indigenous people may be forced into a new way of life for which they are unprepared.
exploitation of tribal people by the contractors.
cutting of more trees than permitted in a particular area by the greedy contractors.

Effects of Mining: The major effects of mining operations on forests and tribal people include:
degradation of lands.
loss of top soil due to deforestation.
pollution of surface and ground water resources due to the discharge of highly mineralized mine
waters.
lowering of ground water table.
air pollution due to release of greenhouse gases and other toxic gases during mining, e.g., release of
CH4 during coal mining.
deforestation including loss of flora and fauna.

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sediment production and discharge.

ore transport hazards.
fire hazards.
drying up of the perennial sources of water like springs and streams in hilly areas.
tribal people may be forced into a new way of life for which they are unprepared.
migration of tribal people from mining areas to other areas in search of land and food.

Effects of Dams/River Valley Projects: The major impacts of dams/river valley projects on forests and
tribal people which need consideration are:

degradation of catchment areas.

command area development.
reservoir induced seismicity.
deforestation and loss of fauna and flora including gene pool reserves due to submergence.
increased incidence of water-borne disease like malaria, filarial, schistosomiasis, etc.
acute scarcity of fuelwood and other forest products for tribal people.
rehabilitation and resettlement of those affected.

Case Study
Himalayan Region: Increasing destruction and degradation of forests and treelands in Himalayan region
contribute to heavy erosion of top soil, erratic rainfall and recurring floods. It is causing acute shortage of
firewood and loss of productivity due to eroded and degraded lands. There is a serious apprehension that
time is not far when the cost of food would be far less than the fuel needed to cook it for the rural and tribal
people in this region. Another area of concern is the construction of hill roads most of which are in strategic
and most fragile belt of Himalayas. Road construction has greatly affected the stability of hill slopes,
damaged the protective vegetation cover, resulted in debris covering vegetation, blocked natural drainage
and polluted streams.
Forest Conservation and Management: Forest conservation and management programmes should
ensure: (i) sustainable supply of tree products, non-timber forest products and ecological services, and (ii)

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maintenance of long term ecological balance through protection, restoration and conservation of forest
cover.
Following measures should be adopted to conserve forests:
1. A tree removed from the forest for any purpose must be replaced by a new tree. Thus, tree felling
should be matched by tree planting programmes as early as possible.
2. Afforestation should be done in areas unfit for agriculture, along highways and rivers, around
playgrounds and parks. A special programme of tree plantation called ‘Van Mahotsava’ is held in the
months of August and February, every year in our country. It should be made more popular and
effective.
3. Maximum economy should be observed in the use of timber and fuelwood by minimizing the
wastage.
4. The use of firewood should be discouraged and alternative source of energy for cooking such as
biogas; natural gas etc. should be made available.
5. Forest should be protected from fire. Modern fire fighting equipment should be used to extinguish
accidental forest fire.
6. Pests and diseases of forest trees should be controlled by fumigation and aerial spray of fungicides
and through biological method of pest control.
7. Grazing of cattles in the forests should be discouraged.
8. Modern methods of forest management should be adopted. These include, use of irrigation,
fertilizers, bacterial and mycorrhizal inoculation, disease and pest management, control of weeds,
breeding of the elite trees and tissue culture techniques.

As per latest agricultural statistics, about 173.6 million ha land in India is degraded and these lands may be
utilized for some kind of tree plantations and agroforestry system to meet the requirements of forage, fuel-
wood and other forest products. Some methods of forest conservation and management are described below:
Conservation Forestry
It involves protection of degraded forests to allow recoupment of their flora and fauna. Well-stocked forests
are managed scientifically for producing timber and other forest products without causing any negative
environmental impact. Forest areas designated as national parks and sanctuaries are protected from human
interference.

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Forest Plantations
Extensive planting of trees through afforestation programmes is needed to save the diminishing forest cover.
To achieve these goals the production or commercial forestry has been widely adopted in different regions
of the world. Production or commercial forestry aims to fulfill the commercial demand, without causing
denudation of natural forests, through intensive plantation in available land.
Afforestation Programmes
In order to save the diminishing forest cover, there is a dire need of extensive planting of trees through
afforestation programmes. To achieve these goals the following forestry practices should be carefully
integrated: (i) Protection or conservation forestry, and (ii) Production or commercial forestry.
(i). Protection or Conservation Forestry. It involves protection of degraded forests to allow recoupment of
their flora and fauna. The forests which are well stocked are managed scientifically for producing timber
and other forest products without causing any negative environmental impact on the forest. Many forest
areas are designated as national parks and sanctuaries and are protected from human interference.
(ii). Production or Commercial Forestry. It involves intensive plantation of trees on available land or on
land not under agriculture with the aim of fulfilling the commercial demand without causing denudation of
natural forests. Generally, fast growing trees (such as Eucalyptus, Acacia, etc.) are raised using modern
techniques. The production forestry programmes include social forestry, agroforestry and urban forestry
programmes.
Social Forestry and Agroforestry
In social forestry, the trees and shrubs are planted on all unused and fallow land to provide fuelwood, fodder
etc., thereby reducing pressure on existing forests. For example, unused farmland, community land, road
and rail sides, etc., are planted with suitable indigenous and/or exotic tree species.
Agroforestry combines the use of trees and other woody perennials in association with agricultural crops,
pastures or livestock on the same unit of land either at the same time or in time sequence. It is thus a
combination of agriculture and forestry technologies to create integrated, diverse and productive land use
systems. Farming systems that incorporate trees have a potential of being more productive and sustainable.
Shifting cultivation is the oldest system of agroforestry, which is rotation system of agriculture and fallow
of natural vegetation (forest or savannah) for maintaining soil fertility.
On the basis of the components present, agroforestry systems have been classified as agrisilvicultural
(woody plants with crops), silvipastoral (trees with pastures and or animals) and agrisilvipastoral having
crops, pastures and or animals and woody plants (Nair 1985). The scattered trees on cropland in the arid and

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semiarid regions have been found to increase soil fertility as well as increase crop yield beneath the tree
canopies. For example, Prosopis cineraria in the semiarid regions of India has been found to increase yields
of millet crops, Paulowina elongata is grown with wheat in temperate zones of China, and Alnus nepalensis
is grown with cardamom (Amomum subulatum) in India (Young 1997).
Agroforestry has both productive and service functions. Agroforestry systems serve to diversify the outputs
including fuelwood, fodder, timber and medicinal products, other non-timber forest products. The service
functions of agroforestry systems are in control of soil erosion, maintenance and improvement of soil
fertility and carbon sequestration in soil. The third assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on
climate change stresses the importance of agroforestry (particularly on unproductive grassland and
croplands) for carbon sequestration and mitigating climate change by storing carbon through enhanced build
up of soil organic matter and carbon storage in roots and deep soil layers (IPCC 2001).
For soil and water conservation, different types of agroforestry systems are windbreaks and shelterbelts,
contour hedgerows and reclamation agroforestry. Contour hedge rows reduce soil and water erosion; some
commonly used species are Leucaena leucocephala, Inga edulis and Calliandra calothyrsus. Tithonia
diversifolia is a common hedge species found at mid elevation throughout East Africa and South East Asia.
Some trees and other woody perennials (e.g., Moringa oleifera, Balanites roxburghii, and Zizyphus species)
are used to protect agricultural lands from erosion in dry areas prone to wind erosion. The shelter belts are
large wind breaks of several rows of trees (e.g., Eucalyptus, Cassia and Prosopis).
After pre-treatment of saline soils (by lowering water table and providing adequate drainage) and sodic soils
(treatment with gypsum and protection of natural vegetation), the salt tolerant species like Prosopis
juliflora, Acacia nilotica, and Casuarina equisetifolia have been used in reclamation agroforestry. The
integration of trees with monocropping or native vegetation on a sodic soil has been found to be
ecologically sustainable land-use system for improving soil fertility as well as medium to long-term carbon
sequestration in soil organic matter and the perennial components of the trees and grasses (Kaur et al. 2000,
2002).
Urban Forestry Programme. It is aimed at growing ornamental and fruit trees in urban areas along roads,
in private compounds, vacant lands and common parks. It has great aesthetic value for citizens.
Joint Forest Management
Local community participation in the management of forests has been gaining pace since the late 1970s. In
Nepal, about 36% of forestry investment in forestry sector is earmarked for community forestry. The forest

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users’ groups protect, manage, and use the forest area, share all benefits among users and possess exclusive
rights to forest income.
In India, Joint Forest Management (JFM) has emerged as a major forest management strategy, which was
introduced in 1990. The community provides any labour required to improve degraded areas and protects
the forest while it regenerates. A portion of the income from selling timber is given to the community in
addition to the right to gather non-wood forest products. In India, there were officially 84,632 JFM groups
protecting and managing over 17 million hectares of state forest lands as of September 2003. The positive
impacts of the JFM programme have included (i) an improvement in the relationship between the forest
department staff and local communities, (ii) increased income for participating communities and (iii) an
improvement in the condition of forests. However, JFM has had several shortcomings, including a lack of
firm legal basis, domination of JFM groups by the village elite, inequitable sharing of benefits within
communities and in some cases the inter community conflicts. Despite these problems, JFM still represents
a significant improvement in forest management (FAO 2001b).
Non-Wood Forest Products (NWFPs)
These provide a wide range of goods for domestic use and for the market, which includes fruit, nuts,
medicinal herbs, forage and thatch and are available in open-access or semi-open access circumstances,
particularly for the resource poor people. From a positive perspective, NWFPs can be viewed as a safety net
because these serve as a source of emergency sustenance in times of hardship when crops fail, when
economic crises hit, in times of conflict or war, or when floods wash away homes (FAO 2001a). The value
of NTFPs exceeds that of timber and economic systems and needs to be considered in full valuation of
forest products (Jansen et al. 1991).
Forest Certification
Forest certification is a voluntary, market-based instrument that enables consumers to identify forest
products with high environmental standards (FAO 2001b). The aim is to focus on quality of forest
management rather than the quality of forest products. It has contributed to the growing trend to define
production and processes standards for social and environmental performances in resource management. By
the beginning of 2004, about 5% of the global forest had been certified for sustainable forest management.
About 92% of these forests were located in Europe (43%) and the United States (49%). At the same time,
only four countries with tropical moist forests (Bolivia, Brazil, Guatemala and Mexico) have large areas
under certified forests.
Three main certification approaches (FAO 2001b) are in operation:

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1. Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) accreditation- an international system which requires producers
to meet a global set of principles and standards for good forest stewardship and provides a
trademark for product labeling;
2. Certification of the Environmental Management System (EMS) under the International
Organization for standardization (ISO) 14000 series; and
3. National certification schemes, some of which also incorporate elements of the FSC and ISO
approaches.

Carbon Sequestration in Forestry Systems

Carbon storage and sequestration schemes seek to consider the contribution of forests to global warming,
either by a reduction in forest degradation and deforestation or by reforestation, or by some combination of
the two. The cumulative global potential of options related to biological mitigation of climate change is in
the order of 100 gigatonnes of carbon by the year 2050, equivalent to 10 to 20% of projected fossil fuel
emissions. The largest potential is in tropical and subtropical regions.

As outlined in the National Forest Policy (1988), the action points should include the following:
Maintenance of environmental stability through preservation and, where necessary, restoration of the
ecological balance that has been adversely disturbed by serious depletion of the forests of the
country;
Conserving the natural heritage of the country by preserving the remaining natural forests with the
vast majority of flora and fauna, which represent the biological diversity and genetic resources of the
country;
increasing substantially the forest/tree cover in the country through massive afforestation and social
forestry programmes, especially on all denuded, degraded and unproductive lands involving the local
people in this endeavour by giving them tangible economic motives and employment opportunities;
Meeting the rights and concessions for requirements of fuel wood, fodder, minor forest produce and
small timber of the rural and tribal population with due cognizance of the carrying capacity of
forests;
Increasing the productivity of forests to meet the essential national needs;
Encouraging efficient utilization of forest produce;

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Restriction on diversion of forest lands for non-forest uses and compensatory afforestation in case
where diversion is unavoidable;
Afforestation on common lands by the local communities through usufruct-sharing schemes;
Motivation of farmers/land owners to resort to tree farming in similar manner of crop based farming;
Substitution of wood by other materials, alternative sources of energy and fuel efficient stoves;
Permission to forest-based enterprises after a thorough scrutiny regarding the availability of raw
materials;
Supply of forest produce to the industrial consumers only at its true market value and not at
concessional prices;
Involvement of local people and dedicated grass roots nongovernmental organizations, in the
afforestation programme and for protection of existing forests; and,
Creation of land banks for compensatory afforestation.

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Energy Resources

Introduction

Sources from which energy can be obtained to provide heat, light and power. Sources of energy have
evolved from human and animal power to fossil fuels, uranium, water power, wind, and the sun.

Though energy is present in a number of forms (mechanical, thermal, chemical, biological energy and
energy in the matter), which differ basically from one another; but together constitute the physical reality of
our universe. All the physical processes can be constructed as a transition from one form of energy to
another. In fact, all living beings are operated by means of energy, which is derived from the environment.
Man is only a part of the energy flow in nature.

For thousand of years, every human being has been using up about 2,000 calories of energy per day, as
biological energy to maintain their metabolism. With the passage of time human energy needs are rapidly
increasing. Today, the inhabitants of industrialized nation consume about 2, 00,000 calories per person per
day. It means, for each calorie of energy needed to sustain life biologically, over 100 calories are consumed
for other purposes. It is estimated that if the energy growth continues at the present rate, in 20 years time
about 8, 00,000 calories will be produced and consumed in industrialized countries per capita per day. By
contrast, substantial sections of the population of developing countries do not obtain even the 2,000 calories
per capita per day needed to sustain their metabolism. Energy, thus, is not only the pre-requisite for all life-
forms, but is an important factor in the economic growth and technical change. Broadly, energy is used for
the following purposes:

Cooking, heating, lighting and other such facilities;

Transporting people and goods.
Manufacturing consumer goods and capital equipment.
Production and conservation of primary fuels into other forms of energy as desired by the consumers
(e.g., conservation of chemical to electrical energy by dry cell battery); and many more.

Energy Scenario

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Energy is a key input in the economic growth and there is a close link between the availability of energy and
the future growth of a nation. Power generation and energy consumption are crucial to economic
development as the major sectors of the economy depend upon the availability of energy resources.

In India, energy is consumed in a variety of forms. Fuelwood, animal waste and agricultural residues are the
traditional sources of energy that continue to meet the bulk of the energy requirements in rural India. These
non-commercial fuels are gradually getting replaced by commercial fuels, such as, coal, lignite, petroleum
products, natural gas and electricity. Commercial fuels account for 60% of the total primary energy supply
in India; while the balance 40% is coming from non-commercial fuels. Of the total commercial energy
produced in the form of power or electricity, 69% is from coal (thermal power), 25% is from hydel power,
4% is from diesel and gas and 2% is from nuclear power, and less than 1% from non-conventional sources
like solar, wind, ocean, biomass, etc. Petroleum and its products are the other large sources of energy.

The Govt. of India has formulated an energy policy with the objectives of ensuring adequate energy supply
at a minimum cost, achieving self-sufficiency in energy supplies and protecting environment from adverse
impact of utilizing energy resources in an unjudicial manner. The main features of this policy are:

(i) accelerated exploitation of domestic conventional energy resources, viz., oil, coal, hydro and
nuclear power;
(ii) intensification of exploration to achieve indigenous production of oil and gas;
(iii) management of demand of oil and other forms of energy;
(iv) energy conservation and management;
(v) optimization of utilization of existing capacity in the country;
(vi) development and exploitation of renewable sources of energy to meet energy requirements of
rural communities;
(vii) intensification of resources and developmental activities in new and renewable energy resources;
and
(viii) organization of training for personnel engaged at various levels in the energy sector.

Energy Resources

The energy resources can be classified in many ways:

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(i) Commercial fuels. These include coal, lignite, petroleum products, natural gas and electricity.

Non-commercial fuels. These include fuelwood, cow-dung, agricultural wastes, etc.

(ii) Primary energy resources. Primary energy resources are those which are mined or otherwise
obtained from the environment. These include fossil fuels (coal, lignite, crude oil and natural
gas), nuclear fuels, water (hydroenergy), solar, wind, ocean and geothermal energy.

Secondary energy resources. Secondary energy resources are those which do not occur in
nature; instead, they are derived from primary energy resources. These include petrol, diesel,
electrical energy (from coal, diesel and gas), etc.

(iii) Conventional energy resources. These include fossil fuels (coal, petroleum, and natural gas),
water (hydel power) and nuclear energy.

Non-conventional resources. These includes solar, wind, geothermal, ocean (thermal, tidal and
wave), biomass and hydrogen energy.

(iv) Non-renewable energy resources. Non-renewable energy sources are those natural resources
which are exhaustible and cannot be replaced once they are used. These are available in limited
amount and develop a long period. These includes fossil fuels (such as coal, oil and natural gas),
and nuclear power.

Renewable energy resources. Renewable energy resources are those natural resources which
are inexhaustible (i.e., which can be replaced as we use them) and can be used to produce energy
again and again. These are available in unlimited amount in nature and develop in a relatively
short period of time. These includes solar, wind, water, geothermal, ocean and biomass energy.
Nuclear energy, however, can also be considered as inexhaustible source of energy if atomic
minerals are used in fast breeder reactor technology.

The Role of Unconventional (Renewable) Sources of Energy

The renewable sources of energy are capable of solving the twin problems of energy supply in a
decentralized manner and helping in sustaining cleaner environment. But it is difficult to predict the role of

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unconventional sources of energy. Where substantial technological development is required (such as fusion
power or solar photo-voltaic electricity), little confidence can be placed in cost estimates. Some other
sources (such as tidal power and solar low grade heat), require atleast modest extensions of existing
technologies, and their role will be determined mainly by fossil fuel prices and the development in
competing technologies.

Solar Energy: There are at present, three main types of solar

energy utilization: (i) Direct heat conversion to water for
heating homes, schools, factories, and other buildings, (ii)
Indirect conversion to electric power through thermal energy,
and (iii) Direct conversion to electricity through silicon or
cadmium solar cells, known as photovoltaic conversion. In
thermoelectric conversion, solar energy is first converted into
steam which drives generators for electric power production.
This requires large solar collectors, often with mirrors and
concentrating devices to produce higher temperatures. France
had built such a facility in the Pyrenees in 1968, which achieves
temperatures of 3,5000C, and generates electricity for southern France.

The sun is a source of enormous energy. It is a fusion reactor at a distance of about 150× 10 6 km from the
earth. Its probable age is 4×109 years and it is expected to radiate energy for another 4×10 9 years. The
energy from the sun in the form of radiations is called solar energy. It is believed that with just 0.1% of the
75,000 trillion kWH of solar energy that reaches the earth, the planet’s requirements can be easily fulfilled.

Perhaps, the earliest use of direct solar energy by mankind was- drying the body or warming it in the sun
during winters. Indeed, drying of clothes, fodder, timber, agricultural and animal products, salt water (to get
salt), and passive space heating- remained the most extensive form of use direct solar energy in the history
of mankind. All other active solar technologies/devices for harnessing direct solar energy have fairly recent
origins. A variety of active solar collectors provide a broad range of applications, namely:

(i) Solar water heating

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(ii) Solar space heating of buildings.

(iii) Solar air-conditioning.
(iv) Solar refrigeration.
(v) Solar drying.
(vi) Solar cooking.
(vii) Solar green-houses. Solar furnaces.
(viii) Solar desalination.
(ix) Salt production
(x) Solar electricity-thermal.
(xi) Solar electricity-photovoltaic.
1. Solar Water Heating: This system of water heating is commonly used in hostels, hospitals, hotels,
guesthouse, etc. as well as domestic and industrial units. A solar collector area of 3-4m2 in
combination with an insulated tank of 200-400 litre capacity can provide 200-300 liters of hot water at
about 600C per average sunny day in a favorable climate.
2. Solar Space Heating of Buildings: Alternatively, an active technology of solar space heating where
water is the medium is essentially an extension of the technology employed in solar water heating
except that energy has to be recovered from the tank through a heat exchange surface. In systems
employing air as the heat-transfer medium, there is no need of an additional heat exchanger as was the
case with water. However, water systems are more common than air systems as they offer better heat-
exchanger performance. Though, they do have the disadvantages of leakage and susceptibility to
freezing. For inclement days, an auxiliary heating system using electricity (or any other system) is
required as a back-up.
3. Solar Air-Conditioning: Solar air-conditioning includes solar powered refrigeration systems of
Rankine cycle systems, absorption refrigerator systems and solar-regenerated desiccant cooling
systems. Out of these, open cycle absorption desiccant cooling systems seemed to offer the best
prospects. In a typical desiccant cooling cycle, ambient air is adiabatically cooled, dehumidified,
cooled both sensibly and evaporatively, and then ducted to the living area. In the regenerative stage,
air is evaporatively cooled, heated as it cools the supply air stream, heated again by solar collectors,
and humidified. Simulation and analysis of desiccant cooling systems suggest that solar-regenerated
systems can be cost-competitive with conventional vapour-compression or absorption systems.

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Desiccant cooling seems best suited for regions with about equal heating and cooling loads and high
humidity.
4. Solar Refrigeration: Solar refrigeration is closely related to air-conditioning. It is generally required
for food preservation or for storage of medical and biological materials. A lot of experiments have
been carried out in several countries including USA, former USSR, France and Sri Lanka on solar-
operated coolers using absorption cooling cycles. And most of these are aimed at household scale for
food refrigerators or small scale ice manufacturing units. Although, most of the units/machines
fabricated are simple in design, but are generally too complicated and therefore are not usable by the
people.
5. Solar Drying: Solar drying of agricultural and animal products is the most ancient, traditional and
widespread method of utilizing direct solar energy.

The customary technique involves the spreading of the material (to be dried) in a thin layer on the
ground to expose it to sun and wind. Agricultural products including copra, grain, hay, fruits and
vegetables are still dried in this manner all over the world, including the industrialized countries. In
recent years, innovation has been, adopted, particularly for fruit drying. Agricultural products are dried
in a simple cabinet dryer which consists of a box insulated at the base, painted black on the inner side
and covered with a glass. To facilitate the flow of air over the drying material, ventilation holes are
provided at the base and top of the sides. The drying material is placed on carefully perforated
trays/racks inside the cabinet. The adoption of improved process control has resulted in product
quality.

6. Solar Cooking: A typical solar cooker is a well-insulated shallow rectangular/square metal box which
is blackened from the inner side and fitted with a flat glass cover. When placed in sunlight, the solar
radiation penetrates the glass cover (or covers, in case two glass covers are provided for minimizing
the heat loss) and are absorbed by the blackened surface; thereby, resulting in an increase in

temperature inside the box. Cooking pots blackened from outside are placed in the solar box (or solar-
cooker). The food gets cooked with the heat energy produced due to increased temperature inside the
solar-cooker. The collector area of such a solar cooker can be increased by providing a plane reflector
mirror of size equal to the size of the box and is hinged on one side of the glass frame. The reflector

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mirror has a provision for adjustment of reflector at different angles with the solar-cooker. With the
help of reflector mirror, a temperature rise of 15 to 20 0 C can be achieved inside the solar cooker.

Merits:

(i) Solar cooker requires neither fuel nor attention while cooking food.
(ii) Non pollution, no charring or overflowing of food.
(iii) The biggest advantage of solar-cooker is that nutritional value of the cooked food is very high, as
vitamins and natural tastes of the food are not destroyed.
(iv) Maintenance cost is negligible.

Limitation:

(i) Food can not be cooked at night or during cloudy days.

(ii) Cooking takes comparatively more time.
(iii) ‘Chapatti’ can not be cooked in a solar cooker.

7. Solar Greenhouses: A greenhouse is a closed structure covered with transparent material (glass or
plastic) which acts as a solar collector and utilizes solar radiant energy for the growth of plants.

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The incoming short-wave solar radiations can pass through the green house; but the long-wave thermal
radiations emitted by the objects within the greenhouse cannot escape through the glazed surface. As a
result, the radiations get trapped within the greenhouse and result in an increase in temperature.
Further, the air inside the greenhouse gets enriched with carbon dioxide (as there is no mixing of the
greenhouse air with ambient air) and the moisture loss is reduced due to restricted transpiration. All
these factors help the plant growth to sustain during night and colder months.

8. Solar furnaces: Solar furnaces provide a mean of generating extremely high temperatures (up to
around 3, 5000 C) under very clean conditions, and can be used to melt refractory materials. In a solar
furnace, high temperature is obtained by concentrating the solar radiations on to a specimen using a
number of heliostats (turnable mirrors) arranged on a sloping surface. The manufacture of fused
aluminium crucibles and studying the properties of ceramics at extremely high temperatures are
examples of the application of such a furnace. The biggest advantages of a solar furnace is that heating
can be accomplished without any contamination and temperature can be easily controlled by changing
the position of the material in focus. However, this type of furnace is likely to remain a specialist
device, with no significant impact on the fuel market as a whole. It is anticipated that in future, solar
furnace can be utilized in the production of nitric acid and fertilizers from air.
9. Solar Desalination: The use of energy for desalting sea-water and brackish well water has been
demonstrated in several moderate-sized pilot plants all over the world including USA,USSR, Greece,
Australia and several other countries. The century-old process of solar distillation, the basin type still,
has been modified and adapted to modern materials. In this method, solar radiation is admitted through
a transparent air tight cover of sloping sheets of glass into a shallow blackened basin/pool containing
brine (saline water). Solar radiation passes through the cover and is absorbed and converted into heat
causing the water to evaporate from the brine. The vapours produced get condensed to form purified
water on the underside of the cooler glass cover, flow down the sloping roof, collected in the trough
and from there into a water storage tank. The excess brine that has not evaporated is run to waste.
10. Salt Production: Solar evaporation of seawater has been a traditional method of obtaining salt. It still
remains the most widely used method for salt production today- on both small and large scale- in
many developing countries of the world including India, Pakistan, Chile, Mexico and Columbia. The
basic concept is very simple- in areas where evaporation exceeds rainfall, a shallow pool/pond of brine

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is exposed which results in evaporation of water, leaving behind the salt. Latest developments have
been concerned with improved pond/pool construction and salt-harvesting techniques.
11. Solar Electricity- Thermal: Solar energy may be used to heat a fluid, which then generates electricity
through a conventional heat engine. To obtain an adequate working temperature, some form of
concentration of solar energy is required, so that for most designs there is little contribution from
diffuse sunlight. Broadly, the systems fall into two categories.

Systems in which individual mirrors track the sun continuously; and

Systems in which the mirrors are fixed (or can be adjusted from day to day, but do not track
continuously).

12. Solar Electricity-Photovoltaic: Photovoltaics or solar cells are devices which directly convert
incident solar radiation to electrical current. Invented in 1955, their use was initially focused on
providing electrical power to space crafts.

In solar photovoltaic systems (SPV), electricity is generated directly from solar energy. It works on the
principle of photoelectric effect- when light falls on certain metals, like silicon, the electrons gets
excited and escape from the metal, which are then collected by another metal and passed through wires
in s steady stream; the electron flow thus set up constitutes the electric current.

At present, solar cells are used in specialist applications where cost is of minor importance (or in rural
areas), and very great reductions would be needed to make these techniques viable for large scale
power generation. However, the technologies based on solid state physics have seen massive
reductions in costs in recent years, and a break-through to economically viable solar cells cannot be
ruled out.

Merits:

1) The SPV systems are particularly favourable for fulfilling the requirements of electricity for
decentralized applications.
2) Easy installation and maintenance.
3) Absence of noise and other form of pollution.

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4) Long life of SPV systems make them favourable for use in remote and isolated areas, forests, hilly
and desert regions.

Limitations: The major constraint in the spread of SPV is the high initial costs. The most expensive
input being the silicon wafer.

Solar Ponds: A solar pond captures solar energy by storing heat in a stratified pool of water irradiated by
sunlight. Solar ponds have large surface areas for collecting solar energy. A solar pond is usually only one
to three meters deep and has a bottom covered with black plastic to absorb the solar radiation. More than
30% of the incident sunlight penetrates to the bottom of the pond and may raise the temperature there as
high as 1000C, while the surface water is near the ambient air temperature.

Solar pond is one of the most promising technologies in solar energy utilization for varied purposes. It is a
large scale solar energy collector with integral heat energy storage for supplying thermal energy. This
thermal energy can be used in various ways, such as, process heating, water desalination, refrigeration,
drying and thermal electricity
generation.

Solar ponds are large-area brine ponds

about 1.0 m deep in which vertical
gradients of salt concentrations are
maintained so that the most
concentrated and most dense solutions
are at the bottom of the pond. A solar
pond consists of three zones. The top
zone (or the surface zone) is at
atmospheric temperature and has little
salt content. The bottom zone is very hot (70 to 900C) and very salty with specific gravity of about 1.2. It is
this zone which collects and stores the solar energy in the form of heat and is hence known as storage zone.
Separating these two zones is the gradient zone that acts as a transparent insulator, permitting sunlight to
reach the bottom zone and its thermal energy to remain entrapped there. The useful energy is then
withdrawn from the solar pond in the form of hot brine from the storage zone. To maintain the concentration

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gradient against the slow upward diffusion of salt, the surface must be slightly ‘washed’ with fresh water
and the concentrated brine be supplied at the bottom.

Merits: Solar ponds have four major advantages over other solar technologies:

1) They have a low cost per unit area, as the collectors have an in0built large storage capacity.
2) They can be constructed over large areas enabling the diffused solar radiation to be concentrated on
a large scale.
3) They can supply energy even during the monsoon season.
4) Solar energy from solar ponds can be utilized for various purposes.

Limitations: A solar pond multipurpose facility involves high capital cost and, thus, the development of the
process and its potential applications are probably less attractive in the developing countries than in
industrialized nations.

Wind Power:

Wind energy is a renewable source of non-polluting energy and is emerging as one of the most potential
sources of alternate energy which will be helpful to a great extent in bridging the gap between the energy
demand and supply. Compared to solar energy, the wind is a very complex resource, processing a three-
dimensional value as compared to solar’s two-dimensional qualities. The wind resource is more intermittent
and is strongly influenced by terrain or geography factors. Also, due to fluid mechanics considerations, there
is a non-liner (cubic) relationship between wind speed and the power production from a wind turbine (a
wind energy conversion device).

Wind, which is essentially air in motion, has kinetic energy by virtue of the movement of large masses of air
caused by differential heating of the atmosphere by the sun. At any given time, the amount of energy
contained in the wind is proportional to the wind speed at that instant in the context of wind-based energy
production systems. This energy can be utilized for performing mechanical and electrical works. Wind
turbines can be used to generate electricity, for lifting water from wells, for direct water pumping and many
more.

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Wind turbine, basically, consists of a few vanes or blades radiating from a central axis. As the wind blows
against the vanes/blades, they rotate about the axis. This rotational motion is then utilized to perform some
useful work-mechanical and/or electrical.

Wind power has been used on a small side for centuries, as, for example, in the windmills of Crete and
Rhodes in the eastern Mediterranean, and those off Holland in Europe. About 1890, one of the first
windmills to generate electricity was developed in Denmark. The mechanical use of wind for driving ships,
pumping water, grinding grain, turning the machines of factories, and doing a large variety of other task
advanced steadily over the centuries. Finally, with the invention of the electric generator in the nineteenth
century, wind was used to generate electricity. The windmill is often credited with sparking the industrial
revolution.

Merits of Wind Energy:

1) It is a non-polluting and environment friendly source of energy.

2) It is an important renewable and sustainable source of energy, available free of cost.
3) The scope of wind resource, globally, is enormous and is less dependent on latitude than other solar
based renewable energy technologies.
4) The generation period is low and power generation starts from commissioning.
5) Power generation is cheaper as there is no shortage of input cost and recurring expenses are almost
nil.
6) It can be made available easily in many off-shore, on-shore and remote areas; thus, helpful in
supplying electric power to remote and rural areas.
7) Wind power is particularly relevant to developing countries where electricity supply may be absent
or of limited capacity.
8) Development of wind energy is recommended to broaden the nation’s energy options for new energy
sources.

Limitations of Wind Energy:

1) It has low energy density.

2) It is generally favourable in geographic locations which are away from cities.

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3) Wind turbine design, manufacture and installation have proved to be complex due to widely
varying atmospheric conditions in which they have to operate.
4) The appearance of windmills on the landscape and their continual whirling and whistling can be
irritating.
5) The use of wind power for electricity generation on a small scale is already economical in remote
locations. But, at present, it does not appear to be economic for large scale generation.

Biogas Technology
Biogas is the name applied to a gaseous mixture released as a result of the anaerobic decomposition of
different bio-sources wastes in a biogas plant. In this process, the organic wastes are anaerobically
fermented in a fermentation tank by micro-organism and the gas so produced contains about 60% methane
and 40% carbon-dioxide alongwith traces of nitrogen and hydrogen sulphide. This biogas can be used as a
source of energy for different agricultural, domestic and cottage craft activities. Biogas can be produced
from dung and leaf litter mixtures. It has been estimated that about 600 million tones of animal dung is
available annually in the country. This much dung can produce biogas which can replace kerosene to the
extent of approximately 14,000 million liters per year. Biogas slurry can produce 20 million tones of organic
manure in a year which is equivalent to 1.4 million tones of Nitrogen, 1.3 million tones of Phosphate, and
0.9 million tones of Potash.
Animal excreta particularly of dairy cattle, pig and sheep, dropping of birds can be used for the production
of biogas (methane).

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Two major classes of bacteria are involved in biogas production: Non-methanogenic organisms, which
hydrolyse and ferment the raw material inputs to organic acids such as acetic acid, and methanogenic
bacteria, which complete the conversion to biogas as follows: CH 3COOH → CH4 + CO2
Energy Plantations (Biomass Energy)
Many countries all over the world have taken large scale energy plantation programme. In India energy
plantation should be undertaken in the industrial and rural sectors. Plantation of Leucaena leucocaephala
planted in Philippines yielded about 20 m3 of dry wood per hectare per year. In Brazil firewood is utilized to
fuel stem electricity generator plants. Crop plant that are on the priority list for production of alcohol are
Manihot esculenta (cassava), Saccharum officinarum (sugarcane), Beta vulgaris (sugar beet) and many of
the grain crops. The efficient energy derivative of plant origin is alcohol, obtained by the fermentation of
starch, sugar or biomass waste.
Hydrogen: Hydrogen is yet another gaseous fuel that can potentially be obtained through photolysis of
water, using plant materials. A blue green alga, Anabaena cyclindrica produces hydrogen from the sea water
in the presence of sunlight.
Petro-Crops
Although petrol and diesel derived from the mineral sources are widely used, petroleum products may also
be obtained from the plant sources. There are many plants which yield petrol-like substances and there are
other whose oil derived from their seeds can be employed together with diesel as fuels. In the wake of petrol
scarcity, petrol can be replaced by vegetable oil.
In the use of vegetable oils as fuels, the greatest advantage lies in the fact that these oils used alone or in
combination with diesel do not pollute environment as does petrol alone. Crude oil requiring processing
during purification and separation into diesel, gasoline etc., pollutes the environment besides emission of
toxic gases. Vegetable oils can replace either by direct uses or by their uses with diesel.

Jatropha: Villagers in India use Jatropha oil as a lubricant for bullock card axels and other agricultural
implements. The price of seed is Rs. 350 per quintal.
India import Rs. 4,000 million worth Jatropha oil for every year for industrial use.
Jatropha oil can be efficient and environmentally clean substitute for diesel, says an analysis by petroleum
engineers in Thailand.

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Petroleum nut: For hill people in the Philippines, bamboo tubes filled with fruits of petroleum nut
(Pittosporum) often ignited, serve well as torchlight. Oil of Pittosporum rasinifarum contains monoterpene
hydrocarbons & pinene (38 per cent) and myrcene (40 per cent).

Algae as Petrocrop: Botryococcus braunii a colonial green alga has hydrocarbons that closely resemble
crude oil. The hydrocarbons can be readily transformed, via cracking, into fuel. The oil yields 62 per cent
petroleum, 15 per cent diesel and 3 per cent heavy oil.

Non-edible Oils as Biofuels: Cuphea oil (Cuphea spp.), crambe oil (Crambe abyssinica) vernomia oil
(Vernonia spp.), bladderpod (Lesquerella spp.), meadow foam oil (Limnanthes alba) can be used for driving
automobiles.

In United States a blend made of sunflower oil and diesel called sunoil is widely used to lower uses of diesel
in the diesel engines.
Indirect help can also be made by the use of Jojaba oil (seed oil from Simmondsia chinensis) This oil when
mixed with diesel also helps to increase mileage by about 13 per cent than when diesel ios used alone.

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