Challenges and Opportunities in Productivity and Sustainability of Rice Cultivation System: A Critical Review in Indian Perspective

Cereal Research Communications (2022) 50:573–601
https://doi.org/10.1007/s42976-021-00214-5
REVIEW
Challenges and opportunities in productivity and sustainability of rice

cultivation system: a critical review in Indian perspective
Neeraj Kumar1 · R. S. Chhokar1 · R. P. Meena1 · A. S. Kharub1 · S. C. Gill1 · S. C. Tripathi1 · O. P. Gupta1 ·
S. K. Mangrauthia2 · R. M. Sundaram2 · C. P. Sawant3 · Ajita Gupta3 · Anandkumar Naorem4 · Manoj Kumar5 ·
G. P. Singh1
Received: 9 April 2021 / Accepted: 22 September 2021 / Published online: 8 October 2021
© Akadémiai Kiadó Zrt. 2021
Abstract
Rice–wheat cropping system, intensively followed in Indo-Gangetic plains (IGP), played a prominent role in fulfilling the
food grains demand of the increasing population of South Asia. In northern Indian plains, some practices such as intensive
rice cultivation with traditional method for long-term have been associated with severe deterioration of natural resources,
declining factor productivity, multiple nutrients deficiencies, depleting groundwater, labour scarcity and higher cost of cul-
tivation, putting the agricultural sustainability in question. Varietal development, soil and water management, and adoption
of resource conservation technologies in rice cultivation are the key interventions areas to address these challenges. The
cultivation of lesser water requiring crops, replacing rice in light-textured soil and rainfed condition, should be encour-
aged through policy interventions. Direct seeding of short duration, high-yielding and stress tolerant rice varieties with
water conservation technologies can be a successful approach to improve the input use efficiency in rice cultivation under
medium–heavy-textured soils. Moreover, integrated approach of suitable cultivars for conservation agriculture, mechanized
transplanting on zero-tilled/unpuddled field and need-based application of water, fertilizer and chemicals might be a suc-
cessful approach for sustainable rice production system in the current scenario. In this review study, various challenges in
productivity and sustainability of rice cultivation system and possible alternatives and solutions to overcome such challenges
are discussed in details.
Keywords Rice production · Factor productivity · Residue management · Groundwater table · Conservation agriculture ·
Global warming
Introduction
Rice (Oryza sativa L.)–wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is the

Communicated by A. Goyal.
largest cropping system practised in South Asian countries
* Neeraj Kumar (Nawaz et al. 2019). About 85% of this cropping system
[email protected]; falls in Indo-Gangetic plains (IGP), covering nearly 13.5
[email protected] million hectares (mha) area (Saharawat et al. 2012). India
1 alone covers approximately 76% of IGP, spreading in the
ICAR- Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research,
Karnal, Haryana 132001, India states of Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West
2 Bengal. Being staple food crops in the country, rice and
ICAR-Indian Institute of Rice Research, Hyderabad,
Telangana 500030, India wheat played a key role in minimizing the gap between
3 food grains demand and production. In recent years, coun-
ICAR- Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Bhopal,
Madhya Pradesh 462038, India try witnessed surplus food grains production through an
4 integrated approach of high-yielding varieties, disease and
ICAR- Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Regional
Research Station-Kukma, Bhuj, Gujarat 370105, India pest management, nutrient management, irrigation water
5 management and better mechanization. Rice and wheat
Indian Institute of Soil and Water Conservation, Regional
Centre, Chandigarh 160019, India production was reported as 34.6 million tonnes (mt) and 11
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574 Cereal Research Communications (2022) 50:573–601
quality of by-product (straw), degradation of soil structure

and irregular nature of rainfall. In fact, rice cultivation using
the conventional method is believed as water-, energy- and
capital-exhaustive practice (Bhatt et al. 2016).
India, a home to 17.7% of the world population, is the
prime consumer of water requiring 3000 billion cubic meters
annually (Vyas et al. 2019). India is the largest consumer of
groundwater accounting for about 230 k m3 of groundwater
use every year (TWB 2012). India receives nearly 4000 bil-
lion cubic meters of precipitation every year. However, only
48% of this water is stored in the surface and groundwater
bodies due to losses in various hydrological processes such
as runoff, water discharge through rivers to oceans, evapo-
ration and evapotranspiration (Verma and Phansalkar 2007;
Fig. 1 Trend of rice yield in South Asia ( Source: FAOSTAT) Dhawan 2017). A major portion (88–90%) of groundwater
extracted is used for irrigation purpose in agricultural fields
(Siebert et al. 2010; GoI 2014). Rice crop requires huge
mt, respectively, during 1960–1961, which is expected to amount of water than other cereal crops, and it consumes
rise to 122.3 and 109.5 mt, respectively, during 2020–2021 about 3000–5000 L of water to produce 1 kg of rice (Bou-
(PBAS 2019; PIB 2021). In the last one decade, slow growth man 2009; Geethalakshmi et al. 2011). Tuong and Bouman
in crop productivity has been registered, which may fur- (2003) reported that around 75% of global rice is produced
ther decline in near future due to some ongoing resource by raising the seedlings in a nursery followed by transplant-
guzzling practices. The trend of rice yield in South Asia is ing operation in puddled field. In addition to excessive water,
presented in Fig. 1. From 1998 onwards, Bangladesh wit- capital and energy demand, this practice of rice cultivation is
nessed a noble growth in rice yield, surpassing India and associated with soil degradation (Bhatt et al. 2016), loss of
Pakistan, and continues to uphold the growing trend. It was ecosystem (Nawaz et al. 2019) and environmental pollution
due to intensive use of modern technologies such as cul- (Jimmy et al. 2017).
tivation of high-yielding varieties, adoption of improved In the current scenario, when degradation of soil struc-
irrigation technologies and balanced fertilizer application ture, declining soil health, residue handling issues and harm-
(Ahmed 2004; Shew et al. 2019). In past few years, rice ful emissions from rice cultivated fields are taking place,
productivity in India looks stagnant, even it may decline in the sustainability of rice production system is questionable.
future due to over-exploitation of natural resources (Ladha In India, rice is cultivated on 44 mha area, accounting 20%
et al. 2009), low seed replacement rate (UPSDR 2019), poor of total rice production worldwide (Oo et al. 2018). It is
management of irrigation water, fertilizer and crop residue estimated that India needs to produce 130 mt rice by 2030
(Ladha et al. 2009), same cropping pattern over the years to meet the demand of the growing population (Gujja and
(Nambiar and Abrol 1989) and lack of awareness about Thiyagarajan 2009). To achieve the projected demand, use
consequences of faulty cultivation practices among farmers of high-yielding varieties, expansion of rice cultivation area
(Dis et al. 2015; UPSDR 2019). The problem is not limited and wet tillage would be required, but latter two practices
to India but also extends to other countries of IGP, where would further increase the irrigation water demand and
intensive tillage practices and confined agro-biodiversity greenhouse gas emissions (Oo et al. 2018). Considering all
degraded natural resources to a great extent. Researchers these aspects, an attempt has been made to critically review
questioned the sustainability of rice–wheat cropping sys- the challenges and opportunities in productivity and sustain-
tem under present challenges of stagnant yield (Ladha et al. ability of rice cultivation system in Indian perspective. Also,
2003a), soil degradation (Bhandari et al. 2002; Tripathi and attempts were made to highlight the possible alternatives and
Das 2017), declining water table (Humphreys et al. 2010) solutions to overcome the present challenges in rice culti-
and environmental pollution (Bijay-Singh et al. 2008). The vation system. The key challenges and intervening areas in
trend of the area covered under rice cultivation in South rice cultivation system are discussed in details under the
Asia is shown in Fig. 2. In IGP, most of the rice cultivated following sections:
area falls under Indian Territory, but this area was bounded
within 40–45 mha during 1988–2018. The stagnant and
limited spatial coverage of rice area is due to unavailability
of irrigation facility, high water requirement of the crop,
declining water table, labour-intensive cultivation, poor feed
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Cereal Research Communications (2022) 50:573–601 575
per year ( m3 y−1), which reduced to 1598 m 3 y−1 in 2011

as presented in Table 1. It has made India a water-stressed
country according to international norms (Dhawan 2017;
GoI 2018). Further, projected per-capita water availability is
expected to fall to 1174 m 3 y−1 by 2051 (GoI 2018). Water
stress to scarce condition would put enormous pressure on the
sustainability of water-guzzling crops like rice. Traditionally
grown rice requires around 200–240 cm of the water column
from nursery preparation to harvesting stage (Humphreys
et al. 2008; Chauhan et al. 2012). However, the actual amount
of water applied by the farmers is much higher especially
in light-textured soils (Timsina and Connor 2001). Over the
years, flood irrigation has become a common practice, even
Fig. 2 Trend of rice area in South Asia ( Source: FAOSTAT) water ponding is considered as necessary part of rice cultiva-
tion. Easily accessible and sufficient availability of irrigation
water in north-western India turned out rice–wheat cropping
Underground water table depletion system, a classical example of high productive system in non-
ideal soils for rice cultivation, which are porous, coarse and
India is the top user of groundwater around the world highly permeable in nature (Chauhan et al. 2012). However,
(Mukherjee et al. 2015), and it has about 25% share in intensive cultivation of rice–wheat cropping system in these
global groundwater consumption. In fact, the groundwater regions has forced the farmers to extract the groundwater
consumption of India is higher than collective groundwater with submersible pumps, which resulted in over-exploitation
use of China and USA (Margat and van der Gun 2013). The of groundwater. Singh and Kasana (2017) reported that area
unsystematic use of groundwater for irrigation caused wide- under the safe limit of groundwater (3.1–10 m) in Haryana
spread over-exploitation of groundwater resources (Rodell state reduced from 44 to 34%, while the area under critical
et al. 2009), which is not sustainable in long-term. In India, and over-exploited category of groundwater increased from
out of 160 mha cultivable land, only 68 mha cultivated area 56 to 64% and 4 to 23%, respectively, during 2004–2012. The
is covered with irrigation facilities, while about two-third decline in groundwater of many districts of Haryana was in
area is still rain-dependent (Dhawan 2017). About 61.6% of the tune of 0.7–1.1 m y −1. It was concluded that variations
irrigation water is extracted from groundwater through wells, in groundwater levels could be due to rice–wheat cropping
dug wells, shallow tube wells and deep tube wells (Suhag systems, irregular distribution of rainfall, over urbanization,
2016). The rate of groundwater level fall in India is probably variation in hydrogeological setup and different aquifer con-
the fastest globally (Aeschbach-Hertig and Gleeson 2012). ditions. The irregularity in annual rainfall of India is pre-
During the last three decades, underground water levels in sented in Fig. 3. The deviation of annual rainfall from mean
northern region of India have dropped from 8 to 16 m below value could be very high during the drought years. Moreover,
ground level, and in rest of India, it has declined from 1 to rainfall pattern makes this problem more complicated as dur-
8 m below ground level (Sekhri 2013). Another estimate ing the monsoon season, events of excessive rainfall and the
reports that north-western India lost 109 giga cubic meter large interval between two consecutive rainfall events take
of groundwater between 2002 and 2008 (Rodell et al. 2009). place. In the absence of rainfall events at a certain interval,
The rapid extraction and slow groundwater recharge caused rice cultivation requires a huge amount of irrigation water,
groundwater table to fall at a rate of about 1 m per year (m causing rapid extraction of groundwater, which is associated
y−1) in Punjab and Haryana, which may fall more rapidly in not only with water table depletion but also with carbon diox-
the coming years (Humphreys et al. 2010; Singh et al. 2014). ide (CO2) emissions, where engines and tractors are used as
In many cities of north-western India, the groundwater table the prime mover for pumping unit. Undoubtedly, excessive
is declining at a rate of 1.6 m y −1 (Singh et al. 2015). The rice cultivation in non-ideal soils, traditional rice cultivation
huge volumetric loss of groundwater and its faster declining practices and major dependency of irrigation on groundwa-
rate might be the cause for India becoming a home for 25% ter would put enormous pressure on natural resources. Fur-
of worldwide population living under water-scarce conditions thermore, the excessive use of chemicals and fertilizers in
(Mekonnen and Hoekstra 2016; Anonymous 2019a). The rice cultivation under coarse-textured soils also poses other
continuous decline of groundwater table has created water- threats of soil and groundwater contamination with harmful
stressed condition, affecting the per-capita water availability. chemicals.
In 1951, per-capita water availability was 5177 cubic meter
13
Table 1 Change in population Year Population (in Decadal change in Per-capita water avail- Decadal change in per-
and per-capita water availability millions) population (%) ability (m3 y−1) capita water availability
of India over the years (%)
1951 361 – 5177 –

1961 439 21.6 4987 −3.8
1971 548 24.8 4632 −7.7
1981 683 24.6 3498 −32.4
1991 846 23.9 2209 −58.4
2001 1029 21.6 1820 −21.4
2011 1210 17.6 1598 −13.9
2021* 1345 11.2 1421 −12.5
2031* 1463 8.8 1306 −8.8
2041* 1560 6.6 1225 −6.6
2051* 1628 4.4 1174 −4.3
*Estimated values
Sources: Anonymous (2019b), Babita and Kumar (2019)
Groundwater pollution locations, arsenic content of groundwater under rice culti-

vation exceeded the acceptable limit (10 µg L−1), raising
Groundwater pollution is a serious concern, which affects the contamination level up to 312 µg L−1 (Srivastava et al.
grain quality and health of human and animals. The excess 2015). The application of such polluted groundwater for
and untimely use of N-fertilizer is associated with nitrate irrigation purpose can lead to other problems of soil and
leaching, which pollutes the groundwater (Bhatt et al. grain toxicity.
2016). In a study, researchers found higher nitrate content
in groundwater of the regions where intensive rice–wheat
cropping system was practised (Bajwa 1993). The problem Soil and grain toxicity
of groundwater pollution is more serious in rice cultivat-
ing regions with coarse-textured soils, where frequent and It is extremely important to relook the practice of intensive
heavy irrigation is applied. Bouman et al. (2002) found rice cultivation under toxic soils and toxic irrigation water
higher N leaching losses under wet season rainfed rice as it could lead to grain toxicity, affecting the human health.
than irrigated rice. Pathak et al. (2009) observed higher The practice of growing rice in arsenic-contaminated soils
cumulative leaching losses of nitrogen (46–69 kg N ha−1) like in middle IGP escalates the possibility of soil and grains
in rice field than the wheat field (16–22 kg N ha−1). Rainfall contamination with arsenic beyond the safe limit (Srivastava
plays an important role in N losses, which can be as high et al. 2015). It was reported that arsenic content in soil under
as 18% of applied nitrogen in high rainfall years (Pathak rice cultivation exceeded the allowable limits of 20 mg kg−1,
et al. 2009). Wang et al. (2015a) reported that intensive rice raising the contamination level up to 35 mg kg−1. Moreo-
cultivation practice in subtropical China led to moderate ver, arsenic toxicity in the grains was found in the range of
ammonium-N (NH4-N) pollution of shallow groundwater. It 0.179–0.932 mg kg−1, leaving 8 of 17 varieties unsafe for
was concluded that flooded land and excessive N-fertilizer human consumption. Dhillon and Dhillon (1991) found sele-
rate could lead to worse N H4–N and nitrate–N ( NO3–N) nium toxicity in the soil and plants when selenium contami-
pollution, respectively. Coarse-textured soils leach N more nated irrigation water was used for irrigation in rice–wheat
rapidly than heavy-textured soils, and N leaching under cropping system under silty loam soils for a longer period.
such soils is highly dependent on N-fertilizer application The intensive cultivation of frequent irrigation requiring
(Benbi 1990). Though it is very difficult to stop the nitro- crops like low land rice turned out one of the major factors
gen leaching completely, better management practices by responsible for the deposition of seleniferous material in the
adopting the proper irrigation and fertilizer scheduling can soil, leaving more than 100 ha area under selenium toxicity
minimize the leaching losses and improve N-use efficiency (Dhillon and Dhillon 1991). Sara et al. (2017) observed that
(Singh et al. 1995). The cultivation of high water requiring arsenic and selenium content of soil increased with duration
crop like rice in arsenic-contaminated soils like in mid- of rice monoculture system. The increase in arsenic and sele-
dle IGP of northern India carries the threat of groundwater nium concentration in soil caused toxicity in rice grain. The
contamination with arsenic (Srivastava et al. 2015). In many anaerobic condition in rice cultivation affects nutrient uptake
13
Fig. 3 Annual rainfall and 160 Annual rainfall (cm) Deviation from mean rainfall (%)
deviation from mean rainfall
of India during 1988–2018 140
Source: Somasundar (2014),
Jaganmohan (2020) 120
100
80
60
40
20
0
1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018
-20
-40 Year
by the plants and production of toxic substances (De Datta and strip tillage-based transplanting. The adoption of such
1981). Tran (1998) also reported that long-term soil pud- rice cultivation practices under conservation agriculture
dling and rice monoculture system increases the risk of soil (CA) either on a flat or permanent bed and diversified crop-
toxicities. Shah et al. (2021) highlighted the toxic residues ping systems with wetting and drying irrigation method
of pesticides and metalloids in rice grain under flooded rice could be effective to improve the soil structure (Singh et al.
cultivation system. Needless to say that intensive rice culti- 2005a; Bakti et al. 2010; Chauhan et al. 2012).
vation with puddling and flooding method projects the health
risk associated with soil and grain toxicity in long-term. Sara
et al. (2017) recommended to control these elements with Soil health deterioration
prior importance by employing the different actions includ-
ing crop rotations, soil amendments, etc. The intensive tillage, puddling operation and excessively
cultivation of rice–wheat cropping system deteriorated
health, structure and nutrient balance of the soils in
Degradation of soil structure north-western India. Killebrew and Wolff (2010) reported
that long-term intensive rice cultivation system led to
Rice cultivation using conventional method requires inten- soil salinization, nutrient deficiencies, soil toxicities and
sive wet tillage primarily to reduce the percolation losses reduced capacity of the soil to supply the nitrogen to the
and to suppress the weed growth. The repeated puddling plant roots. Such changes can lead to reduced yield and
operation creates an impervious layer at 15–20 cm depth, abandonment of paddy fields in long-term. In other stud-
which restricts water infiltration and root growth (Aggar- ies, Boparai et al. (1992) and Mohanty and Painuli (2004)
wal et al. 1995; Kukal and Aggarwal 2003). The negative observed that long-term water submergence and mineral
effects of subsurface compaction on the establishment, fertilization practices in conventional rice cultivation
seed emergence, root growth and yield of succeeding crop resulted in degraded soil quality in terms of disintegra-
are of major concern (Kukal and Aggarwal 2003). The pud- tion of stable aggregates and reduced soil organic matter.
dling operation deteriorates the soil structure by damaging The concerns have been expressed on the sustainability
the soil aggregates, breaking the capillary pores and dis- of high yield of crops due to intensive rice cultivation
persing the fine clay particles (Aggarwal et al. 1995). Bakti system and multiple harvests of crops in a year (Livsey
et al. (2010) recommended that in fine-textured soil like et al. 2019). The sustainability of rice production under
clay having low percolation rate, puddling, which is capital rice–wheat cropping system in Punjab has been reported
intensive and detrimental to soil structure, should be mini- at risk due to soil degradation and declining water table
mized. It would be beneficial for soil health and its func- (Dhaliwal et al. 2020) along with inadequate crop residue
tionality to replace the puddled transplanted rice (PTR) recycling and lack of organic fertilization. These changes
with lesser intensive cultivation practices such as zero-till- in soil–water environment led to micro-nutrients defi-
based mechanized transplanting, direct-seeded rice (DSR) ciencies and yield stagnation (Dobermann and Fairhurst
13
2002; Yadvinder-Singh and Bijay-Singh 2003). However, along with inorganic fertilizers are required to reverse the
such negative impacts can be lowered by adopting rice in trend and improve the crop response in long run.
combination with leguminous crops and rice–oilseed crop
rotation (Chen et al. 2012; Meetei et al. 2020). Moreover,
shifting the rice monoculture to rice–fish farming showed Decreasing water productivity
positive effects on soil health in terms of labile pool of
C fractions, microbial populations, nutrients and soil fer- In the scenario of depleting groundwater table, decreased
tility in addition to environmental sustainability (Bihari water productivity is of major concern, which has been
et al. 2015). The problem of declining soil health becomes reported from different agro-climatic zones of the coun-
worse with the burning of rice residue, which results in try (Humphreys et al. 2010; Bhatt 2015). Decreased
20–100% loss of precious nutrients retained in the residue water productivity along with deteriorating water table
(Singh et al. 2008). In response to nutrient losses with can hamper the objective of sufficient grains production
residue burning, farmers have to apply more fertilizers in future. It requires urgent attention to increase the water
to obtain a similar crop yield, which raises the cost of productivity of crops especially C3 crops like rice, which
cultivation. It needs urgent attention to improve the soil are less water efficient. This can be achieved by grabbing
health in which residue retention on the soil surface and the opportunities at biological, environment and man-
seeding with zero-till practice can play significant roles agement levels (Sharma et al. 2015). Rice (lowland) is a
(Malik and Yadav 2008; Sidhu et al. 2008). Extending less water productive crop (0.2–1.2 kg m−3) as compared
the resource conservation technologies (RCTs) for rice to wheat (0.8–1.6 kg m −3) and maize (1.6–3.9 kg m −3)
cultivation under conventional and CA along with soil (Sharma et al. 2015). While the Punjab and Haryana
water potential-based irrigation scheduling could be effec- states of India report the highest land productivity (4
tive to improve the soil health and environmental qual- tonnes per hectare) for rice, the water productivity is
ity (Dwivedi et al. 2003; Gupta and Sayre 2007; Jat et al. relatively low at 0.22–0.60 kg m −3, even though these
2010). states have almost 100% irrigation coverage. It signifies
the inappropriate use of irrigation water. Puddling and
flooding operations in lowland rice production system
consume a major portion of irrigation amount, causing
Declining crop response lesser water productivity. The PTR requires 15–25 cm
water column for saturation and flooding of soil (Tuong
The decline in crop response to applied fertilizers is a seri- 1999). However, puddling method also reduces deep
ous concern, causing the farmers to apply fertilizers above drainage losses by lowering the infiltration rate, which
the recommended dose in an injudicious way. Although is generally high in the absence of puddling in coarse-
crop response to P and K fertilizers can be realized only textured soils (Sharma et al. 2004). The reduction in
after 5–10 years, it is necessary to apply these fertilizers infiltration rate depends on soil texture, tillage inten-
along with N as the application of N-fertilizer alone in sity and puddling operations, water table and depth
long-term can cause yield decline in rice–wheat cropping of floodwater (Gajri et al. 1999; Kukal and Aggarwal
system (Bhatt et al. 2016). The low fertilizer use efficiency 2002). Bouman and Tuong (2001) reported that rice
due to fertilizer losses as surface runoff, leaching, volatili- performs well in terms of yield when continuous flood-
zation and unfavourable soil moisture is one of the major ing or saturated soil condition is maintained. Rice yield
reasons for declining crop response to applied fertilizers. reduces when soil moisture drops below to saturation
Moreover, long-term practice of same cropping sequence level. Technologies such as alternate wetting and drying
like rice–wheat in IGP over the years, injudicious and (AWD), a system of rice intensification (SRI), bed plant-
unbalanced application of fertilizers, inappropriate tim- ing, DSR and soil mulching have been adopted to reduce
ing of fertilizer application and low soil organic matter the water inputs and improving the water productivity
are other factors responsible for declining crop response to (Tuong et al. 2005). Tabbal et al. (2002) reported that
applied fertilizers (Chauhan et al. 2012; Bhatt et al. 2016). rice cultivation in saturated soil culture required 30–60%
In rice–wheat cropping system, the net negative balance lesser water, which increased the water productivity by
of NPK is 2.22 mt per annum for IGP (Tandon 2007). The 30–115% over conventional practice. However, a yield
current trend of decline in crop response to applied fertiliz- penalty of 4–9% was levied on rice cultivation in satu-
ers would create more difficulties for any further improve- rated soil culture as compared to conventional practice.
ment in crop productivity. Therefore, soil and water man- Water-saving in AWD method is attributed to a reduction
agement, integration of green or brown manuring, growing in seepage and drainage losses (Tuong et al. 1994). This
of dual-purpose pulses and addition of organic manure practice of irrigation is usually applied to DSR in which
13
water required for raising the nursery and transplanting et al. 2003a). A more yield decline has been witnessed in
the rice is eliminated. However, the duration of DSR is rice as compared to wheat under rice–wheat cropping sys-
longer than PTR, which would require higher water for tem (Ladha et al. 2003b). However, generally, it is argued
evapotranspiration process than conventionally cultivated that wheat yield suffers more after PTR due to soil structure
rice (Cabangon et al. 2002; Humphreys et al. 2010). degradation (Humphreys et al. 1994; Bhushan and Sharma
Researchers asserted that net water savings depends on 1999). Ladha et al. (2003b) suggested to adopt the suitable
water saved from longer irrigation interval and additional agronomic and soil management practices for sustaining and
water required in pursuance to deep drainage losses in improving the crop productivity.
DSR as compared to PTR. A few researchers reported
that lesser irrigation amount was required in DSR than
PTR with or without yield penalty (Jat et al. 2009; Yadav Diverse weed flora
et al. 2010). The yield of DSR reduced rapidly when the
soil was permitted to dry beyond soil moisture tension of Weeds are the major problem in rice cultivation. Effec-
20 kPa (Yadav et al. 2010). These findings suggest that tive weed management plays an important role in the
it is essential to reduce the unproductive water outflows overall profitability of any cropping system. The
to improve the water productivity of rice, which may be destruction of weeds with puddling is the main reason
accomplished by soil water potential-based frequently for ongoing traditional practice in rice cultivation. How-
irrigated DSR. Water-saving techniques such as micro- ever, intensive rice cultivation over the years confined
irrigation systems (sprinkler and drip irrigation) proved the eco-biodiversity and weed spectrum, and therefore,
as cutting edge technology for improving the water use specific weeds develop more resistance against herbi-
efficiency and conserving the water due to elimination of cides and compete with crop plants for water, nutrient
conveyance losses, evaporation from the water surface, and energy. Crop diversification can effectively change
runoff losses, etc. (Meena et al. 2015). Technologies such the weed spectrum and reduce weed infestation and
as CA should be promoted and practised on a large scale resistance (Chhokar and Malik 2002). Unlike in tradi-
to improve the water productivity of crops. Agronomical tional practice, DSR restricts the weed seed distribution
practices such as rice cultivation on a raised bed with and weed killing and leaves 60–90% weed seeds in the
furrow irrigation, DSR with cultivars of high stress toler- top layer of the soil (Swanton et al. 2000; Chauhan et al.
ance index, unpuddled transplanted rice and DSR with 2006). The diverse weed flora consisting of grasses,
straw mulching would be effective approaches to increase broadleaved and sedges infest rice crop depending on the
the water productivity without much effect on the rice rice culture and management practices adopted as well
yield (Mahajan et al. 2011; Kar et al. 2018). Needless to as soil and climate conditions. The major weeds found
say that India also need to review the present scenario of in the rice fields in South Asia are mentioned in Table 2.
producing the higher water requiring crops such as rice Echinochloa crus-galli and Echinochloa colona are the
and sugarcane in water-stressed areas (Dhawan 2017). major weeds found in different rice ecologies (aerobic
as well as anaerobic rice) in Asian countries. There are
many weeds such as Dactyloctenium aegyptium, Digi-
Declining factor productivity taria sanguinalis, Digera arvensis, Trianthema portu-
lacastrum and Cyperus rotundus, which do not infest
The declining trend of total factor productivity in agriculture puddle transplanted rice but found in abundance in DSR
is a severe threat to sustainable farming and food security. In and cause huge yield reductions (Chhokar et al. 2014).
recent years, a significant portion of the cultivable land faced Overall, DSR has diverse weed flora due to alternate
stagnation or negative growth in total factor productivity wetting and dry conditions. Further, the losses caused
(Kumar and Mittal 2006). In low land of Asia, excessive till- by weeds in rice depend upon weed densities, nature
age led to degradation of land resource base, which reduced of weed flora, duration of weed competition as well as
the productivity growth of primary cereals like rice and crop establishment methods (Diarra et al. 1985; Fis-
wheat (Pingali and Heisey 2001). In north-western India, cher and Ramirej 1993; Eleftherohorinos et al. 2002;
the rice–wheat cropping system has been associated with Chhokar et al. 2014). Crop establishment methods such
environmental degradation along with stagnant or declin- as direct seeding (under dry or wet conditions) or trans-
ing crop productivity, thereby posing a threat to sufficient planting (under puddled or unpuddled conditions) have
grain production (Aggarwal et al. 2000). A few researchers strong influence on weed diversity and intensity. Numer-
stated that declining factor productivity and degrading soil ous studies have reported higher yield losses in direct
and water resources have threatened the sustainability of seeding compared to transplanting in rice cultivation.
rice–wheat cropping system (Hobbs and Morris 1996; Ladha (Walia et al. 2008; Chauhan 2012; Chhokar et al. 2014).
13
Based on the large number of farm trials (Gharade et al.

2018), weeds in India caused a loss of about 15–66% in
Rao et al. (2007), Kumar and Ladha (2011),

DSR and 6–30% in PTR. Similarly, other workers also
reported that weeds cause worldwide, 30–100 per cent
rice grain yield reductions in DSR (Oerke and Dehne
2004; Rao et al. 2007; Kumar and Ladha 2011; Chhokar
et al. 2014). The higher yield reductions in DSR com-
Chhokar et al. (2014) pared to PTR are due to infestation of diverse weed flora
in abundance and their emergence before or along with
the crop as well as in several flushes, whereas in PTR
crop has an advantage of about one-month-old seedlings
References
over weeds (Chhokar et al. 2014; Rao et al. 2007). More-

over, standing water during the initial stages reduces
weeds germination and also improves the herbicides
effects. Hill and Hawkins (1996) reported that same rela-
Cyperus difformis L. (Smallflower umbrella-
nutsedge); Fimbristylis miliacea (L.) Vahl

(Fringerush); Scirpus maritimus L. (Salt-
tive E. crus-galli density caused a 20% yield reduction

nutsedge); Cyperus rotundus L. (Purple
in PTR compared to 70% in DSR. Besides yield losses,

sedge); Cyperus. esculentus (Yellow
weed infestation also reduces rice quality (Menzes et al.

1997). Worldwide, rice is grown under different ecolo-
gies ranging from an upland to lowland situations, but
maximum area is occupied with PTR, where fields are
flooded during the most of the crop duration. The depth
marsh bulrush)
of the water influences the type and density of the weed

flora (Kent and Johnson 2001; Kumar and Ladha 2011).
However, the scarce and costly labour for transplanting
Sedges
is forcing to shift towards the DSR. The labour problem

has been aggravated recently due to Covid-19 pandemic
in northern India (Haryana and Punjab) and as a result,
(L.) Beauv (Barnyard grass); Eleucine indica Roxb (Water primerose); Marselia quadrifo-
lia L. (Water clover); Monochoria vaginalis
Hassk (False daisy); Ludwigia parviflora L.
mon purslane); Trianthema portulacastrum

(Gale of the wind); Physalis minima (Little
gooseberry); Portulaca oleracia L. (Com-
Commelina benghalensis L. (Day flower);
many farmers shifted from PTR to DSR. However, for

Digera arvensis Forsk; Eclipta alba (L.)
Ammennia baccifera (Monarch redstem);
(Pickerel weed); Phyllanthus niruri L.
long-term success of DSR, two pre-requisites are selec-

tion of suitable varieties and efficient weed management
(Chhokar et al. 2014).
In DSR, single pre- or post-application of herbicide fails
to control the diverse weed flora and combination of herbi-
cides either in tank mixture or in sequence is required to have
L. (Horsepurslane)
effective control of broad-spectrum weeds. The application

of pre-emergence pendimethalin or oxadiargyl followed by
Broadleaved
either bispyribac or penoxsulam in combination with eth-

oxysulfuron or pyrazosulfuron controls the diverse weed
Table 2 Major weed flora of rice fields in South Asia
flora in DSR. Fenoxaprop + safener (Rice Star) effectively

controls the problematic weeds, Dactyloctenium aegyptium
L. Gaertn (Goose grass); Eragrotis japonica
(Large crabgrass); Echinochloa colona (L.)
footgrass); Digitaria sanguinalis (L.) Scop
Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) Willd (Crow
Link (Jungle rice); Echinochloa crus-galli
and Digitaria sanguinalis. Also, the ready mixture of tria-

sativa L. (Wild rice); Panicum repense L.
(Torpedo grass); Paspalum distichum L.
(Thunb.) Trin (Pond lovegrass); Oryza
famone + ethoxysulfuron as well as penoxsulam + cyhalo-

fop can be utilized for diverse weed flora control. The sole
(Seashore paspalum/Knotgrass)
dependency on herbicide is not desirable due to the risk of

evolution and spread of herbicide resistant weeds. Weedy
rice or red rice (O. sativa f. spontanea) has turned out as
a major challenge in rice cultivation where PTR has been
replaced with DSR (Kumar and Ladha 2011). In fact, weedy
rice problem in Malaysia has left some farmers to switch
Grass weeds
back to transplanting method of rice cultivation to control

it. Therefore, for effective weed management in long-term,
herbicides in mixtures and rotations should be supported
13
with multiple non-chemical weed control strategies such Table 3 Residue production from various crops in India over the
as stale seed bed, competitive cultivars, crop rotation, use years
of weed free seed and mechanical weeding to remove the Year Residue production (in million tonnes)
weeds before seed setting. In addition, the development and
Rice Wheat Maize Sugarcane
large-scale adoption of herbicide-tolerant rice in future will
simplify and provide cost-effective diverse weed flora con- 1950–1951 28.81 8.40 3.98 21.68
trol in DSR. 1960–1961 48.41 14.30 9.38 41.80
1970–1971 59.11 30.98 17.23 48.02
1980–1981 75.08 47.20 16.01 58.62
Labour scarcity 1990–1991 104.01 71.68 20.61 91.60
2000–2001 118.94 90.58 27.69 112.46
The labour scarcity and higher labour cost are the emerg- 2010–2011 134.37 112.93 49.98 130.10
ing challenges in rice production system (Lauren et al. 2011–2012 147.42 123.34 50.05 137.20
2008). The labour shortage causes the delay in rice trans- 2012–2013 147.32 121.56 51.20 129.66
plantation, which may reduce the yield by 30–70% upon 2013–2014 149.31 124.61 55.80 133.81
delay of 1–2 months (Rao and Pradhan 1973). The prob- 2014–2015 147.67 112.49 55.59 137.69
lem of a labour shortage during the rice transplantation 2015–2016 146.17 119.98 51.91 132.41
and wheat-sowing season arises due to engagement of 2016–2017 153.58 128.06 59.57 116.31
labour in assured working scheme like MGNREGA by 2017–2018 157.86 129.83 66.13 144.36
Government of India. Rice transplantation is very labo- 2018–2019 162.99 132.85 62.63 152.06
rious, tedious and time-consuming operation, which
Residue production has been calculated from yield data of rice,
requires 300–350 man-h ha−1 (Bhatt et al. 2016). It has wheat, maize and sugarcane (Source: PBAS 2019) with their residue-
also been observed that manual random transplanting of to-product ratio as 1.4, 1.3, 2.3 and 0.33, respectively
rice results in lesser seedlings per unit area compared
to the recommended level of 30–40 plants per square
meter. Mechanical transplanting of rice is being adopted, Residue management challenges
which requires only 40 man-h h a −1 to tackle the issues
of labour scarcity, higher labour cost and delay in rice In India, more than 686 mt of crop residue is generated
transplantation (Mohanty et al. 2010). After harvesting every year, of which 234 mt is surplus (Hiloidhari et al.
the rice with combine harvesters, the problems of critical 2014). Around 368 mt crop residue is generated from
window period between rice harvest and wheat sowing, cereal crops in which rice and wheat contribute approxi-
labour scarcity and higher labour cost involved in manual mately 154 and 131 mt, respectively (Hiloidhari et al.
residue handling encourage the farmers to adopt the prac- 2014). Along with the crop production, residue gener-
tice of residue burning to avoid any delay in wheat sow- ated from the agriculture sector is increasing every year
ing. The farmers of Punjab and Haryana regions are more as given in Table 3. Among the various crop residues,
concerned about timely seeding of wheat as its yield is management of rice residue and sugarcane trash has
reduced by 26.8 kg day−1 ha−1, when sowing is done after been very challenging due to its poor feed quality owing
30th November (Tripathi et al. 2005). The research focus to higher silica content, narrow window period between
on machinery development, subsidiary on residue handling rice harvest and wheat sowing, higher cost of residue
machines and ban on crop residue burning by Govern- handling machines, labour-intensive operation of residue
ment of India have prompted the farmers to adopt alter- removal and lack of storage and energy generation sys-
nate practices for residue management. However, it would tems. These challenges force the farmers of north-western
require more research focus on machinery development for India to adopt the injudicious practice of residue burn-
multi-cropping systems, awareness of farmers about con- ing as an economical option for timely sowing of wheat
sequences of residue burning, set-up of industries engaged into combine harvested rice fields. Such unfair practices
in manufacturing of residue-based products at block level degrade the environment by contaminating the air with
and schemes like incentives for supplying the raw materi- carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide ( CO2), methane
als, i.e. crop residues to such industries. (CH4) and particulate matter. In fact, air quality index of
National Capital Region of India falls sever to emergency
level during the rice-harvest and wheat-sowing season
(APRC 2018). Crop residue burning is also associated
with other problems such as loss of nutrients retained in
the residue, global warming and soil health deterioration.
13
Hence, the farmers have been suggested to use the rice tillage or reduced tillage along with anchored crop residue
residue for manure, energy production, biogas production, can build up a better soil environment along with lessened
ethanol generation, gasification, biochar and mushroom impact on the environment, leading to climate resilience
cultivation according to easily accessible option to them crop production system. The non-conventional seeding
(Fig. 4). A few researchers reported that incorporation of practice, i.e. direct drilling, allows in-situ management of
residue in the soil is an effective in-situ residue manage- crop residue and timely seeding of crops. It also provides
ment option, which improves the soil health in long-term the yield advantage to crops, while saving the time, water
(Kumar and Goh 2000; Sidhu and Beri 2005; Bijay-Singh (10–15%) and diesel (70–80%) along with reduced impact
et al. 2008). However, higher energy requirement and tem- on the environment (Erenstein and Laxmi 2008; Erenstein
porary immobilization of nitrogen are the key challenges 2009; Mishra and Singh 2012). Despite multiple benefits,
in this method, which increases the cost of cultivation the adoption of these technologies is not very impressive
(Singh et al. 2005b, 2020). The surface retention of rice at farmers’ field. Therefore, more efforts on the develop-
residue by direct seeding the wheat or other crops with ment of suitable seeding machines for multi-cropping sys-
resource conserving machines such as zero-till drill, strip- tems under conventional and CA and their popularization
till drill, mulcher, punch planter, Happy Seeder and Rotary are required for effective in-situ residue management on
Disc Drill emerged as more promising option for residue large scale at farmers’ field. Custom hiring service needs
management (Sidhu et al. 2007, 2015; Sharma et al. 2008). to be promoted at block and village level to overcome the
Researchers reported multiple benefits of reduced soil ero- issue of costly residue handling and seedling machines for
sion, improved soil organic carbon, reduced water losses farmers belonging to small- and medium-land holdings.
through evaporation and less emergence of weeds in direct Moreover, utilization of crop residue for industrial and
seeding of wheat under residue covered field (Ding et al. energy applications requires infrastructure development,
2002; Humphreys et al. 2010; Sidhu et al. 2015). Busari establishment of residue collection centres at block level,
et al. (2015) concluded that conservation tillage either zero build-up of strong supply chains, policy interventions,
Fig. 4 Different in-field and off-field options for residue management
13
72 20000
y = 90.212x - 162090
70 R² = 0.92
Share of agriculture sector in CH4 19500
Amount of CH4 emission from

y = -0.4349x + 936.16
agriculture sector (gigagrams)

68 R² = 0.99
19000
emission (%)
66
18500
64
18000
62
17500
60
58 17000
1989 1999 2009 2019 1989 1999 2009 2019
Year Year
(a) (b)
84 800
750
83
Share of agriculture sector in N2O
y = -0.1482x + 378.07 y = 11.083x - 21610

Amount of N2O emission from
agriculture sector (gigagrams)
R² = 0.86 700 R² = 0.95
82
650
emission (%)
81 600
550
80
500
79
450
78 400
1989 1999 2009 2019 1989 1999 2009 2019
Year Year
(c) (d)
Fig. 5 Figure depicting (a) share of agriculture sector in C

H4 emission, (b) amount of C
H4 emission from agriculture sector, (c) share of agricul-
ture sector in N
2O emission, (d) amount of N2O emission from agriculture sector ( Source: FAOSTAT)
large-scale trainings and incentives to farmers to drive the 2019). The graph plotted using the data taken from FAO
sustainable residue management mission. shows a consistent decrease in the contribution of the agri-
culture sector to C H4 emission during 1990–2017 (Fig. 5a).
However, interestingly amount of CH4 emission emitted
Environmental pollution from agriculture sector consistently increased for the same
period (Fig. 5b). Needless to say that other sectors emitted
The agriculture sector has been a major source of methane CH4 emissions in a faster way than agriculture. But changes
(CH4) and nitrous oxide ( N2O) emissions, primarily driven in agricultural practices such as increased cultivable area
from flood-based rice cultivation (Kritee et al. 2018), use especially under rice cultivation, an overdose application
of synthetic fertilizers (Zschornack et al. 2018) and resi- of fertilizers and residue burning have elevated CH4 emis-
due burning practices (Jain et al. 2014). Such emissions can sions significantly. Similarly, the amount of N 2O emission
raise the global warming potential to 10 times in rice season emitted from agriculture sector consistently increased during
than winter (Zschornack et al. 2018). It is estimated that 1990–2017 (Fig. 5c and 5d). Apart from CH4 and N2O emis-
agriculture is the largest sector, contributing about 44% of sions, the traditional practice of rice cultivation significantly
anthropogenic methane emissions (Janssens-Maenhout et al. contributes to other greenhouse gas emissions, too. Puddling
13
operation in mechanized rice cultivation consumes much Global warming

amount of fuel and thereby raises CO2 level in the envi-
ronment. Also, more water requiring crops are responsible Global warming is an emerging serious threat to agri-
for higher C O2 emission as compared to other crops in the culture sector. Greenhouse gases like CH4, CO2 and N2O
areas where stationary diesel engines or tractors are used trap the short wave radiation, causing a net increase in the
for pumping out the water. The burning of 1 L of diesel sup- global temperature. The comparative assessment of differ-
plies 2.67 kg of C O2 to the environment. The problems of ent crops should be made not only based on yield poten-
environmental pollution from rice cultivation are not limited tial but also their emission intensity, i.e. net return to the
to its growth period but also after harvesting of rice. Eco- environment. For instance, the production of 1 kg rice
nomic constraints, unavailability of suitable residue handling returns 0.71 kg CO2 equivalent (CO2-eq) emissions to the
machines and poor feed quality of rice residue encourage the environment as compared to 0.27 kg C O 2-eq emissions
farmers to adopt the unfair practice of residue burning for per kg production of other cereals (Source: FAOSTAT). In
quick in-situ management of residue and timely seeding of addition to this, huge amount of residue generated from
wheat. It creates a huge burden on the environment during rice and sugarcane crops creates management challenges
the rice-harvesting and wheat-sowing season. Kumar et al. and farmers burn the residue for timely sowing of wheat
(2019) estimated the loss due to residue burning by taking especially in IGP. The total carbon present in rice resi-
nutrient losses, yield loss, soil biodiversity, irrigation, health due converts to C O 2 (70%), CO (7%), C H4 (0.66%) and
and other factors into consideration. It was observed that res- particulate matter, while 2.09% nitrogen to N2O gas upon
idue burning in north-western India caused losses to the tune burning (NPMCR 2014). The burning of crop residue is
of Rs. 8953 per hectare. As far as CH4 and N 2O emissions not only associated with air pollution but also with loss
are concerned, better water management practices can lower of precious nutrients retained in the crop residue. Dur-
these emissions from the rice fields. CH4 emission reduces ing the crop residue burning, almost 100% carbon, more
significantly with intermittent irrigation approach, while than 90% nitrogen, 20–25% phosphorus and potassium
N2O emission rises under such conditions, thereby creating a and about 60% sulphur are lost in the form of various
trade-off between CH4 and N2O emissions (Yue et al. 2005). gases and particulate matter (Singh et al. 2008). The gases
However, CH4 emission plays a dominant role in greenhouse emitted from crop residue burning can cause radiation
gas emissions. The excessive use of fertilizer, chemicals and imbalance, leading to harmful effects such as more aero-
non-renewable energy in PTR raises other emissions of C O2, sols in the region, acid rain and ozone layer depletion.
oxides of nitrogen (NOx), oxides of sulphur (SOx) and heavy Hence, like in other crops, farmers should adopt residue
metal (Jimmy et al. 2017). It is important to optimize N-fer- management and RCTs in rice cultivation as well for a
tilizer doses to improve its uptake efficiency and to reduce sustainable farming. Ma et al. (2019) found that global
the losses and emission load on the environment (Ju et al. warming potential (GWP) and greenhouse gas intensity
2009; Qiao et al. 2012). A shift in cultivation method from (GHGI) reduced by 12.6–59.9% and 10.5–65.8%, respec-
PTR + residue retention to non-puddled transplanting using tively, by returning the wheat crop waste to the soil in
strip tillage + residue retention can mitigate 15–30% green- the form of straw, straw-derived biochar and straw with
house gas emissions (CO2 equivalent emission) along with straw-decomposing microbial inoculants over no straw
the benefit of carbon storage in the soil (Alam et al. 2016, return practice. Sapkota et al. (2017) and Chen et al.
2019). The adoption of cultivation practices such as DSR (2021) highlighted the use of no-tillage with residue
on flat or permanent beds, zero-till mechanized transplant- retention practice to combat the global warming poten-
ing and strip tillage + transplanting can alleviate harmful tial in rice–wheat and rice–rice cropping systems. The
impacts of puddling method on the environment. However, return of crop residue to the soil should be in the form
it requires more research efforts to address weed control, of mulching as residue incorporation into soil can raise
soil-borne pathogens and grain quality challenges of rice C H 4 emissions by 3.2–3.9 times of straw-induced SOC
cultivated under non-puddled practices (Kumar et al. 2011). sequestration rate, thereby worsening the GWP rather
A shift from intensive cereal–cereal production system to than mitigating climate change (Xia et al. 2014). In a
leguminous-cereal cultivation or replacing rice–wheat with different study, Pittelkow et al. (2014) found that poten-
maize–wheat cropping system periodically under zero-till or tial yield of rice along with minimal yield-scaled GWP
CA practice could be beneficial for sustainable food grain is achievable by using the optimal doses of N-fertilizer.
production. The integrated approach of adopting low dura- Nemecek et al. (2012) highlighted the lowest GWP for
tion and lesser water requiring varieties, water management, sugar crops (< 0.05 kg C O 2-eq k g −1) followed by root
residue management and RCTs in rice cultivation can miti- crops (< 0.15 kg CO 2-eq kg −1) and vegetable and fruits
gate the environmental pollution. (< 0.35 kg CO2-eq kg−1). Cereals (except rice) and pulses
13
were found to have medium GWP (< 0.6 kg CO2-eq kg−1), imparting heat stress tolerance in rice (Li et al. 2015; Shen
while oil crops (cotton, peanuts) and rice exhibited the et al. 2015). The O. glaberrima allele of TT1 was shown
highest GWP (1.2–2.4 kg CO2-eq kg−1). Needless to say to be more efficient in degradation of cytotoxic denatured
that it would be beneficial to the environment and agro- proteins during the heat stress. Another gene OsDPB3-2
ecosystem to replace the higher GWP posing cereal crop (LOC_Os03g63530) imparts heat stress tolerance in rice
with vegetable, sugar or root crops in cereal–cereal crop- through positive regulation of dehydration-responsive ele-
ping system. The better water management techniques ment binding protein 2A (DREB2A). Notably, the over-
replacing the continuous flooding in rice cultivation expression of DPB did not show any phenotypic aberra-
might be effective to reduce the GWP further from rice- tions suggesting that it can be used as candidate gene for
based cropping systems (Jiang et al. 2019a). improving thermotolerance in rice (Sato et al. 2016).
Similarly, stress due to cold temperature at seedling and
booting stages can cause severe loss to rice grain produc-
Abiotic stress challenges in rice tion (Xiao et al. 2018). In rice, a pathway mediated by CBF/
DREB1 play a crucial role in cold tolerance (Chinnusamy
Rice can be grown in most diverse ecologies; however, its et al. 2007; Ritonga and Chen 2020). Other transcription fac-
growth and productivity are severely affected by abiotic tors such as OsMYB4, MYBS3, OsbHLH002 and OsMAPK3
factors such as heat stress, cold stress, salinity, flood and positively regulate the cold stress tolerance response in
drought (Biswal et al. 2019). The severity and intensity of rice (Su et al. 2010). Fujino et al. (2008) identified that
these abiotic stresses are increasing due to climate change qLTG3–1 (Os03g0103300) encoding protein of unknown
(Pereira 2016). With the continuous increase in greenhouse function is important for germination at low temperature.
gases and extensive human interference in the environment, Cultivars harbouring tolerant allele of qLTG3–1 or over-
adverse effects of climate change are likely to increase. The expressing rice lines showed low-temperature germinabil-
prediction models have shown severe rice yield losses under ity phenotype, suggesting variations in promoter region of
intensive climate warming scenarios (Zhao et al. 2016). tolerant and susceptible alleles. In a crucial study, a gene
Increased concentration of CO2 and fluctuations in tempera- responsible for cold tolerance of japonica rice was cloned
ture and precipitation would impact the rice growth and pro- and characterized through QTL analysis. COLD1 (Chilling
ductivity severely due to significant effects of these factors Tolerance; LOC_Os04 g51180) was found to be a key player
in photosynthesis and other important metabolic processes associated with chilling tolerance, which acts through acti-
(Liu et al. 2017; Wang et al. 2020). A recent study suggested vation of C a++ channel by interacting with G protein and
that elevated levels of CO2 also affected protein, iron, zinc regulating G protein signalling at plasma membrane (Ma
and vitamins content of rice cultivars grown in Asia, thereby et al. 2015). Interestingly, a single nucleotide polymorphism
posing a serious challenge to human health (Zhu et al. 2018). (SNP) at the 15th nucleotide of the 4th exon of COLD1A was
Temperature is one of the most critical abiotic factors which attributed to difference in low-temperature-tolerant japonica
influences the rice production, productivity and grain quality and susceptible indica cultivars. The susceptible genotypes
directly. Heat stress affects rice growth and metabolism and had T/C instead of A present in tolerant genotypes, which
has severe impact on all the growth phases, especially seed- resulted in Met187/Thr187 (susceptible) to Lys187 (toler-
ling and reproductive stage (Sailaja et al. 2015; Bhogireddy ant) substitution. The tolerant allele was suggested to be
et al. 2021). In a recent study, Zhao et al. (2017a) estimated derived from O. rufipogan wild rice (Ma et al. 2015). An
the global yield loss of rice by 3.2% for every 1 °C increase SNP in coding sequence of LOC_Os10g34840 was identi-
in global mean temperature by compiling the extensive fied through genome-wide association study of 1033 rice
published results from different analytical methods. On the accessions, which contribute low-temperature tolerance
contrary, positive effects of temperature and increased CO2 at seedling stage. This SNP at 18,598,921 (G in tolerant
on rice growth were predicted in Madagascar (Gerardeaux while A in susceptible) caused Gly (tolerant) to Ser (sus-
et al. 2012) suggesting that climate change may bring better ceptible) substitution (Xiao et al. 2018). Another such gene
scenario for rice cultivation in this region. Os09g0410300 was shown to contribute cold tolerance at
Little efforts have been made towards mapping the seedling stage, and the phenotype was attributed to nucleo-
quantitative trait locus (QTL) for heat stress tolerance tide variations present in its promoter resulting in tolerant
(Shanmugavadivel et al. 2017; Kilasi et al. 2018). More- and susceptible alleles of a gene (Zhao et al. 2017b). In addi-
over, further characterization of these QTLs to under- tion to genes for cold tolerant at seedling stage, few genes
stand the mechanisms and causal genes has not been very imparting tolerance at vegetative and booting/reproductive
impressive. Few genes like ERECTA (ER), a homolog of stages have also been characterized. Ctb1 (cold tolerance at
Arabidopsis receptor like kinase and α2 subunit of the 26S booting stage) encoding a F box protein and CTB4a encod-
proteasome have been identified as potential regulators ing a conserved leucine rich repeat receptor like kinase have
13
Table 4 Genetic engineering approaches for developing abiotic stress tolerance in rice
Gene Gene description Gene source Phenotype Reference
Overexpression
HVA1 LEA (Late Embryogenesis Hordeum vulgare Salinity and drought toler- Xu et al. (1996)
Abundant) protein ance
OsLEA3-2 LEA protein Oryza sativa Salinity and Drought toler- Duan and Cai (2012)
ance
OsPIP1 Aquaporin (plasma mem- Oryza sativa Salinity tolerance Liu et al. (2013)
brane intrinsic protein)
OsTSP1 Trehalose-6-phosphate Oryza sativa Salinity, drought, and cold Fan et al. (2012)
synthase tolerance
HSP70 Heat shock protein Citrus tristeza virus (CTV) Salinity tolerance Hoang et al. (2015)
sHSP18.6 Heat shock protein Oryza sativa Heat, drought, salt and cold Wang et al. (2015b)
tolerance
pdc1 Pyruvate Decarboxylase Oryza sativa Submergence tolerance Quimio et al. (2000)
PYL10 ABA receptor Oryza sativa (Nagina22) Drought and cold tolerance Verma et al. (2019)
Rab7 ABA pathway protein Oryza sativa Drought and heat tolerance El-Esawi et al. (2019)
OsMYB6 Transcription factor Oryza sativa Drought and salinity toler- Tang et al. (2019)
ance
RNA interference (RNAi)
OsmiR156k Regulatory non-coding Oryza sativa Cold tolerance Cui et al. (2015)
small RNA
miR390 Regulatory non-coding Oryza sativa Cadmium tolerance Ding et al. (2016)
small RNA
miR319 Regulatory non-coding Oryza sativa Cold tolerance Yang et al. (2013)
small RNA
miR159 Regulatory non-coding Drought tolerance Zhao et al. (2017a, 2017b)
small RNA
miR393 Regulatory non-coding Oryza sativa Sensitive to salinity and Gao et al. (2011)
small RNA alkalinity
miR164b Regulatory non-coding Oryza sativa Drought and salt tolerance Jiang et al. (2019b)
small RNA
Genome editing
dst DST protein Oryza sativa Drought and salinity toler- Kumar et al. (2020b)
ance
OsRR22 Transcription factor Oryza sativa Salinity tolerance Zhang et al. (2019b)
OsMYB30 Transcription factor Oryza sativa Cold tolerance Zeng et al. (2020)
been cloned and demonstrated their role in conferring cold Genetic resources and molecular approaches
tolerance at booting stage (Zhang et al. 2017). The toler- of rice improvement
ant allele of CTB4a contained 5 SNPs (at positions 2536,
2511, 1930, 780 and 2063) in its promoter, which helps in Rice is one of the most widely adapted crops due to the
better expression of gene in tolerant genotypes (Zhang et al. vast genetic diversity and its wild relatives (Singh et
2017). In another study, a gene contributing cold tolerance al. 2018). There are 22 wild and 2 cultivated species (Oryza
at vegetative growth stage was mapped and characterized sativa and Oryza glaberrima) under the genus Oryza
(Lu et al. 2014). The Low-Temperature Growth 1 (LTG1) (Vaughan 1989). The O. sativa covers most of the area
encoding a casein kinase I regulates cold tolerance through under rice cultivation and has been classified into five major
auxin dependent pathway. The tolerant allele of LTG1 has a groups: indica, aromatic japonica, tropical japonica, tem-
SNP, i.e. T at 1070 in place of A in susceptible allele, caus- perate japonica and aus (Garris et al. 2005). These genomic
ing amino acid substitution Iso357 (in tolerant) to Lys357 resources conserved by national and international organiza-
(in susceptible) (Lu et al. 2014). A few genetic engineering tions have been used in crop improvement programs and also
approaches for developing the abiotic stress tolerance in rice for basic research. A total of 132,000 accessions of rice were
are presented in Table 4. maintained by International Rice Genebank Collection Infor-
mation System (IRGCIS) of International Rice Research
13
Institute (IRRI) as on December 2019. A large number of Grain quality challenges in rice
indigenous, exotic and wild rice accessions are also main-
tained by National gene bank of India of National Bureau of Rice grain quality is a permutation of several traits such as
Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR), New Delhi. Among the appearance, cooking, nutritional and milling qualities (Yu
crops, rice is the first to have complete genome sequence, et al. 2008). Several factors such as cultivars, production and
which helped in developing genetic resources for gene dis- harvesting conditions, post-harvest management, milling and
covery, molecular markers and crop improvement (IRGSP marketing techniques determine the rice grain quality. Rice
2005). Recent efforts of sequencing of 3,000 rice accessions endosperm is composed of 80–90% starch with 6–28% amyl-
from 89 countries have helped in identification of superior ose content and 5–7% proteins, which serve as energy and
alleles and haplotypes for rice breeding programs (T3RGP protein source of the global population especially in devel-
2014). Genomic information of 3,010 diverse Asian culti- oping countries. The grain appearances vis-à-vis cooking,
vated rice including 3000 rice accessions of 3 K rice genome eating and milling quality are largely determined by the com-
project was used to identify 29 million SNPs, 2.4 million bination of several starch properties such as gelatinization
small indels, 10,000 novel full-length protein-coding genes temperature, amylose content and gel consistency (Bao et al.
and more than 90 thousand structural variations, which will 2008). Various approaches including genetic and molecular
serve as an extremely important genetic resource for breed- utilized to improve the starch properties of rice have been
ing and biotechnology research (Wang et al. 2018). Several extensively reviewed by various researchers (Fujita 2014;
databases and genomic resources of rice are available in Birla et al. 2017). The off-putting nutritional value of rice
public domain for gene/allele discovery, molecular marker proteins is mainly due to the deficiency in certain amino
designing and basic studies (Kamboj et al. 2020). These acids such as lysine and tryptophan (Ufaz and Galili 2008).
resources have facilitated the QTL discovery and gene clon- Compared to maize, efforts towards increasing the content
ing for marker-assisted breeding programs and transgenic of deficient amino acids such as lysine and tryptophan have
research. Novel resources such as gene activation mutants, not been extensively attempted in rice due to limited genetic
EMS mutants and T-DNA-tagged rice mutant populations variability, and side-effects of nutrient enrichment on germi-
are powerful genetic resources for functional genomics and nation and abnormal plant growth. Also, due to the absence
crop improvement (Yi and An 2013; Mohapatra et al. 2014; of expression of some of the enzymes of the carotenoid path-
Reddy et al. 2020). Recently, a genomic resource based on way, rice is not able to synthesize and accumulate sufficient
CRISPR/Cas9 (clustered regularly interspaced short pal- quality of carotenoids. Therefore, efforts have been put forth
indromic repeats–associated nuclease 9) genome editing to genetically alter the rice plants to produce golden rice
has been developed wherein more than 34,000 genes of rice that produces b-carotene in the endosperm giving rise to
have been targeted (Lu et al. 2017). Many high-throughput a characteristic yellow colour (Ye et al. 2000). Similarly,
sequencing-based genomic resources for abiotic stress- micro-nutrients such as Fe and Zn, vitamins such as folate
related traits are discussed by Bansal et al. (2014). Tran- and thiamine, antinutritional factor such as phytate and other
scriptomic and micro-RNA-based genomic resources for bioactive compounds have been recently reviewed by Birla
abiotic stress traits are also available in rice (Bansal et al. et al. (2017) and Custodio et al. (2019).
2014; Mangrauthia et al. 2016, 2017). Such resources have Owing to sufficient production, studies during the past
been utilized in various molecular approaches such as have focussed towards quality traits including nutritional
marker-assisted breeding, genome-wide association studies, quality. It is usually agreed that rice quality depends on
cis-and transgenic and genome editing for crop improvement both genetic and environmental factors (Cheng et al. 2003).
(Varshney et al. 2020). Marker-assisted selection and intro- Increase in the night temperature is linked to poor grain
gression have been used for developing biotic and abiotic quality such as decreased head rice ratio, increased chalki-
stress-tolerant rice genotypes (Das et al. 2017). Three major ness and reduced grain width (Shi et al. 2016; Li et al. 2018).
bacterial blight resistance genes (Xa21, xa13 and xa5) were Being complex polygenic traits, chalkiness and amylose con-
introduced through marker-assisted breeding to produce a tent, protein content, grain length, grain width and aspect
bacterial blight resistant rice cultivar, Improved Samba Mah- ratio of rice are highly influenced by environmental con-
suri (Sundaram et al. 2008). Transgenic rice lines for vari- ditions such as light, temperature and humidity, and cer-
ous traits have been developed using a number of genes and tain cultural practices particularly during the grain-filling
genetic elements (Fraiture et al. 2016). Recently, genome stage (Siebenmorgen et al. 2013; Li et al. 2018). Similarly,
editing is projected as the potential breeding technique due fertilizer application, plant density and irrigation manage-
to its precision and efficiency (Aglawe et al. 2018). Sev- ment especially during the grain-filling period significantly
eral traits and genes of rice are being targeted and improved affect the rice grain quality (Huang et al. 2016; Wei et al.
using the CRISPR/Cas technology of genome editing (Zafar 2018). However, little is known about the role of optimized
et al. 2020).
13
Fig. 6 Key intervention areas to ensure consumer pro high rice grain quality
cultivation managements on rice grain quality (Zhang et al. Way forward with conservation agriculture
2019a). Besides, deep flood irrigation has been shown to and resource conservation technologies
reduce the chalky grains due to the increased supply of car-
bohydrates to the panicles (Chiba et al. 2017). In the recent, Conservation agriculture (CA) is an alternate farming practice,
several reports have suggested the significant harmful effect which emphasizes on minimum soil disturbance, soil cover
of global warming on crop quality (Morita et al. 2016; with crop residue (≥ 30%) and crop rotation (Hobbs et al.
Ishigooka et al. 2017). Taken together, systematic work 2008). It has the potential to address the sustainability issues
on rice cultivation in varying environmental conditions in in rice production system. Many farmers partially adopted
combination with genetic studies has widened our current CA mainly in the form of zero-till-based direct seeding and
understanding of rice grain quality. Even though, there are direct rice transplantation on untilled or unpuddled field. The
significantly more challenges coupled with opportunities minimum soil disturbance component of CA or zero-till-based
to work on enhancing the quality of rice grain, the various seeding provides multiple benefits of reducing the negative
approaches to improve rice grain quality are explicitly shown impact of tillage and heavy machinery on soil structure, while
in Fig. 6. saving time, labour and fuel along with lesser harmful air pol-
lutants (Sharma et al. 2003; Malik and Yadav 2008). Soil cover
component of CA acts as an effective moisture conserving
13
Table 5 Effect of CA practices on soil organic carbon, yield and other aspects in different cropping systems
Source Cropping system Soil type Treatments Effect on organic carbon Yield Other benefits
Das et al. (2013) Cotton–wheat Maize– Sandy loam Tillage treatments: 26% higher than CT Similar –
wheat–green gram Zero tillage (ZT) with flat
and bed planting
Conventional tillage
(CT) with flat and bed
planting
Residue treatments:
No residue
cotton/maize residue
wheat residue
cotton/maize + wheat
residue
Choudhury et al. (2014) Rice–wheat Sandy loam sodic soil Combination of tillage 33.6% higher with DSR 8.3% higher equivalent Increased water-stable
(conventional and con- in zero-tilled wheat with wheat yield macro-aggregates
servation) and residue residue retention
management (with and
without) coupled with
the system of rice culti-
vation (PTR and DSR)
Guo et al. (2015) Rice–wheat Silty clay loam Treatment included CT NT with residue returning – Higher microbial biomass
and NT (no-tillage) with increased soil organic carbon over CT
and without returning of carbon over CT
wheat residue
Parihar et al. (2016) Maize-based cropping Sandy loam Tillage treatments Increased by 23–35% Higher maize equivalent Water-stable aggregates,
systems included zero tillage, over CT yield in zero tillage after soil microbial biomass
permanent raised beds the initial two years carbon and soil enzymatic
and CT increased, while penetra-
Crop rotations included tion resistance and bulk
maize–wheat–mung- density decreased under
bean, maize–chickpea– CA
sesbania, maize–mus-
tard–mungbean and
maize–maize–sesbania
13
589
Table 5 (continued)
590
13
Bera et al. (2018) Rice–wheat Sandy loam Tillage and crop establish- 7–9% higher over other 6–10% higher wheat Higher soil enzyme activi-
ment methods in rice treatments yield in ZTW + R over ties in ZT-DSR coupled
included ZT-DSR, CT- CTW-R and ZTW-R with ZTW + R
DSR, ZT-Direct-trans-
planted rice and PTR
Tillage and residue treat-
ments in wheat included
CT and ZT wheat with
the removal of both
crops residue(CTW-R
and ZTW-R) and ZT
wheat with the removal
of wheat residue but
retaining rice residue
(ZTW + R)
Das et al. (2018) Maize–wheat Sandy clay loam Treatments included CT, Higher Up to 29% higher grain Overall 59% and 11%
ZT on flatbed (with and yield in maize and higher water productiv-
without residue), perma- comparable wheat yield ity in maize and wheat,
nent narrow bed (with over CT respectively,
and without residue) 12% higher net returns in
and permanent broad zero tillage on the per-
bed (with and without manent broad bed (with
residue) residue) over CT
Jat et al. (2018) Rice–wheat Loamy Treatments involved CT- Higher Similar Soil bulk density and pen-
Rice–wheat–mungbean based rice–wheat, PTR- etration resistance reduced
ZT-based wheat and while infiltration rate
Maize–wheat–mungbean
mungbean and CA-based improved
rice–wheat–mungbean Increased available N, Zn
and maize–wheat–mung- and Mn under CA over
bean CT
Mondal et al. (2019) Rice–wheat–mungbean Silty clay Treatments included Increased Similar Subsurface compaction
Rice–potato + maize– DSR-ZTW- ZT mung- reduced and soil aggrega-
mungbean bean, PTR-ZTW-CT tion improved
mungbean and UPTR- Macro- and water-stable
CT potato + maize–ZT aggregates and steady-
mungbean state infiltration rate
increased
Table 5 (continued)
Patra et al. (2019) Rice–wheat–mungbean Loamy Treatments involved Higher – Increased total nitrogen
CT-based rice–wheat– in CA-based cropping
Maize–wheat–mungbean mungbean, CA-based systems
rice–wheat–mungbean
and maize–wheat–mung-
bean and PTR-ZT-based
wheat and mungbean
Parihar et al. (2019) Maize–wheat–mungbean Sandy loam Tillage treatments Higher as compared to CT – –
included zero tillage,
permanent beds and CT
30% (maize and wheat)
and 100% (mungbean)
residue retained in zero
tillage and permanent

beds/incorporated in CT
Nutrient strategies
included control, farmer
fertilizer practice,
recommended fertilizer
and site-specific nutrient
management treatments
Sinha et al. (2019) Rice–wheat Sandy clay loam Treatments included three Increased Similar –
Rice–maize rice crop establishment
practices (PTR, unpud-
dled transplanted rice
and DSR) and CT and
ZT practices in wheat
and maize crop
Dey et al. (2020) Rice–wheat Clay loam Treatments involved CT 20–40% higher in DSR- – Improved C quality in terms
rice–CT wheat, CT ZT wheat with residue of the nutrient supply and
rice–ZT wheat, DSR–CT over CT rice–CT wheat buffering capacity
wheat, DSR-ZT wheat
(with and without resi-
due) and DSR–ZT wheat
on a raised bed with
residue
13
591
technique by reducing the evaporation rate. Moreover, it also PTR. In line with this, policy interventions, large-scale train-
provides physical protection to the soil from rainfall, runoff ing and field-level demonstrations would also be required to
and wind-induced erosion, while improving the structure, accelerate the adoption of CA among farmers.
organic carbon and physico-chemical properties of soil (Kas-
sam et al. 2009; Rockström et al. 2009). The crop rotation in
CA promotes the biodiversity and helps in soil nutrient bal- Conclusions
ance and weed spectrum (Kumar et al. 2020a). The threat of
pest and disease incidence is also reduced with regular crop The continuous rice cultivation with traditional method
rotation (Farooq et al. 2011). The effects of CA practice on imposed serious threats to natural resources and agricul-
soil organic carbon, yield and other parameters under different tural sustainability. In the scenario of declining factor
cropping systems are presented in Table 5. CA practice in rice- productivity, crop response and water table and rising air
based cropping systems can provide a beneficial effect on soil pollution, researchers and policymakers need to intervene
properties like soil organic carbon, bulk density, soil compac- through a systematic and integrated approach to produce
tion, microbial biomass, infiltration rate, soil enzymatic activi- more rice with less water in a sustainable way. The cultiva-
ties, macro- and water-stable aggregates, water productivity, tion of some alternative and lesser water requiring crops
etc., with a similar or higher yield than CT practice. Laik et al. should be encouraged by various measures like incentives
(2014) reported 46–54% and 10–24% higher yield of wheat and minimum support price for the regions of light-textured
and rice, respectively, in wheat–cowpea–rice cropping system soils and rainfed condition. Resource use efficiency needs to
under CA over conventional practice. The water productivity be enhanced through multi-dimensional approach on vari-
and benefit–cost ratio were also higher under this cultivation etal development, soil and water management, adoption of
practice. Gathala et al. (2015) concluded that it is uncertain resource conserving machines and need-based application
to have yield advantage in rice-based cropping systems under of fertilizers and chemicals for sustainable rice cultivation
CA establishment methods; however, in terms of cultivation in medium-to-heavy soils. The integrated resource con-
cost, labour cost and net profit, CA-based cultivation meth- serving approach like delayed direct seeding of short dura-
ods are advantageous over CT practice. Haque et al. (2016) tion, high-yielding and stress tolerant rice varieties with a
observed lesser cultivation cost and higher profit for minimum zero-till seeder or transplanting such varieties with zero-till
tillage unpuddled transplanted rice under CA as compared to transplanter under CA with drip irrigation system should
conventionally grown rice. In a different study, Mohammad be encouraged for rice cultivation. However, more research
et al. (2018) reported higher crop and water productivity of studies and analysis are required to explore the yield aspect
DSR under CA over CT practice. Chaki et al. (2021) found and profitability with promising results to convince the farm-
that system production, water productivity and nitrogen use ers for shifting from PTR to a new rice cultivation system.
efficiency of wheat–mungbean–rice cropping system increased Policy reforms are needed to stop the subsidy on methods
by 5.4, 40 and 5%, respectively, under CA over conventional and systems that contribute to low water productivity on a
practice in fine-textured soils. However, grain and water pro- system basis. Reforms on water security to users, the decen-
ductivity of rice depleted under CA over conventional practice tralization and privatization of water management functions
in coarse-textured soils. From the cited studies, it is evident to suitable levels, water pricing, markets in tradable prop-
that CA offers savings in time, labour, water and input cost, erty rights and introducing water conserving technologies
while improving the soil characteristics and diminishing GWP for irrigation purposes should be in vogue.
simultaneously. In the scenario of declining factor productiv-
ity coupled with climate change, it is extremely imperative Declarations
to bring the rice crop under CA for long-term sustainability
of crop production system. The use of RCTs such as leaf col- Conflict of interest The authors declare that there is no conflict of in-
terest.
our chart and normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI)
sensors-based fertilizer application and electrostatic and
variable rate spraying for chemical applications need to be
integrated with CA for a sustainable rice cultivation system.
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Challenges and Opportunities in Productivity and Sustainability of Rice Cultivation System: A Critical Review in Indian Perspective

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Challenges and Opportunities in Productivity and Sustainability of Rice Cultivation System: A Critical Review in Indian Perspective

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Cereal Research Communications (2022) 50:573–601

Challenges and opportunities in productivity and sustainability of rice

Rice (Oryza sativa L.)–wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is the

quality of by-product (straw), degradation of soil structure

per year (­ m3 ­y−1), which reduced to 1598 m ­ 3 ­y−1 in 2011

1951 361 – 5177 –

Groundwater pollution locations, arsenic content of groundwater under rice culti-

Based on the large number of farm trials (Gharade et al.

Rao et al. (2007), Kumar and Ladha (2011),

over weeds (Chhokar et al. 2014; Rao et al. 2007). More-

nutsedge); Fimbristylis miliacea (L.) Vahl

tive E. crus-galli density caused a 20% yield reduction

in PTR compared to 70% in DSR. Besides yield losses,

weed infestation also reduces rice quality (Menzes et al.

of the water influences the type and density of the weed

is forcing to shift towards the DSR. The labour problem

mon purslane); Trianthema portulacastrum

many farmers shifted from PTR to DSR. However, for

(Pickerel weed); Phyllanthus niruri L.

long-term success of DSR, two pre-requisites are selec-

effective control of broad-spectrum weeds. The application

either bispyribac or penoxsulam in combination with eth-

flora in DSR. Fenoxaprop + safener (Rice Star) effectively

Link (Jungle rice); Echinochloa crus-galli

and Digitaria sanguinalis. Also, the ready mixture of tria-

famone + ethoxysulfuron as well as penoxsulam + cyhalo-

dependency on herbicide is not desirable due to the risk of

back to transplanting method of rice cultivation to control

Fig. 4 Different in-field and off-field options for residue management

Amount of CH4 emission from

agriculture sector (gigagrams)

y = -0.1482x + 378.07 y = 11.083x - 21610

Fig. 5 Figure depicting (a) share of agriculture sector in C

operation in mechanized rice cultivation consumes much Global warming

tillage and permanent

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per year ( m3 y−1), which reduced to 1598 m 3 y−1 in 2011