Plasticity and Structure of Soil Chapter 3

Physical States And Index Properties Of Fine-Grained Soils

In the early 1900s, a Swedish scientist named Atterberg developed a method to describe
the consistency of fine-grained soils with varying moisture contents. At a very low
moisture content, soil behaves more like a solid. When the moisture content is very high,
the soil and water may flow like a liquid.

Depending on the moisture content, the behavior of soil can be divided into four basic
states — solid, semisolid, plastic, and liquid — as shown in Figure

The moisture content, in percent, at which the transition from solid to semisolid state
takes place is defined as the shrinkage limit. The moisture content at the point of
transition from semisolid to plastic state is the plastic limit, and from plastic to liquid
state is the liquid limit. These parameters are also known as Atterberg limits.

If we plot a diagram of volume versus water content as shown in Figure, we can

locate the original liquid state as point A. As the soil dries, its water content reduces
and, consequently, so does its volume

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At point B, the soil becomes so stiff that it can no longer flow as a liquid. The
boundary water content at point B is called the liquid limit; it is denoted by LL. As
the soil continues to dry, there is a range of water content at which the soil can be
molded into any desired shape without rupture. The soil at this state is said to exhibit
plastic behavior, the ability to deform continuously without rupture. But if drying is
continued beyond the range of water content for plastic behavior, the soil becomes a
semisolid. The soil cannot be molded now without visible cracks appearing. The
water content at which the soil changes from a plastic to a semisolid is known as the
plastic limit, denoted by PL. The range of water contents over which the soil deforms
plastically is known as the plasticity index, PI:

As the soil continues to dry, it comes to a final state called the solid state. At this
state, no further volume change occurs since nearly all the water in the soil has been
removed. The water content at which the soil changes from a semisolid to a solid is
called the shrinkage limit, denoted by SL. The shrinkage limit is useful for the
determination of the swelling and shrinking capacity of soils.

Liquid Limit (LL)

The liquid limit is determined from an apparatus shown in Fig.

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The moisture content, in percent, required to close a distance of 12.5 mm (0.5 in.)
along the bottom of the groove (see Figures d and e) after 25 blows is defined as the
liquid limit.

Hence, at least three tests for the same soil are conducted at varying moisture
contents, with the number of blows, N, required to achieve closure varying between
15 and 35.

The moisture content of the soil, in percent, and the corresponding number of blows
are plotted on semi-logarithmic graph paper. The relationship between moisture
content and log N is approximated as a straight line. This line is referred to as the flow
curve. The moisture content corresponding to N = 25, determined from the flow
curve, gives the liquid limit of the soil. The slope of the flow line is defined as the
flow index and may be written as

where IF = flow index

w1 = moisture content of soil, in percent, corresponding to N1 blows

w2 = moisture content corresponding to N2 blows

From the analysis of hundreds of liquid limit tests, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
(1949), proposed an empirical equation of the form,

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Plasticity and Structure of Soil Chapter 3

where N = number of blows in the liquid limit device for a 12.5 mm groove closure

wN = corresponding moisture content

tan β = 0.121 (but note that tan β is not equal to 0.121 for all soils)

This equation is given a good results when number of blows (N) fallen between (20 –
30)

Plastic Limit (PL)

The plastic limit is determined by rolling a small clay sample into threads and fi nding
the water content at which threads approximately 3 mm in diameter will just start to
crumble

Burmister (1949) classified the plasticity index in a qualitative manner as follows:

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The plasticity index is important in classifying fine-grained soils.

Typical Atterberg Limits for Soils

Shrinkage Limit (SL)

The moisture content, in percent, at which the volume of the soil mass ceases to
change is defined as the shrinkage limit.

The shrinkage limit is determined as follows. A mass of wet soil, M1, is placed in a
porcelain dish 44.5 mm in diameter and 12.5 mm high and then oven-dried. The
volume of oven-dried soil is determined by using mercury (ASTM D 427) to occupy
the vacant spaces caused by shrinkage.

By reference to Figure, the shrinkage limit can be determined as

where wi = initial moisture content when the soil is placed in the shrinkage limit dish

Δw = change in moisture content (that is, between the initial moisture content and the
moisture content at the shrinkage limit)

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Where;

M1 = mass of the wet soil pat in the dish at the beginning of the test (g)

M2 = mass of the dry soil pat (g)

Vi = initial volume of the wet soil pat (that is, inside volume of the dish, cm3)

Vf = volume of the oven-dried soil pat (cm3)

ρw = density of water (g/cm3)

Finally,

Liquidity Index and Consistency Index

A measure of soil strength using the Atterberg limits is known as the liquidity index
(LI) and is expressed as

where w = in situ moisture content of soil.

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Another index that is commonly used for engineering purposes is the consistency
index (CI), which may be defined as

where w = in situ moisture content. If w is equal to the liquid limit, the consistency
index is zero. Again, if w = PI, then CI = 1.

Activity

Skempton (1953) showed that for soils with a particular mineralogy, the plasticity
index is linearly related to the amount of the clay fraction. He coined a term called
activity (A) to describe the importance of the clay fractions on the plasticity index.

You should recall that the clay fraction is the amount of particles less than 2 μm.
Activity is one of the factors used in identifying expansive or swelling soils. Typical
values of activity are given in next Table

Ex 1) A liquid limit test, conducted on a soil sample in the cup device, gave the
following results:

Number of blows 10 19 23 27 40
Water content (%) 60 45.2 39.8 36.5 25.2
Two determinations for the plastic limit gave water contents of 20.3% and 20.8%.
Determine (a) the liquid limit and plastic limit, (b) the plasticity index, (c) the
liquidity index if the natural water content is 27.4%, and (d) the void ratio at the liquid
limit if Gs = 2.7. If the soil were to be loaded to failure, would you expect a brittle
failure?

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Solution

Step 1: Plot the data.

Step 2: Extract the liquid limit. The water content on the liquid state line corresponding
to a terminal blow of 25 gives the liquid limit.

LL = 38%

Step 3: Calculate the plastic limit.

The plastic limit is

Step 4: Calculate PI.

PI = LL - PL = 38 - 20.6 = 17.4%

Step 5: Calculate LI.

Step 6: Calculate the void ratio. Assume the soil is saturated at the liquid limit. For a
saturated soil, e = w Gs. Thus,

eLL = LL Gs = 0.38 * 2.7 = 1.03

Brittle failure is not expected, as the soil is in a plastic state (0 < LI < 1).

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Ex 2 ) A fine-grained soil has a liquid limit of 300% and a plastic limit of 55%. The
natural water content of the soil in the field is 80% and the clay content is 60%.

(a) Determine the plasticity index, the liquidity index, and the activity.

(b) What is the soil state in the field?

(c) What is the predominant mineral in this soil?

(d) If this soil were under a concrete slab used as a foundation for a building and
water were to seep into it from watering of a lawn, what would you expect to happen
to the foundation?

Solution

Step 1: Calculate the plasticity index, liquidity index, and activity.

(a) PI = LL - PL = 300 - 55 = 245%

Step 2: Determine the state of the soil in the field.

(b) Based on Table 4.4, the soil with LI = 0.1 is at the low end of the plastic state.

Step 3: Determine the predominant mineral.

(c) From Tables 4.5 and 4.6, the predominant mineral is montmorillonite (most likely,
Na-montmorillonite).

Step 4: Determine the consequences of water seeping into the soil.

(d) Seepage from lawn watering will cause the soil to expand (montmorillonite is an
expansive soil). Because the water content in the montmorillonite will not increase
uniformly under the foundation, the expansion will not be uniform. More expansion
will occur at the edge of the slab because the water content will be greater there.
Consequently, the concrete foundation will curl upward at the edge and most likely
crack. Construction on expansive soils requires special attention to water management
issues such as drainage and landscape. Generally, plants and lawns should be at least
3 m away from the edge of the foundation and the land should be sculpted to drain
water away from the foundation.

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Assignment # 3
Q 1) The following results were obtained from a liquid limit test on a clay using the
Casagrande cup device.

(a) Determine the liquid limit of this clay.

(b) If the natural water content is 38% and the plastic limit is 23%, calculate the
liquidity index.

(c) Do you expect a brittle type of failure for this soil? Justify your answer.

Q 2) A saturated soil used to determine the shrinkage limit has initial volume Vi =
20.2 cm3, final volume Vf = 14.3 cm3, mass of wet soil M1= 34 g, and mass of dry soil
M2 = 24 g. Determine the shrinkage limit and the shrinkage ratio.

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