Spectral Graph Theory

A Thesis

submitted to
Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Pune
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
BS-MS Dual Degree Programme

by

Amol Sahebrao Hinge

Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Pune

Dr. Homi Bhabha Road,
Pashan, Pune 411008, INDIA.

April, 2019

Supervisor: Dr. Chandrasheel Bhagwat

c Amol Sahebrao Hinge 2019

All rights reserved

 Certificate

This is to certify that this dissertation entitled Spectral Graph Theory towards the partial
fulfilment of the BS-MS dual degree programme at the Indian Institute of Science
Education and Research, Pune represents study/work carried out by Amol Sahebrao Hinge
at Indian Institute of Science Education and Research under the supervision of Dr.
Chandrasheel Bhagwat, Assistant Professor, Department of Mathematics , during the
academic year 2018-2019.

Dr. Chandrasheel Bhagwat

Committee:

Dr. Chandrasheel Bhagwat

Dr. Kaneenika Sinha

This thesis is dedicated to my grandparents
 Declaration

I hereby declare that the matter embodied in the report entitled Spectral Graph Theory
are the results of the work carried out by me at the Department of Mathematics, Indian
Institute of Science Education and Research, Pune, under the supervision of Dr.
Chandrasheel Bhagwat and the same has not been submitted elsewhere for any other
degree.

Amol Sahebrao Hinge

Acknowledgments

Firstly, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor Prof. Chandrasheel

Bhagwat for continuously guiding and encouraging me throughout my thesis. I gained greatly
from his insightful understanding of the subject through the numerous discussions we have
had. I am grateful to my TAC member Prof. Kaneenika Sinha for supporting me throughout
the thesis. I am thankful to my family for encouraging me throughout my life. Finally, I
thank all my friends for making my life at IISER delightful.

ix
x
 Abstract
In this thesis, we will state and prove the relationship between distribution of primes and
Laplacian spectrum of a natural number network. We also look at Laplacian spectrum of
an arithmetic network and observed some interesting pattern for k-th highest eigenvalue
of a Laplacian matrix of an arithmetic network. We showed that the degree distribution
of natural number network and arithmetic network follows power law which means both
networks are scale free networks.

xi
xii
Contents

Abstract xi

1 Preliminaries 3

1.1 Laplacian matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.2 Spectrum of a graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.3 Star shape graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.4 Connectedness of a graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.5 Diameter of a graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

2 Laplacian spectrum of a network 7

2.1 Natural number network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

2.2 Arithmetic Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

3 Laplacian spectrum of an arithmetic network 17

3.1 k-th highest eigenvalue of LGa,d,n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

3.2 An upper bound on eigenvalues of Laplacian matrix of a graph . . . . . . . . 23

3.3 Degree estimation for arithmetic network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

4 Degree distribution of a network 29

xiii
 4.1 Degree distribution of a natural number network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

4.2 Degree distribution of an arithmetic network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

5 Conclusion 35

xiv
Introduction

Spectral graph theory plays a significant role in a variety of areas such as number theory and
discrete mathematics. Spectral graph theory is the study of the properties of graph using
eigenvalues and eigenvectors of a matrix associated with a graph. Generally this matrix is
adjacency matrix or Laplacian matrix. In this thesis we mainly work with Laplacian matrix.
The graphs which we have studied are natural number network and arithmetic network. A
natural number network is a graph with vertices labelled as 1, 2, · · · , n and the adjacency
is defined by divisibility relation. An arithmetic network is a graph with vertices labelled
according to arithmetic progression and the adjacency is defined by divisibility relation.

In Chapter 1, we have stated the definition of Laplacian matrix, spectrum of a graph and star
shape graph which will be used in further chapters. In Chapter 2, we have established the
relationship between Laplacian spectrum of a natural number network and number of prime
numbers between n/2 to n. As the highest eigenvalue of a Laplacian matrix of a natural
number network with n vertices is n, therefore we have calculated the highest eigenvalues
of Laplacian matrix of an arithmetic networks and we have observed a pattern between the
highest eigenvalue and number of vertices. We have also calculated k-th highest eigenvalue
and observed some pattern between the k-th highest eigenvalue and the number of vertices
which is discussed in section 3.1. We have not yet proved this result theoretically but we
have done several numerical experiment and all these experiments support the result which
is stated in Section 3.1. In [1], W. N. Anderson and T. D. Morley gave a basic upper bound
for eigenvalues of the Laplacian matrix for a general graph. In [2], Li Jiong-Sheng and Zhang
Xiao-Dong improved the basic upper bound given by W.N.Anderson and J.D.Morley which
we have discussed in section 3.2.2. The improvised upper bound given by Li Jiong-Sheng
and Zhang Xiao-Dong is in terms of three highest degrees of a graph. In section 3.3, we have
given expression for three highest degrees of an arithmetic network to estimate the upper

1
bound on the highest eigenvalue of a Laplacian matrix of an arithmetic network.

In Chapter 4, we have analysed the degree distribution of a network. In [3], S. M. Shekatkar,

C. Bhagwat and G. Ambika have analysed the degree distribution of a natural number
network. As this degree distribution follows power law, this network is called a scale free
network. In section 4.2, we have done the same analysis for different arithmetic networks
and we have observed that the degree distribution of arithmetic networks follows power law
and hence these networks are also scale free networks.

2
Chapter 1

Preliminaries

1.1 Laplacian matrix

Given a graph G with n vertices, its Laplacian matrix LG is defined as :

LG = DG − AG

where DG and AG are degree diagonal matrix and adjacency matrix of the graph G respec-
tively.
(
di : if i = j
DG (i, j) =
0 : otherwise
(
1 : if i and j are adjacent
AG (i, j) =
0 : otherwise

1.2 Spectrum of a graph

The spectrum of a graph is defined as the multiset of eigenvalues of the Laplacian matrix
or adjacency matrix corresponding to a graph. In this thesis, we would be working with
Laplacian matrix of a graph. Laplacian spectrum of a graph is the multiset of eigenvalues
of Laplacian matrix of a graph.

3
1.3 Star shape graph

Figure 1.1: GS

The star shape graph GS consists of (n + 1) vertices, k components namely A1 ,A2 ,......,Ak
where each Ai is finite and connected for all 1 ≤ i ≤ k, each Ai has ni vertices and the
centre vertex V is adjacent to all other n vertices in GS and A1 ,A2 ,......,Ak are disconnected
components in GS \ {V }.

1.4 Connectedness of a graph

A graph is said to be connected if there is a path between every pair of vertex. From every
vertex to any other vertex, there should be some path to traverse.

4
1.5 Diameter of a graph

Diameter of a graph is the greatest distance between any pair of vertices. To find the
diameter of a graph, first find the shortest path between each pair of vertices. The greatest
length of any of these paths is the diameter of the graph.

5
6
Chapter 2

Laplacian spectrum of a network

2.1 Natural number network

Definition 2.1.1. A natural number network Gn is a simple undirected graph on n vertices

defined as follows:
Let vertex set and edge set of Gn be VGn and EGn respectively.

• VGn = {1, 2, 3, . . . , n}

• EGn = {{j, k} is an edge if j < k and j|k where j, k ∈ VGn }

Example 1. Natural number network with 10 vertices.

Figure 2.1: G10

7
Remarks 2.1.1.

1. 1 is adjacent to x ∀ x ∈ VGn and x 6= 1.

2. Gn is connected.

3. Diam(Gn ) = 2 ∀ n ≥ 3.

4. Consider the graph Gn . The vertex k is adjacent only to the vertex 1. ⇐⇒ k is a

prime and n/2 < k ≤ n.

Let S = {p : 1 ≤ p ≤ n and p is prime}. Using prime counting function π(x) which counts
the number of prime numbers less than or equal to x (asymptotically), we can deduce that
the number of primes p such that n/2 < p ≤ n is equal to π(n) − π(n/2) as n → ∞, where
π(n) = #{p : 1 ≤ p ≤ n and p is prime} as n → ∞. The multiplicity of an eigenvalue
1 in the Laplacian spectrum of Gn increases as we increase the size of the natural number
network.

2.1.1 Laplacian spectrum of a natural number network

In Gn , let di be the degree of ith vertex which is also the degree of vertex i in Gn . Note that
Gn is a simple undirected graph, so there are no multiple edges or self loops in the graph.
Let us define a matrix LGn for Gn as follows :

d i
 : if i = j
LGn (i, j) = −1 : if i and j are adjacent

0 : otherwise


Theorem 2.1.1. The number of prime numbers p such that n/2 < p ≤ n. = Multiplicity of
1 in the Laplacian spectrum of Gn .
This theorem is proved using the following lemmas:

Lemma 2.1.2. : Un = {All composite numbers less than or equal to n and all prime numbers
less than or equal to n/2} forms a connected component.

8
Proof : We will use induction to prove this lemma,
Base case , n=4
Clearly, the component containing vertex 2 and vertex 4 forms a connected component. That
implies U4 is connected.
Assume that the lemma is true for n.
Then Un forms a connected component in Gn . Note that the number of vertices in Gn is n.
Add vertex (n + 1) to Gn and add corresponding edges as well. Now we will show that Un+1
is connected.
Case 1 : (n + 1) is a prime number.
Clearly (n + 1) is greater than n/2 and it is a prime number, so the vertex (n + 1) will
just get connected vertex 1 in the graph Gn+1 , which implies that vertex (n + 1) will form a
component with only one vertex and the component Un+1 will remain same as component Un
which we know that is connected. Hence the component Un+1 form a connected component.
Case 2 : (n + 1) is a composite number.
As (n + 1) is a composite number ∃ atleast one x ∈ Gn+1 such that x is adjacent to (n + 1).
Now if we show that atleast one factor of (n + 1) is less than or equal to n/2 then Case 2 is
done.
Claim : At least 1 factor of (n + 1) is less than or equal to n/2.
Proof by contradiction, suppose that both the factors of (n + 1) are greater than n/2. Let us
say, (n + 1) = ab, where a > n/2 and b > n/2. Therefore (n + 1) > n2 /4, which is false
for every n ≥ 5. Hence the vertex (n + 1) is connected to one of the vertices in Un and we
know that Un is already connected which makes Un+1 also a connected component. Therefore
component Un+1 is a connected component in Gn+1 .

Lemma 2.1.3. There are (l + 1) components in Gn namely P1 , P2 , ......, Pl and Un , where l

is the number of prime numbers p such that n/2 < p ≤ n.
Proof : We know that the number of prime numbers p such that n/2 < p ≤ n is equal to l,
which implies there will be l degree 1 vertices in Gn and each vertex corresponds to one
component as it is only connected to vertex 1 and not to any other vertex in Gn . It implies
that there are l single vertex components in Gn and in Lemma 2.1.2, we have already shown
that all the remaining vertices except vertex 1 forms a single connected component which we
have represented as Un therefore there are (l + 1) connected components in Gn and we call
each singleton component as P1 , P2 , ......, Pl .

9
Lemma 2.1.4. The graph Gn is an example of the graph GS .
Proof : The vertex 1 in Gn is analogous to vertex V in GS as 1 is adjacent to x ∀ x ∈ VG and
x 6= 1. From Lemma 2.1.3 components P1 , P2 , ......, Pl and Un are (l + 1) finite and connected
components of Gn and P1 , P2 , ......, Pl and Un are disconnected components in Gn \ {1}.
Therefore the graph Gn is an example of the graph GS .

Lemma 2.1.5. Let G be a simple connected graph with n vertices, Gc be its compliment and
K be the complete graph on these n vertices. Eigenvalues of LG are λ1 = 0 ≤ λ2 ≤ · · · ≤ λn ,
eigenvalues of LGc are µ1 = 0 ≤ µ2 ≤ · · · ≤ µn and LK is the Laplacian matrix of K. Then,

λi + µn+2−i = n ; ∀ i = 2, 3, · · · , n.

Proof : We can observe that LG + LGc = LK and with the help of basic linear algebra we
can also see that LK and LG commute. Now we will show that LG and LGc commute.

LGc = LK − LG
LG LGc = LG LK − LG LG (2.1)
LGc LG = LK LG − LG LG (2.2)

From eq. (2.1) and eq. (2.2) we have shown that LG and LGc commute. We also know
that if two matrices commute then they have same eigenvector. Here, LK and LG commute
and LG and LGc also commute. Hence, LG , LGc , LK have same eigenvector(Eigenvalues
corresponding to this same eigenvector may be different). We can observe that,

LK LG = LG LK = nLG

Let v̄ be the eigenvalue of LG corresponding to non-zero eigenvalue λ.

LG v̄ = λv̄
LK LG v̄ = λLK v̄
nLG v̄ = λLK v̄
nλv̄ = λLK v̄
LK v̄ = nv̄

10
For any eigenvector v̄ of LK , the eigenvalue corresponding to v̄ is n. Therefore,

Lk have eigenvalues {0, n, n, · · · , n}

| {z }
(n−1)times

LGc + LG = LK
LGc v̄ + LG v̄ = LK v̄
λi v̄ + µj v̄ = nv̄

For each eigenvector v̄ corresponding to eigenvalue n we will get λi +µj = n. The multiplicity
of eigenvalue n in the Laplacian spectrum of K is (n − 1), hence there will be (n − 1) pairs
of λi + µj = n. Let us arrange the values of λi ’s in ascending order.

λ2 + µj = n
λ3 + µj = n
.. .. ..
. . .
λn + µj = n

This will arrange µj ’s in descending order.

λ2 + µn = n
λ3 + µn−1 = n
.. .. ..
. . .
λn + µ2 = n

Therefore,
λi + µn+2−i = n ; ∀ i = 2, 3, · · · , n.

Lemma 2.1.6. Let GS be the star shape graph and Ai ’s are the components of GS as defined
in section 2.1 ∀ 1 ≤ i ≤ k and the eigenvalues of LAi be 0,λi1 , λi2 , · · · , λi(ni −1) ∀ 1 ≤ i ≤ k.

11
Then the eigenvalues of the LGS are given by :

{0, 1, 1, 1, · · · , 1, (n + 1)} q {(λij + 1) : 1 ≤ i ≤ k , 1 ≤ j ≤ (ni −1) and λij 6= 0}

| {z }
(k−1)times

 
n −1 ··· ··· ··· −1
−1 LA1 + I 0 ··· ··· 0 
 
 .
··

 .
 . 0 0 ··· 0 

·
LGS = .
 
 .. .. 
 . 0 LAi + I 0 0  
 .. .
.. .. ·· 
 . . 0 0 
 · 
−1 0 0 0 0 LAk + I

As vertex V in GS is connected to every other vertex in GS , we can say that the graph GS
is connected. Therefore the smallest eigenvalue of LGS is 0. (Proof of this is given in [4])
Let v̄i represents the eigenvector of LAi corresponding to the eigenvalue λij ∀ 1 ≤ i ≤
k and 1 ≤ j ≤ (ni − 1).

LAi v̄ = λij v̄
(LAi + I)v̄ = LAi v̄ + Iv̄
(LAi + I)v̄ = (λij + 1)v̄

We have showed that if LAi have eigenvalue λij and eigenvector v̄i , then (LAi + I) will
have eigenvalue (λij + 1) and eigenvector v̄i and GS will also have eigenvalue (λij + 1) with
eigenvector V̄ which will look like following,
Let,
 
xi1
 xi2 
 
vi =  . 

 .. 

xini ni ×1

12
Then,
 
0
 .. 
 . 
 
 0 
 
 
 xi1 
 
 xi2 
V̄ =  . 
 
.
 . 
 
x 
 ini 
 
 0 
 .. 
 
 . 
0 (n+1)×1

Therefore GS will have eigenvalue (λij + 1) with eigenvector V̄ and which is true ∀ 1 ≤ i ≤
k , 1 ≤ j ≤ (ni −1). Therefore we have showed that the set

{(λij + 1) : 1 ≤ i ≤ k , 1 ≤ j ≤ (ni −1) and λij 6= 0}

is a set of eigenvalues of LGS .

GS is simple connected graph with (n+1) vertices and we can easily see from Figure 1.1 that
GS c will have 2 connected components. Therefore the eigenvalues of LGS c are µ1 = 0 ≤ µ2 =
0 ≤ µ3 ≤ · · · ≤ µn+1 and eigenvalues of LGS are λ1 = 0 ≤ λ2 ≤ · · · ≤ λn+1 . Using Lemma
(2.1.5),

µ2 + λn+1 = n + 1
λn+1 = n + 1

Therefore the highest eigenvalue of LGS is (n + 1).

Let ūi be the eigenvector of LAi corresponding to eigenvalue 0. Therefore,
 
xi
xi 
 
ūi = 
 .. 

 .
xi n ×1
i

13
 LAi ūi = 0ūi
(LAi + I)ūi = 1ūi

We have showed that if LAi have eigenvalue 0 and eigenvector ūi , then (LAi + I) will have
eigenvalue 1 and eigenvector ūi and GS will also have eigenvalue 1 with eigenvector Ū which
will look like following,
 
0
 u1 
 
 
 u2 
Ū =  
 .. 
.
uk (n+1)×1

We also know that eigenvector of LGS corresponding eigenvalue 0 is a constant vector and it
is orthogonal to every other non-zero eigenvector of LGS .
 
1
1
 
Ū · 
 ..  = 0

.
1

k
X
n i xi = 0 (2.3)
i=1

Equation (2.3) implies that if we fix any (k − 1) xi ’s then the remaining one xi is fixed,
therefore degree of freedom for this equation is (n − 1) and hence the dimension of eigenspace
related to eigenvalue 1 for matrix LGS is (n−1). As the dimension of eigenspace is number of
linearly independent eigenvectors corresponding to the eigenvalue, therefore the eigenvector
Ū have (k − 1) chooses which are linearly independent which implies the multiplicity of
eigenvalue 1 for matrix LGS is (k − 1). Hence the eigenvalues of the LGS are given by :

{0, 1, 1, 1, · · · , 1, (n + 1)} q {(λij + 1) : 1 ≤ i ≤ k , 1 ≤ j ≤ (ni −1) and λij 6= 0}

| {z }
(k−1)times

14
We hereby provide the proof of Theorem 2.1.1 using the lemmas stated above.

Figure 2.2: Gn

Proof of Theorem 2.1.1:

In Lemma 2.1.4, we have proved that the graph Gn is an example of the graph GS . From
Figure 2.2 P1 , P2 , ......, Pl and Un are (l + 1) connected components of Gn . From Lemma
2.1.6, the multiplicity of eigenvalue 1 in the Laplacian spectrum of GS is equal to (k − 1),
which indeed is equal to number of connected components of GS minus 1. In natural number
network Gn there are (l + 1) connected components, hence the multiplicity of eigenvalue 1 in
the Laplacian spectrum of Gn is l, which indeed is equal to number of prime numbers p such
that n/2 < p ≤ n.
∴ Number of prime numbers p such that n/2 < p ≤ n. = Multiplicity of 1 in the Laplacian
spectrum of Gn .

Remark 2.1.2. According to Bertrand’s postulate ∃ atleast one prime number between n2
and n. From Theorem 2.1.1 and Bertrand’s postulate we can observe that the second lowest
eigenvalue of LGn is 1 as there is atleast one prime number between n2 and n.

15
2.2 Arithmetic Network

Definition 2.2.1. Arithmetic network Ga,d,n is a simple undirected graph on n vertices

defined as follows : Let vertex set and edge set of Ga,d,n are VGa,d,n and EGa,d,n respectively.

• VGa,d,n = {dk + a : (a, d) = 1 and k = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n − 1}

• EGa,d,n = {{dk1 + a, dk2 + a} is an edge if k1 < k2 and (dk1 + a) | (dk2 + a)}

Let us start with simple example of the graph that is G1,4,n .

• VG1,4,n = {1, 5, 9, · · · , 4n − 3}

• EGa,d,n = {{4k1 + 1, 4k2 + 1} is an edge if k1 < k2 and (4k1 + 1) | (4k2 + 1)}

Figure 2.3: G1,4,12

Notice that G1,1,n = Gn . The natural number network is an example of arithmetic network.

16
Chapter 3

Laplacian spectrum of an arithmetic

network

3.1 k-th highest eigenvalue of LGa,d,n

Laplacian spectrum of an arithmetic network is defined as the multiset of eigenvalues of

LGa,d,n . We have calculated the eigenvalues of LGa,d,n for different values of n for fixed values
of a, d. We also vary values of a, d to observe how highest eigenvalues changes according
to the values of a, d. We have plotted the graph of highest eigenvalue of LGa,d,n verses the
number of vertices and following are our observations.

Figure 3.1: Zoomed version for 4k+1

17
 Figure 3.2: Zoomed version for 8k+5

Let the highest eigenvalue of a LGa,d,n with n vertices be H1 (Ga,d,n ). Observations for highest
eigenvalue of LGa,d,n ,

1. H1 (Ga,d,al+1 ) ∼ H1 (Ga,d,al+2 ) ∼ · · · ∼ H1 (Ga,d,al+a )

2. H1 (Ga,d,a+n ) − H1 (Ga,d,n ) ∼ 1.

Figure 3.3: First value plot. From the group of every five points in Figure 3.2, we have
plotted first point from every group against the corresponding value of number of vertices.
The equation of the graph is given by y = 15 x + 45 + 0.00293. The equation of first value plot
for general arithmetic network (Ga,d,n ) is given by y = a1 x + a−1
a
+ c.

18
Figure 3.4: Second value plot. From the group of every five points in Figure 3.2, we have
plotted second point from every group against the corresponding value of number of vertices.
The equation of the graph is given by y = 51 x + 35 + 0.00293. The equation of second value
plot for general arithmetic network (Ga,d,n ) is given by y = a1 x + a−2
a
+ c.

Figure 3.5: Third value plot. From the group of every five points in Figure 3.2, we have
plotted third point from every group against the corresponding value of number of vertices.
The equation of the graph is given by y = 51 x + 25 + 0.00293. The equation of third value
plot for general arithmetic network (Ga,d,n ) is given by y = a1 x + a−3
a
+ c.

19
Figure 3.6: Fourth value plot. From the group of every five points in Figure 3.2, we have
plotted fourth point from every group against the corresponding value of number of vertices.
The equation of the graph is given by y = 15 x + 51 + 0.00293. The equation of fourth value
plot for general arithmetic network (Ga,d,n ) is given by y = a1 x + a−4
a
+ c.

Figure 3.7: Fifth value plot. From the group of every five points in Figure 3.2, we have
plotted fifth point from every group against the corresponding value of number of vertices.
The equation of the graph is given by y = 15 x + 0.00293. The equation of fifth value plot for
general arithmetic network (Ga,d,n ) is given by y = a1 x + a−5
a
+ c.

20
There are five different graphs in the case of 8k + 5 as the value of a in 8k + 5 is 5. In general
case i.e. dk + a we will have a different plots.

We have also plotted the graph between 2nd highest eigenvalue of LGa,d,n and the number of
vertices for different values of a, d and following are our observations:

Figure 3.8: Zoomed version for 2k+1

Figure 3.9: Zoomed version for 3k+2

Let 2nd highest eigenvalue of a LGa,d,n be H2 (Ga,d,n ). Observations for 2nd highest eigenvalue

21
of LGa,d,n ,

1. H2 (Ga,d,(a+d)l+2 ) ∼ H2 (Ga,d,(a+d)l+3 ) ∼ · · · ∼ H1 (Ga,d,(a+d)l+(a+d+1) ).

2. H2 (Ga,d,(a+d+n) ) − H2 (Ga,d,n ) ∼ 1.

Figure 3.10: Zoomed version for 2k+1

Let k-th highest eigenvalue of a LGa,d,n be Hk (Ga,d,n ). Observations for k-th highest eigen-
value of LGa,d,n ,

1. Hk (Ga,d,[a+(k−1)d]l+k ) ∼ Hk (Ga,d,[a+(k−1)d]l+(k+1) ) ∼ · · · ∼ Hk (Ga,d,[a+(k−1)d](l+1)+(k−1)) ).

2. Hk (Ga,d,(a+d(k−1)+n) ) − Hk (Ga,d,n ) ∼ 1.

Note that X ∼ Y indicates |X − Y | ≤ 0.01

22
3.2 An upper bound on eigenvalues of Laplacian ma-
trix of a graph

3.2.1 Basic Upper Bound

In [1], W. N. Anderson and T. D. Morley gave a basic upper bound for eigenvalues of the
Laplacian matrix of a graph G in terms of the degrees of the vertices of graph. Their result
is the following:

Theorem 3.2.1. : For a given graph G, let d1 ≥ d2 ≥ · · · ≥ dn be a degree sequence and λ

is an eigenvalue of L(G), then

λ ≤ (d1 + d2 ) (3.1)

3.2.2 Improved Upper Bound

In [2], Li Jiong-Sheng and Zhang Xiao-Dong improved the basic upper bound given by
W.N.Anderson and J.D.Morley. Their result is the following:

Theorem 3.2.2. For a given graph G, let d1 ≥ d2 ≥ · · · ≥ dn be a degree sequence and λ is

an eigenvalue of LG of G, then
p
λ≤2+ (d1 + d2 − 2)(d1 + d3 − 2)

To prove this we need following definitions and lemmas:

Definition 3.2.1. Let G = (V, E) be a simple graph with vertex set V = {v1 , v2 , · · · , vn }
and edge set E = {e1 , e2 , · · · , em }. For every edge ej = (vx , vy ) assume one end of an edge
to be positive end and other end to be negative end, then the oriented incidence matrix Q of
a graph G is an (n × m) matrix defined as follows:


1
 : if vi is the positive end of ej
Q(i, j) = −1 : if vi is the negative end of ej

0 : otherwise


23
We can notice that QQT = LG .

Definition 3.2.2. Given a graph G, its line graph K is a graph defined as follows: Each
vertex of K represents an edge of a graph G and two vertices of K are adjacent if and only
if their corresponding edges share a common endpoint in G.

Example 2. An example of a line graph K of a graph G.

Figure 3.11: G Figure 3.12: K

Notice that, if ej = (vx , vy ) then the degree of ej in line graph K is given by,

d(ej ) = d(vx ) + d(vy ) − 2

Lemma 3.2.3. For a given graph G, let d1 ≥ d2 ≥ · · · ≥ dn be a degree sequence and let B
be the adjacency matrix of the graph K of G. If µ is the highest eigenvalue of B, then
p
µ≤ (d1 + d2 − 2)(d1 + d3 − 2)

Proof of Lemma 3.2.3 is given in [2]. We will assume that Lemma 3.2.4 is true and use it
in proving the improved upper bound.

24
Lemma 3.2.4. For a given graph G, let Q be its oriented incidence matrix. Let B be the
adjacency matrix of the line graph K of G. Then |QT Q| = 2Im + B, where |A| stands for
the matrix whose entries are absolute values of the entries of A.
Proof: Every main-diagonal entry of B is 0 as their there are no self edges in K. For (i, j)
and i 6= j, the (i, j) entry of B will be 1 if the edges ei and ej and adjacent in graph G, and
0 otherwise. Whereas each main-diagonal entry of |QT Q| is 2 and all other entries of |QT Q|
are same as entries of B. Therefore, |QT Q| = 2Im + B.

We hereby provide the proof of Theorem 3.3.2,

Proof of Theorem 3.3.2: Let the highest eigenvalue of a matrix A be H(A). From Lemma
3.2.3 and Lemma 3.2.4,
p
H(|QT Q|) ≤ 2 + H(B) ≤ 2 + (d1 + d2 − 2)(d1 + d3 − 2)

We know that H(QT Q) ≤ H(|QT Q|) and (QT Q) and (QQT ) have same non-zero eigenvalues.
p
∴ H(QQT ) = H(QT Q) ≤ 2 + (d1 + d2 − 2)(d1 + d3 − 2)
p
∴ H(QQT ) = λ ≤ 2 + (d1 + d2 − 2)(d1 + d3 − 2)

p
∴λ≤2+ (d1 + d2 − 2)(d1 + d3 − 2) (3.2)

It is clear that (3.2) is a better upper bound than (3.1).

Corollary 3.2.5. For a given graph G, let d1 ≥ d2 ≥ · · · ≥ dn be a degree sequence and λ is

an eigenvalue of L(G) of G. If the two vertices of the largest degree are not adjacent to each
other then,
λ ≤ d1 + d3

Remarks 3.2.1. In [1], W. N. Anderson and T. D. Morley proved the following statement,
which is stronger than Theorem 3.2.1.

25
Theorem 3.2.6. For a given graph G, if λ is an eigenvalue of LG , then

λ ≤ max {d(u) + d(v)}

(u,v)∈EG

In a similar way, we may prove the following result,

Theorem 3.2.7. For a given graph G, if λ is an eigenvalue of LG . Let

a = max {d(u) + d(v)}

(u,v)∈EG

and let us assume that (x, y) ∈ EG is a edge such that,

a = {d(x) + d(y)}

Now lets denote,

b= max {d(u) + d(v)}
(u,v)∈EG −(x,y)

Then,
p
λ≤2+ (a − 2)(b − 2)

3.3 Degree estimation for arithmetic network

Let Ga,d,n be an arithmetic network as defined in definition (3.0.1).

• VGa,d,n = {dk + a : (a, d) = 1 and k = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n − 1}

3.3.1 Expression for degree of (dk + a)

Let D(dk + a) denotes the number of proper divisors of (dk + a) ∈ VGa,d,n and M (x) denotes
the number of proper multiples of (dk + a) ∈ VGa,d,n .

deg(dk + a) = D(dk + a) + M (dk + a)

26
Let us calculate the degree of seed vertex which is deg(a),

deg(a) = D(a) + M (a)

Clearly, D(a) = 0. Now let us calculate the value of M (a),

M (a) = #{k1 : a|(dk1 + a), 1 ≤ k1 ≤ (n − 1)}

M (a) = #{k1 : a|dk1 , 1 ≤ k1 ≤ (n − 1)}
M (a) = #{k1 : a|k1 , 1 ≤ k1 ≤ (n − 1)} · · · · · · {gcd(a, d) = 1}
M (a) = #{k1 : k1 = ac, 1 ≤ k1 ≤ (n − 1), c ∈ Z+ }
M (a) = #{c : 1/a ≤ c ≤ (n − 1)/a}
 
n−1
∴ M (a) =
a
 
n−1
∴ deg(a) =
a

In a similar way, we can calculate the value of M (dk + a) for general 0 ≤ k ≤ (n − 1).

M (dk + a) = #{k1 : (dk + a)|(dk1 + a), (k + 1) ≤ k1 ≤ (n − 1)}

M (dk + a) = #{k1 : (dk + a)|d(k1 − k), (k + 1) ≤ k1 ≤ (n − 1)}
M (dk + a) = #{k1 : (dk + a)|(k1 − k), (k + 1) ≤ k1 ≤ (n − 1)} · · · · · · {gcd(dk + a, d) = 1}
M (dk + a) = #{k1 : (k1 − k) = (dk + a)c, (k + 1) ≤ k1 ≤ (n − 1), c ∈ Z+ }
M (dk + a) = #{c : 1/a ≤ c ≤ (n − k − 1)/(dk + a)}
 
n−k−1
∴ M (dk + a) =
dk + a

It is slightly difficult to calculate the value of D(dk + a) for a general value of k. So we can
find the value of D(dk + a) for some of the cases.
(
1 : if a = 1
D(d + a) =
0 : otherwise
(
1 : if a = 1, 2
D(2d + a) =
0 : otherwise

27
 (
b n−2
d+a
c+1 : if a = 1
∴ deg(d + a) = n−2
b d+a c : otherwise
(
n−3
b 2d+a c+1 : if a = 1, 2
∴ deg(2d + a) = n−3
b 2d+a c : otherwise

Conjecture 1. In an arithmetic network, deg(a) ≥ deg(a + k1 d) ∀ k1 = 1, 2, · · · , (n − 1).

It is easy to prove above conjecture for a = 1.

Proof : deg(1) = (n − 1) and deg(1 + k1 d) ≤ (n − 1) ∀ k1 = 1, 2, · · · , (n − 1).

∴ deg(1) ≥ deg(1 + k1 d) ∀ k1 = 1, 2, · · · , (n − 1)

We tried to prove this conjecture for general a. However, we could not complete it.

28
Chapter 4

Degree distribution of a network

Definition 4.0.1. A scale-free network is a network whose degree distribution follows a

power law, at least asymptotically. The fraction P (k) is defined as the number of nodes in
the network having k connections to other nodes divided by the total number of nodes in the
network. We say the network is scale free, if for large values of k

P (k) ∼ k −γ

where γ is a parameter whose value typically lies in the range 2 ≤ γ ≤ 3, however it may lie
outside this range.

4.1 Degree distribution of a natural number network

We have already defined natural number network in chapter 1. The nodes in natural number
network are 1, 2, · · · , n and there is a edge between two nodes if either of the two divides
the other. Recall that we represent natural number network with n vertices as Gn . As
the sequence of natural numbers have natural ordering it is better to view natural natural
network as growing network with the addition of a new node at time t defined as follows:

1. At time t = 1 we start with the node n = 1 and after every unit time interval we add
the next node from Gn .

29
 2. This added node connects to all existing nodes whose numbers divide it.

Now we will construct two natural number network with different sizes n = 8 and n = 16.

Figure 4.1: G8 Figure 4.2: G16

In Figure 4.1 and Figure 4.2 colour of a node represents degree of a node, darker the colour
higher the degree.

In [3], S. M. Shekatkar, C. Bhagwat and G. Ambika have analysed the degree distribution of
a natural number network. The natural number network is grown till the size of a network
reaches n = 225 = 3, 35, 54, 432. The resulting distribution of degrees follows a power law
(P (k) ∼ k −γ ) asymptotically. Using the method of maximum likelihood they have calculated
the value of scaling index γ ∼ 2. As the degree distribution of natural number network follows
power law, we can say that natural number network is a scale free network.
As per our computing power we have grown the size of a natural number network till n =
212 = 4096.

30
Figure 4.3: Degree distribution of natural number network with logarithmic bin-
ning. Sizes of successive bins are equal to successive positive powers of 2 and count in each
bin is normalized by dividing by a bin width. The dotted line in the graph has slope γ ∼ 1.92
and it is calculated using least square method.

31
4.2 Degree distribution of an arithmetic network

In this section, we will study the degree distribution of different arithmetic networks. The
construction of a network and plotting of a graph is similar to what we have done in sec-
tion 4.1. We will grow the size of different arithmetic network till n = 212 = 4096 and
calculate the value of scaling index γ.

Figure 4.4: Degree distribution of G1,2,4096 network with logarithmic binning. Sizes
of successive bins are equal to successive positive powers of 2 and count in each bin is
normalized by dividing by a bin width. The dotted line in the graph has slope γ ∼ 2.088
and it is calculated using least square method.

32
Figure 4.5: Degree distribution of G1,8,4096 network with logarithmic binning. Sizes
of successive bins are equal to successive positive powers of 2 and count in each bin is
normalized by dividing by a bin width. The dotted line in the graph has slope γ ∼ 2.15 and
it is calculated using least square method.

33
34
Chapter 5

Conclusion

1. We proved that the number of prime numbers p such that n/2 < p ≤ n is equal to the
multiplicity of 1 in the Laplacian spectrum of a natural number network.

2. We calculated the k-th highest eigenvalue of a Laplacian matrix for arithmetic networks
using python programme and we observed the following:
Let k-th highest eigenvalue of LGa,d,n be Hk (Ga,d,n ).

(a) Hk (Ga,d,[a+(k−1)d]l+k ) ∼ Hk (Ga,d,[a+(k−1)d]l+(k+1) ) ∼ · · · ∼ Hk (Ga,d,[a+(k−1)d](l+1)+(k−1)) ).

(b) Hk (Ga,d,(a+d(k−1)+n) ) − Hk (Ga,d,n ) ∼ 1.

Note that X ∼ Y indicates |X − Y | ≤ 0.01.

It will be interesting to explore the possibility of analytic proofs for these observations.

3. In an arithmetic network Ga,d,n , let a be a seed vertex then deg(a) ≥ deg(a+k1 d) ∀ k1 =

1, 2, · · · , (n−1). We proved above relation for a = 1 and attempted proving for general
a, but we could not complete it. The expression for degree of vertex a is as follows:
 
n−1
deg(a) =
a

4. We showed that the degree distribution of a natural number network and an arithmetic
network follows power law which means both networks are scale free networks.

35
36
Bibliography

[1] William N. Anderson Jr. and Thomas D. Morley. Eigenvalues of the laplacian of a graph.
Linear and Multilinear Algebra, 18(2):141–145, 1985.

[2] Jiong Sheng Li and Yong Liang Pan. Upper bounds for the laplacian graph eigenvalues.
Acta Mathematica Sinica, 20(5):803–806, Sep 2004.

[3] Snehal M. Shekatkar, Chandrasheel Bhagwat, and G. Ambika. Divisibility patterns of

natural numbers as a complex network. Scientific Reports, abs/1505.01694, 2015.

[4] F. R. K. Chung. Spectral Graph Theory. American Mathematical Society, 1997.

37