Non-Normal Data Testing Options

Non-Normal Data Testing Options
why can you run anova or t-test to compare the means of two groups if for example, the data from
those groups do not come from a normal distribution
Running ANOVA or a t-test to compare the means of two groups when the data do not come from a
normal distribution can be problematic because both tests assume that the data are normally
distributed. Here's a more detailed explanation of why this is important and what the implications are:
Assumptions of ANOVA and t-test
1. Normality: Both the t-test and ANOVA assume that the data within each group are normally
distributed. This assumption is critical because the test statistics (t-statistic for t-tests and F-statistic
for ANOVA) are derived under the assumption of normality. If the data are not normally
distributed, the distribution of these test statistics may deviate from their expected theoretical
distributions, leading to incorrect conclusions.
2. Homogeneity of Variances: Both tests assume that the variances within each group are equal
(homoscedasticity). If this assumption is violated, the tests can become unreliable.
3. Independence: Observations must be independent of each other. This assumption is crucial for
the validity of the test results.
Consequences of Violating Normality
1. Type I Error: If the normality assumption is violated, the probability of incorrectly rejecting the null
hypothesis (false positive) can increase. This means that you might conclude there is a difference
between the groups when there is none.
2. Type II Error: Conversely, the power of the test to detect a true difference (true positive) can
decrease, increasing the likelihood of failing to reject the null hypothesis when there is actually a
difference.
Alternatives to ANOVA and t-test
When the normality assumption is violated, there are several alternatives that can be used:
1. Non-parametric Tests: These tests do not assume normality and can be used when the data do
not meet the assumptions of parametric tests.
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Mann-Whitney U Test: An alternative to the independent samples t-test, used for comparing
two independent groups.
Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test: An alternative to the paired samples t-test, used for comparing
two related groups.
Kruskal-Wallis H Test: An alternative to one-way ANOVA, used for comparing more than two
independent groups.
2. Transformations: Applying a transformation (e.g., logarithmic, square root) to the data can
sometimes help in making the data more normally distributed.
3. Bootstrapping: A resampling method that can be used to estimate the sampling distribution of
the statistic by repeatedly resampling with replacement from the data.
4. Robust Statistical Methods: Methods that are less sensitive to violations of assumptions. For
example, Welch’s t-test is an alternative to the independent samples t-test that does not assume
equal variances.
Conclusion
While ANOVA and t-tests are powerful tools for comparing means, their validity relies on the assumption
that the data are normally distributed. When this assumption is not met, the results of these tests can be
unreliable. In such cases, non-parametric tests, data transformations, bootstrapping, or robust
statistical methods should be considered to ensure accurate and reliable results.
I thought the underlying data not being normally distributed is not an issue since we are working
on the mean parameter which has a distribution close to normal under CLT when doing parametric
tests like t-test / anova?
You are correct that the Central Limit Theorem (CLT) provides a foundation for using parametric tests
like the t-test and ANOVA even when the underlying data are not normally distributed. Here's a more
nuanced explanation:
Central Limit Theorem (CLT) and Parametric Tests
The CLT states that the distribution of the sample mean will approximate a normal distribution as the
sample size becomes large, regardless of the shape of the population distribution, provided that the
samples are independent and identically distributed (i.i.d.).
Implications for t-tests and ANOVA
1. Sample Size: If the sample size is sufficiently large, the sampling distribution of the mean will be
approximately normal due to the CLT, which makes the t-test and ANOVA more robust to violations
of the normality assumption. This means that for large samples, these tests can be used even if the
underlying data are not normally distributed.
2. Robustness: Both the t-test and ANOVA are considered robust to moderate violations of normality,
especially when sample sizes are equal and sufficiently large (usually n > 30 is a common rule of
thumb, though the required sample size can depend on the extent of the departure from
normality).
Considerations
Small Sample Sizes: When sample sizes are small, the CLT does not guarantee that the sampling
distribution of the mean will be normal. In these cases, the normality assumption becomes more
critical, and violations can lead to inaccurate results.
Extreme Non-normality: Even with large samples, if the data are extremely non-normal (e.g.,
heavily skewed or containing outliers), the results of t-tests and ANOVA might still be affected.
Transformations or non-parametric tests might be more appropriate in such cases.
Practical Approach
1. Check Assumptions: Before conducting t-tests or ANOVAs, it's good practice to check the
normality of the data using graphical methods (e.g., Q-Q plots) or statistical tests (e.g., Shapiro-Wilk
test). Also, check for homogeneity of variances using tests like Levene's test.
2. Use of Robust Methods: If assumptions are violated:
For unequal variances, use Welch's t-test instead of the standard t-test.
For non-normal data, consider using non-parametric tests (e.g., Mann-Whitney U test,
Kruskal-Wallis test).
3. Transformations: Applying transformations to the data (e.g., log, square root) can sometimes
make the data more normal-like.
Summary
While the CLT allows for the use of parametric tests like the t-test and ANOVA with non-normal data
when the sample size is large, it is still important to consider the degree of non-normality and the
sample size. For small samples or extremely non-normal data, it may be more appropriate to use non-
parametric tests or transformations to ensure the validity and accuracy of your results.
what if the distribution of my Factor1 data and Factor1 data looks like this. Can I still use t-test and
anova? should I do bootstrapping first?
To determine whether you can still use t-tests or ANOVA with your data, it’s essential to assess the
specific characteristics of the distributions of your Factor1 and Factor2 data. Let’s consider different
scenarios based on what these distributions might look like.
Scenarios and Recommendations
1. Moderate Non-normality and Large Sample Sizes
Scenario: If the distributions are moderately non-normal but you have large sample sizes
(typically n > 30 per group), the Central Limit Theorem suggests that the sampling distribution
of the mean will be approximately normal.
Recommendation: You can likely proceed with t-tests or ANOVA. It is also good practice to
perform diagnostic checks like Q-Q plots or normality tests (e.g., Shapiro-Wilk test) to confirm
the degree of non-normality.
2. Severe Non-normality or Small Sample Sizes
Scenario: If the distributions are severely non-normal (e.g., heavy skewness, presence of
outliers) and/or you have small sample sizes (n < 30 per group), the assumptions for t-tests
and ANOVA might be significantly violated.
Recommendation: In this case, the results of t-tests or ANOVA could be unreliable. Here are
a few alternatives:
Bootstrapping: This resampling method can provide more accurate confidence
intervals and p-values without relying heavily on normality assumptions. Bootstrapping
involves repeatedly sampling from your data with replacement and computing the test
statistic for each resample.
Non-parametric Tests: Consider using tests that do not assume normality:
Mann-Whitney U Test: For comparing two independent groups.
Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test: For comparing two related groups.
Kruskal-Wallis H Test: For comparing more than two independent groups.
Steps for Bootstrapping
If you decide to use bootstrapping, here's a general approach:
1. Resample: Randomly resample your data with replacement to create a large number (e.g., 10,000)
of bootstrap samples.
2. Compute Statistic: Calculate the mean difference (or other relevant statistics) for each bootstrap
sample.
3. Construct Confidence Intervals: Determine the confidence interval for your statistic based on the
distribution of the bootstrap samples.
4. Hypothesis Testing: Use the bootstrap distribution to perform hypothesis tests.
Practical Implementation
Here’s a simple outline of how to perform bootstrapping in Python using the `numpy` and `scipy`
libraries:
python
import numpy as np
from scipy import stats
# Sample data
data1 = np.array([...]) # Replace with your Factor1 data
data2 = np.array([...]) # Replace with your Factor2 data
# Number of bootstrap samples

n_bootstrap = 10000
# Arrays to store bootstrap results
bootstrap_means = np.empty(n_bootstrap)
# Perform bootstrapping
for i in range(n_bootstrap):
sample1 = np.random.choice(data1, size=len(data1), replace=True)
sample2 = np.random.choice(data2, size=len(data2), replace=True)
bootstrap_means[i] = np.mean(sample1) - np.mean(sample2)
# Compute confidence intervals

ci_lower = np.percentile(bootstrap_means, 2.5)
ci_upper = np.percentile(bootstrap_means, 97.5)
# Print results
print(f"95% CI: [{ci_lower}, {ci_upper}]")
# Hypothesis testing (e.g., p-value calculation)

p_value = (np.sum(bootstrap_means >= 0) + np.sum(bootstrap_means <= 0)) / n_bootstrap
print(f"Bootstrap p-value: {p_value}")
Conclusion
Whether you can use t-tests and ANOVA depends on the extent of non-normality and your sample size.
For moderate non-normality with large samples, parametric tests can still be appropriate. For severe
non-normality or small samples, consider bootstrapping or non-parametric tests to ensure valid and
reliable results. Bootstrapping is particularly useful as it makes fewer assumptions about the underlying
data distribution.
this is the distribution of Factor1 and Factor2.

So what I can do is, for the original distribution, I can use Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney U Test to
compare the Factor1 score for different groups in my data (age, region).
Then I can use t-test and anova on the bootstrapped mean?
Given the distributions of Factor1 and Factor2 as shown in the image, here is a detailed
recommendation for analyzing your data:
Analysis of Distributions
1. Factor1 Distribution: This distribution appears to be bimodal and skewed, indicating a significant
deviation from normality.
2. Factor2 Distribution: This distribution seems more unimodal and closer to normal, although it
might still have some skewness.
Steps to Analyze Your Data
Comparing Groups Using Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney U Test
For comparing the Factor1 score across different groups (e.g., age, region), the Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney
U Test (a non-parametric test) is appropriate due to the non-normal distribution of Factor1.
1. Hypotheses:
Null Hypothesis (H0 ): The distributions of the two groups are equal.

Alternative Hypothesis (H1 ): The distributions of the two groups are not equal.

2. Implementation:
python
from scipy.stats import mannwhitneyu
# Sample data for two groups

group1 = np.array([...]) # Factor1 scores for group 1
# Perform the Mann-Whitney U Test

stat, p_value = mannwhitneyu(group1, group2)
print(f"Mann-Whitney U Test Statistic: {stat}, p-value: {p_value}")
Bootstrapping and Parametric Tests
Given the non-normality of Factor1, bootstrapping can be used to obtain a more accurate estimate of
the means. You can then apply t-tests or ANOVA on these bootstrapped means.
1. Bootstrapping:
Generate a large number of bootstrap samples.

Compute the mean for each bootstrap sample.
2. t-test/ANOVA on Bootstrapped Means:
Use the bootstrapped means to perform t-tests or ANOVA.
3. Implementation:
python
import numpy as np
from scipy.stats import ttest_ind, f_oneway
# Sample data
data1 = np.array([...]) # Factor1 scores for group 1
n_bootstrap = 10000
# Bootstrapping
bootstrap_means1 = [np.mean(np.random.choice(data1, size=len(data1), replace=True)) for
_ in range(n_bootstrap)]
# Convert to numpy arrays

bootstrap_means1 = np.array(bootstrap_means1)
# Perform t-test on bootstrapped means

t_stat, p_value_t = ttest_ind(bootstrap_means1, bootstrap_means2)
print(f"Bootstrap t-test Statistic: {t_stat}, p-value: {p_value_t}")
# If more than two groups are present, use ANOVA

# Example for three groups
f_stat, p_value_f = f_oneway(bootstrap_means1, bootstrap_means2, bootstrap_means3)
print(f"Bootstrap ANOVA Statistic: {f_stat}, p-value: {p_value_f}")
Summary
Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney U Test: Use this for comparing Factor1 scores across different groups
directly, due to the non-normality of Factor1.
Bootstrapping: Generate bootstrapped means for your data to handle non-normality.
t-test/ANOVA on Bootstrapped Means: Perform these tests on the bootstrapped means to
compare group differences, benefiting from the CLT applied to the bootstrapped distributions.
These steps should allow you to make valid inferences while accounting for the non-normality present in
your Factor1 data.
How about for Factor2?
For Factor2, which appears to be closer to a normal distribution, you have more flexibility. Here’s how
you can proceed with analyzing Factor2 data:
Assessing Normality
Even though Factor2 looks closer to normal, it’s a good idea to formally check its normality. You can use
graphical methods (e.g., Q-Q plots) and statistical tests (e.g., Shapiro-Wilk test) to confirm normality.
Normality Check
1. Graphical Method: Q-Q plot

2. Statistical Test: Shapiro-Wilk test
Implementation
python
import numpy as np
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
import scipy.stats as stats
# Sample data for Factor2
factor2_data = np.array([...])
# Q-Q plot
stats.probplot(factor2_data, dist="norm", plot=plt)
plt.title("Q-Q Plot for Factor2")
plt.show()
# Shapiro-Wilk test
shapiro_test = stats.shapiro(factor2_data)
print(f"Shapiro-Wilk Test Statistic: {shapiro_test.statistic}, p-value:
{shapiro_test.pvalue}")
Parametric Tests for Factor2
If Factor2 data are approximately normal, you can use parametric tests directly:
1. t-test: For comparing means of two groups.

2. ANOVA: For comparing means of more than two groups.
Implementation
Here’s how you can perform these tests in Python:
1. Independent Samples t-test
python
from scipy.stats import ttest_ind
# Sample data for two groups

group1_factor2 = np.array([...]) # Factor2 scores for group 1
# Perform t-test
t_stat, p_value = ttest_ind(group1_factor2, group2_factor2)
print(f"t-test Statistic: {t_stat}, p-value: {p_value}")
2. One-Way ANOVA
python
from scipy.stats import f_oneway
# Sample data for three groups

# Perform ANOVA
f_stat, p_value = f_oneway(group1_factor2, group2_factor2, group3_factor2)
print(f"ANOVA Statistic: {f_stat}, p-value: {p_value}")
Bootstrapping for Factor2
If there’s still some concern about normality or sample size, you can use bootstrapping as a
supplementary method to verify your results. Here’s how you can do bootstrapping for Factor2:
Implementation
1. Bootstrapping
python
n_bootstrap = 10000
# Bootstrapping means for group1 and group2

bootstrap_means1 = [np.mean(np.random.choice(group1_factor2, size=len(group1_factor2),
replace=True)) for _ in range(n_bootstrap)]

t_stat, p_value = ttest_ind(bootstrap_means1, bootstrap_means2)
print(f"Bootstrap t-test Statistic: {t_stat}, p-value: {p_value}")
# If more than two groups are present, use ANOVA

f_stat, p_value = f_oneway(bootstrap_means1, bootstrap_means2, bootstrap_means3)
print(f"Bootstrap ANOVA Statistic: {f_stat}, p-value: {p_value}")
Summary for Factor2
Normality Check: Use Q-Q plots and the Shapiro-Wilk test to confirm normality.
Parametric Tests: If Factor2 is approximately normal, use t-tests and ANOVA directly.
Bootstrapping: As an additional step to confirm your results, perform bootstrapping and then
apply parametric tests to the bootstrapped means.
By following these steps, you can make well-supported inferences about the differences in Factor2
across your groups, ensuring the validity and reliability of your statistical tests.
what if I am more interested on the mean of the distribution instead of the distribution itself - does
this mean that I can apply statistical tests directly on the mean of each group (e.g. t-test between
the Factor1 score of Male vs Female) - mean of Factor1 > mean of Factor2 regardless of the
underlying distribution for Factor2 and Factor2?
If your primary interest is in comparing the means of different groups, the underlying distribution still
plays a role, but certain methods and considerations can help you proceed effectively. Here’s a step-by-
step guide to addressing your scenario:
Parametric Tests and the Central Limit Theorem
Even if the underlying distribution of the data is not perfectly normal, the Central Limit Theorem (CLT)
suggests that the distribution of the sample mean will be approximately normal if the sample size is
large enough (usually n > 30). This allows you to apply parametric tests such as the t-test and ANOVA to
compare means.
Specific Scenarios
Comparing Means of Two Groups
1. If Sample Sizes Are Large and Data Are Not Extremely Skewed:
You can proceed with the t-test directly. The t-test is robust to moderate deviations from
normality, especially with larger sample sizes.
python
# Sample data
male_factor1 = np.array([...]) # Factor1 scores for males
female_factor1 = np.array([...]) # Factor1 scores for females
# Perform independent samples t-test

t_stat, p_value = ttest_ind(male_factor1, female_factor1)
2. If Sample Sizes Are Small or Data Are Extremely Skewed:
Consider using non-parametric tests like the Mann-Whitney U test, which do not assume
normality.
python
from scipy.stats import mannwhitneyu
# Perform the Mann-Whitney U test

stat, p_value = mannwhitneyu(male_factor1, female_factor1)
print(f"Mann-Whitney U Test Statistic: {stat}, p-value: {p_value}")
Comparing Means of More Than Two Groups
1. If Sample Sizes Are Large and Data Are Not Extremely Skewed:
You can use ANOVA to compare means across multiple groups.
python
# Sample data for three groups

# Perform one-way ANOVA
f_stat, p_value = f_oneway(group1, group2, group3)
print(f"ANOVA Statistic: {f_stat}, p-value: {p_value}")
2. If Sample Sizes Are Small or Data Are Extremely Skewed:
Use the Kruskal-Wallis H test, a non-parametric alternative to ANOVA.
python
from scipy.stats import kruskal
# Perform the Kruskal-Wallis H test

h_stat, p_value = kruskal(group1, group2, group3)
print(f"Kruskal-Wallis H Test Statistic: {h_stat}, p-value: {p_value}")
Bootstrapping for Robustness
If there is any doubt about the normality or sample size, bootstrapping is a useful technique to provide
robust estimates of the means and their confidence intervals. You can then use these bootstrapped
means to perform hypothesis testing.
Bootstrapping Implementation
1. Bootstrap the Means:
python
import numpy as np
# Sample data
n_bootstrap = 10000
# Bootstrapping
bootstrap_means1 = [np.mean(np.random.choice(group1, size=len(group1), replace=True))
for _ in range(n_bootstrap)]
2. Perform t-test on Bootstrapped Means:
python
# Convert to numpy arrays

t_stat, p_value = ttest_ind(bootstrap_means1, bootstrap_means2)
3. Perform ANOVA on Bootstrapped Means (if comparing more than two groups):
python
# Example for three groups

f_stat, p_value = f_oneway(bootstrap_means1, bootstrap_means2, bootstrap_means3)
print(f"Bootstrap ANOVA Statistic: {f_stat}, p-value: {p_value}")
Conclusion
For Factor1 (non-normal): Use non-parametric tests (Mann-Whitney U or Kruskal-Wallis) or

bootstrap the means and then apply parametric tests on the bootstrapped means.
For Factor2 (approximately normal): Use parametric tests (t-test or ANOVA) directly if the sample
size is large; otherwise, consider non-parametric tests or bootstrapping.
This approach allows you to make valid inferences about the means of your groups while accounting for
potential issues with the underlying data distribution.
you said Comparing Means of Two Groups but in your code, you are running t-test on the
distribution? Is that correct?
# Sample data

I apologize for any confusion. The t-test is indeed run on the sample data (distributions) of the two
groups, but it tests whether the means of these distributions are significantly different. Let's clarify the
correct process:
Clarification on t-test
The t-test compares the means of two independent groups to determine if they are significantly
different from each other. It assumes the following:
The samples are independent.

The data in each group are approximately normally distributed (for large samples, this assumption
is less strict due to the Central Limit Theorem).
The variances of the two groups are equal (though there are variants of the t-test that can handle
unequal variances).
Implementation for Comparing Means
Here's how to correctly perform the t-test on your sample data:
1. Directly Applying t-test on Sample Data
python
# Sample data

Bootstrap Approach
If you are concerned about the normality assumption, you can use bootstrapping to resample the data
and then compare the means:
1. Bootstrapping Means and Applying t-test
python
import numpy as np
# Sample data

n_bootstrap = 10000
# Bootstrapping means for males and females

bootstrap_means_male = [np.mean(np.random.choice(male_factor1, size=len(male_factor1),
bootstrap_means_female = [np.mean(np.random.choice(female_factor1, size=len(female_factor1),

t_stat, p_value = ttest_ind(bootstrap_means_male, bootstrap_means_female)
Summary
t-test on Original Data: This is appropriate if you assume that the sample data meet the
assumptions of the t-test.
Bootstrapping: This approach resamples your data to generate distributions of means, which can
be useful if the normality assumption is in question. You then perform the t-test on the
bootstrapped means.
By following these steps, you ensure that your comparison of means is valid, whether you use the t-test
directly on your sample data or through a bootstrapping approach.
What is the difference between the null hypothesis and the conclusion when I use t-test on original
data vs when I use bootstrapping approach? does it change? I'm interested on Factor1 mean of
Male > Factor2 mean of Female
The null hypothesis and the conclusion of your hypothesis test essentially target the same comparison
when using a t-test on original data versus a bootstrapping approach. However, the methodologies and
potentially the robustness of your results can differ. Let’s break this down:
Null Hypothesis and Conclusion
Regardless of the approach (t-test on original data or bootstrapping), the null hypothesis and the
conclusion you draw are conceptually the same:
1. Null Hypothesis (H0 ): There is no difference in the means of Factor1 for males and Factor2 for

females.
2. Alternative Hypothesis (H1 ): The mean of Factor1 for males is greater than the mean of Factor2

for females.
Formally:
H0 : μmale_F actor1 = μf emale_F actor2

H1 : μmale_F actor1 > μf emale_F actor2

Using t-test on Original Data
When you use the t-test directly on the original data, you assume:
The data are approximately normally distributed (or the sample size is large enough for the Central
Limit Theorem to apply).
The variances of the two groups are equal (or you use Welch's t-test to account for unequal
variances).
The test statistic and p-value you obtain are based on these assumptions. If the p-value is less than the
chosen significance level (e.g., 0.05), you reject the null hypothesis in favor of the alternative hypothesis.
Bootstrapping Approach
When using the bootstrapping approach:
You resample your data many times (with replacement) to create distributions of the sample
means.
You calculate the mean for each bootstrap sample and then compare these means.
The bootstrapping method doesn’t rely on the assumption of normality and can be more robust when
dealing with small sample sizes or non-normal distributions. You then perform the t-test (or another
comparison method) on the bootstrapped means.
Key Differences
1. Assumptions:
t-test on Original Data: Assumes normality and equal variances.

Bootstrapping: No assumption of normality; can handle small sample sizes and skewed
distributions better.
2. Robustness:
t-test on Original Data: Results can be less reliable if the assumptions are violated.
Bootstrapping: Provides more reliable estimates when assumptions are violated.
3. Null Hypothesis and Conclusion:
Both approaches test the same null hypothesis (H0 : μmale_F actor1 = μf emale_F actor2 ).

The conclusion is based on whether the p-value obtained is less than the significance level,
leading to either rejection or non-rejection of the null hypothesis.
Implementation for Factor1 Mean of Male > Factor2 Mean of Female
Here’s how you can perform both tests:
t-test on Original Data
python
# Sample data
# Perform independent samples t-test (one-tailed test)

t_stat, p_value = ttest_ind(male_factor1, female_factor2, alternative='greater')
Bootstrapping Approach
python
import numpy as np
# Sample data

n_bootstrap = 10000
# Bootstrapping means for males and females

bootstrap_means_male = [np.mean(np.random.choice(male_factor1, size=len(male_factor1),
bootstrap_means_female = [np.mean(np.random.choice(female_factor2, size=len(female_factor2),
# Perform t-test on bootstrapped means (one-tailed test)

t_stat, p_value = ttest_ind(bootstrap_means_male, bootstrap_means_female,
alternative='greater')
Summary
Null Hypothesis and Conclusion: The null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis remain the
same in both methods.
t-test on Original Data: Directly tests the means assuming normality.
Bootstrapping: Provides a more robust approach by generating a distribution of means through
resampling, making fewer assumptions about the underlying data distribution.
Both approaches can be used to determine if the mean of Factor1 for males is significantly greater than
the mean of Factor2 for females, but the bootstrapping method can give you more confidence if the
data does not meet the parametric assumptions required for the traditional t-test.
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Non-Normal Data Testing Options

Assumptions of ANOVA and t-test

Consequences of Violating Normality

Alternatives to ANOVA and t-test

Central Limit Theorem (CLT) and Parametric Tests

Implications for t-tests and ANOVA

2. Use of Robust Methods: If assumptions are violated:

Scenarios and Recommendations

2. Severe Non-normality or Small Sample Sizes

Steps for Bootstrapping

If you decide to use bootstrapping, here's a general approach:

# Number of bootstrap samples

# Compute confidence intervals

# Hypothesis testing (e.g., p-value calculation)

this is the distribution of Factor1 and Factor2.

Steps to Analyze Your Data

Comparing Groups Using Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney U Test

from scipy.stats import mannwhitneyu

# Sample data for two groups

# Perform the Mann-Whitney U Test

Bootstrapping and Parametric Tests

Generate a large number of bootstrap samples.

2. t-test/ANOVA on Bootstrapped Means:

Use the bootstrapped means to perform t-tests or ANOVA.

# Convert to numpy arrays

# Perform t-test on bootstrapped means

# If more than two groups are present, use ANOVA

How about for Factor2?

1. Graphical Method: Q-Q plot

# Sample data for Factor2

Parametric Tests for Factor2

1. t-test: For comparing means of two groups.

Here’s how you can perform these tests in Python:

1. Independent Samples t-test

from scipy.stats import ttest_ind

# Sample data for two groups

from scipy.stats import f_oneway

# Sample data for three groups

Bootstrapping for Factor2

# Bootstrapping means for group1 and group2

# Perform t-test on bootstrapped means

# If more than two groups are present, use ANOVA

Summary for Factor2

Parametric Tests and the Central Limit Theorem

Comparing Means of Two Groups

from scipy.stats import ttest_ind

# Perform independent samples t-test

2. If Sample Sizes Are Small or Data Are Extremely Skewed:

from scipy.stats import mannwhitneyu

# Perform the Mann-Whitney U test

Comparing Means of More Than Two Groups

You can use ANOVA to compare means across multiple groups.

from scipy.stats import f_oneway

# Sample data for three groups

2. If Sample Sizes Are Small or Data Are Extremely Skewed:

Use the Kruskal-Wallis H test, a non-parametric alternative to ANOVA.

from scipy.stats import kruskal

# Perform the Kruskal-Wallis H test

Bootstrapping for Robustness

1. Bootstrap the Means: