Control

system
Unit 1 The general concept of Control system [4]
1.1 meaning of control
1.2 Practical example of control systems e.g. temperature control, traffic control etc.
1.3 Open loop or manual control system
1.4 The idea of closed loop and automatic control system
1.5 Feedback and feed forward control in nature
1.6 Actuator, controller, sensor and error detectors
1.7 Effect of disturbances
1.8 Task of control engineer

1.1 Meaning of control

• Control Meaning
• The power to influence or direct people’s behavior or the course of events. (similar: jurisdiction,
power authority, domination, rule etc.)
• A person or thing used as a standard of Comparison for checking the results of a survey or
experiment. (similar standard of comparison, benchmark, standard, check)
Definition
A control system is defined as a system of devices that manages, commands, directs, or regulates the
behavior of other devices or systems to achieve a desired result. A control system achieves this through
control loops, which are a process designed to maintain a process variable at a desired set point.
Control system can be simplified as a system, which controls other systems. As human civilization is
being modernized day to day the demand for automation has increased alongside it. Automation requires
control over system of interacting devices.
Example of control system in your day-to-day life include an air conditioner, a refrigerator, a bathroom
toilet tank, an automatic iron, washing machine, and may processes within a car – such as cruise control,
ABS system, gearbox controls, active/semi active suspensions,
• In control system the behavior of the system is described by differential equations.
• In automatic control system the existing value of a quantity or condition is measured and compare
it with the desired value and the difference of these two values is used to initiate the action for
reducing the difference.
Advantages:
(i) Cost of energy or power reduced
(ii) Cost of processing materials in industries reduces
(iii) Quality of products improve
(iv) Productivity increases
1.2 Practical examples of Control system
Practical example of closed loop control
a) Voltage Stabilizer
b) Thermostat Heater
c) Modern Air Conditioner
d) Induction Cooker
e) Electric Iron
f) Water Level Controller
g) Automatic street Light
h) Smoke Detection System
i) Automatic Toaster
j) Motor Speed Controller
k) Industrial Refrigerators
l) Servo Motor
Practical example of open loop control
a) Washing machine
b) Electric Bulb
c) Electric hand Drier
d) Time based Bread Toaster
e) TV remote control
f) Door Lock System
g) Traffic Control System

Temperature Control
A temperature controller is a device that is used to control a heater or other equipment by comparing a
sensor signal with a set point and performing calculations according to the deviation between those
values.
Temperature Controllers control temperature so that the process value will be the same as the set point,
but the response will differ due to the characteristics of the controlled object and the control method of the
temperature Controller.
Traffic Control
Traffic lights control system is an example of control system. Here, a sequence of input signal is applied
to this control system and the output is one of the three lights that will be on for some duration of time.
During this time, the other two lights will be off. Based on the traffic study at a particular junction, the on
and off times of the lights can be determined. Accordingly, the input signal controls the output. So, the
traffic lights control system operates on time basis.
Smart traffic light
A smart traffic light is an internet-connected vehicle traffic control system capable of adapting traffic
light controls based on information collected from sensors, edge devices and video systems.
At the intersection, smart traffic lights look the same as regular lights except for extra hardware elements
such as IoT sensors (proximity, pressure, accelerometer) and/or connected CCTV cameras. On the back
end, smart traffic light systems are connected to a cloud-based traffic management platform. They are
often powered by predictive algorithms for dynamically adjusting traffic signals.
1.3 Open loop or manual control system
• The open loop control system is also known as control system without feedback or non feedback
control system. In open loop system the control action is independent of the desired output. In this
system the output is not compared with the reference input.
• The component of the open loop systems are controller and controlled process. The controller
may be amplifier, filter etc. depending upon the system. An input is applied to the controller and
the output of the controller gives to the controlled process and we get the output (desired)
Examples:
A. Automatic washing machine is an example of the open loop systems. In the machine the
operating time is set manually. After the completion of the set time the machine will stops, with
the result we may or may not get the desired (output) amount of cleanliness of washed clothes
because there is no feedback is provided to the machine for desired output.
B. Immersion rod is another example of open loop system. The rod heats the water but how much
heating is required is not sense by the rod because of no feedback to the rod.

1.4 The idea of closed loop and automatic control system

Closed loop control systems are also known as feedback control systems. In closed loop control systems
the control action is dependent on the desired output. If any system having one or more feedback paths
forming a closed loop system.
In closed loop systems the output is compared with the reference input and error signal is produced. The
error signal is fed to the controller to reduce the error and desired output is obtained.

Elements of closed loop system

Command: The command is the externally produced input and independent of feedback control system.
Reference input element: This produce the standard signals proportional to the command.
Error detector: The error detector receives the measured signal and compare it with reference input. The
difference of two signals produces the error signal.
Controlled System: This represents what we are controlling by the feedback loop.
Feedback Element: This element fed back the output to the error detector for comparison with the
reference input.

1.5 Feedback and feed forward control in nature

There are many different control mechanisms that can be used, both in everyday life and in automobile
engineering applications. Two broad Control schemes, both of which encompass each other are feedback
control and feed-forward control. Feedback control is a control mechanism that uses information from
measurements to manipulate a variable to achieve the desired result. Feed-forward control, also called
anticipative control, is a control mechanism that predicts the effects of measured disturbance and take
corrective action to achieve the desire result.
Feedback Control is employed in a wide variety of situations in everyday life, from simple home
thermostats that maintain a specified temperature, to complex devices that maintain the position of
communication satellite. Feedback control also occurs in natural situations, such as the blood sugar levels
in the body.
The basic concept of feedforward control is to measure important disturbance variables and take
corrective action before they upset the process.
Example
A boiler drum with a conventional feedback control system in figure1. The level of the boiling liquid is
measured and used to adjust the feed-water flow rate
This control system tends to be quite sensitive to rapid change in the disturbance variable, steam flow
rate, as a result of the small liquid capacity of the boiler drum. Rapid Disturbance change occur as a result
of steam demands made by downstream processing units.
The feedforward control scheme in figure can provide better control of the liquid level. Here the steam
flow rate is measured, and the feedforward controller adjusts the feed-water flow rate.
In practical applications, feedforward control is normally used in combination with feedback.
control. Feedforward control is used to reduce the Effects of measurable disturbances, while
Feedback trim compensates for inaccuracies In the process model, measurement error, and
Unmeasured disturbances.

1.6 Actuator, controller, sensor and error detectors

Actuator
An actuator is a device that creates a type of motion, usually linear or rotary. To make an actuator operate
it requires an input energy source, usually electrical or hydraulic fluid, but can also be pneumatic which
uses compressed air. The output motion is exerted in the form of a shaft turning or a rod extending or
retracting, that once connected to something can make something move back and forth repeatedly as
many times as you wish, without the need for human intervention
An actuator in principle can therefore be described as a device that converts energy into motion.
Actuators are used in a wide range of applications, from robotics and industrial automation to
transportation and aerospace. They are used to control and move mechanical systems and can be
classified into different types depending on the type of energy they convert, such as electrical, pneumatic
or hydraulic actuators.
Controller
A controller is basically a unit present in a control system that generates control signals to reduce the
deviation of the actual value from the desired value to almost zero or lowest possible value. It is
responsible for the control action of the system so as to get accurate output.
The method of producing a control signal by the controller is known as control action.
The following below represent the block diagram of an industrial of an industrial controller.

Types of Controller (on the basis of operational modes)

Modes of Control Action
a) Continuous
b) Discontinuous

Sensor
A sensor is defined as a device that converts a physical stimulus into a readable output. The role of a
sensor in a control and automation system is to detect and measure some physical effect, providing this
information to the system.
The main components of a sensor
a) The sensing section contains the sensor itself which is based on a particular technology. The
variety of technologies means you can select a sensor technology which fits your application.
b) The processing circuitry converts the physical variable into an electrical variable.
c) The Signal output contains the electronics connected to a control system.

Types
• Inductive sensor generates an electromagnetic field. This in turn generates eddy current in
objects made of metal. The sensor detects this change.
 • Capacitive Sensor generate a capacitive measuring field. An entering object results in a change
to the measuring field. The sensor responds to this change.
• Photoelectric sensors (light curtains) always consist of an emitter and a receiver. There are
diffuse, retro-reflective and through-beam types.
• Ultrasonic sensors send out a sound pulse in the inaudible range. The echo from the object is
processed.
• Magnetic field sensors detect an external magnet. The field strength generated by the magnet is
processed.
• Magnetostrictive sensor detect the position of an external magnet using propagation time
measurement.
Error detectors
An error detector is any device or combination of devices used to determine the difference between the
desired output and the actual output.
Electrical error detector may be either ac or dc devices, depending upon the requirements of servo system.
An ac device used as an error detector must compare the two signals and produce an error signal in which
the phase and amplitude will indicate the direction and amount of control, respectively, that are necessary
for correspondence. A dc device differs in that the polarity of the output error signal determines the
direction of the necessary correction.
A servo is an electromagnetic device that convert electricity into precise controlled motion by use of
negative feedback mechanisms. Servo can be used to generate linear or circular motion, depending on
their type.
1.7 Effect of disturbances
• Disturbance is unwanted signals that interface with the desired output or input of feedback control
system. Disturbance can be caused by external factors, such as load changes, parameter variation,
or model uncertainties. Disturbance can degrade the quality of the feedback signal, introduce
error and oscillations, or even system become unstable.
• To reduce the impact of disturbance on a feedback control system, you can use various methods
and strategies, such as filtering, compensation, feedforward control, and PID tuning.
1.8 Task of control engineer
• Development and construction of Controls
• Research, design, and management of Control systems
• Definition of control algorithms and selection of tools
• Purchasing and overseeing installation of ICT equipment
• Development of hardware and software for control equipment
• Control and maintenance of existing controls
• Develop, write, and optimize PLC, HMI, Vision and Robot programs
• Ensuring that the process works safely and efficiently in accordance with specifications
• Develops knowledge about the client’s business and its needs.
• Develop software that meets customer needs or solves a particular problem.
• Construction and implementation of system architectures in industrial automation.
• Leading teams of workers, including other engineers and technicians
Unit 2. Transducers
2.1 Principle of transducers
2.2 Accuracy consideration in measurement
2.3 Strain gauge
2.4 Potentiometer
2.5 Tachometer and tachogenerator
2.6 Thermocouple
2.7 Photo-electric cells
2.8 Electromagnetic flow meter
2.9 Pneumatic displacement detector

2.1 Principle of transducer

Introduction
A transducer is an electronic device that converts energy from one from to another. Common examples
include microphones, loudspeaker, thermometers, position and pressure sensor, and antenna. Although
not generally thought of as transducers, photocells, LEDs (Light-emitting diodes), and even common light
bulbs are transducers.
Working Principle of Transducer
The output of sensing element generally acts as an input for the transducing element which then converts
the output signal of the sensing element into a proportional output as an electrical signal.
• Uses of transducers
1) In ultrasound machines convert the variations of sound energy into electrical output which can be
read on a display.
2) Microphones convert sound energy into electrical energy.
3) Antennas where converts electromagnetic signals into electrical signals.
4) In a digital RPM meter of a vehicle where transducers covert the torque produced by the engines
into electrical signals which is further converted into readable data on the display
2.2 Accuracy consideration in measurement
The accuracy of a measurement is a measure of how close the measured is to the true value of the
quantity. The accuracy in measurement may depend on several factors, including the limit or the
resolution of the measuring instrument.
For example, suppose the true value of a certain length is near 3.678cm. In one experiment of resolution
0.1cm, the measured value is found to be 3.578cm, while in another experiment using a measuring device
of greater resolution, say 0.3cm, the length is determined to be 3.378cm. The first measurement has more
accuracy because it is closer to the true value.
2.3 Strain gauge
A strain gauge is a resistor used to measure strain on an object. When an external force is applied on an
object, due to which there is a deformation occurs in the shape of the object. This deformation in the
shape is both compressive or tensile is called strain, and it is measured by the strain gauge. When an
object deforms within the limit of elasticity, either it become narrower and longer or it become shorter
and broadens. As a result of it, there is a change in resistance end to end.
The strain gauge is sensitive to that small changes occur in the geometry of an object. By measuring the
change in resistance of an object, the amount of induced stress can be calculated.
The change in resistance normally has very small value, and to sense that small change, strain gauge has a
long thin metallic strip arrange in zigzag pattern on a non-conducting material called the carrier, so that it
can enlarge the small amount of stress in the group of parallel lines and could be measured with high
accuracy. The gauge is literally glued onto the device by an adhesive.

2.4 Potentiometer
A potentiometer is defined as a 3 terminal variable resistor in which the resistance is manually varied to
control the flow of electric current. A potentiometer acts as an adjustable voltage divider.
Working
A potentiometer is a passive electronic component. Potentiometers work by varying the position of a
sliding contact across a uniform resistance. In a potentiometer, the entire input voltage is applied across
the whole length of the resistor, and the output voltage is the voltage drop between the fixed and sliding
contact as shown below.
A potentiometer has the two terminals of the input source fixed to the end of the resistor. To adjust the
output voltage the sliding contact gets move along the resistor on the output side.
Potentiometer Types
1) Rotary potentiometer
2) Linear potentiometer
Although the basic constructional features of these potentiometers vary, the working principle of both of
these types of potentiometers is the same.
Rotary Potentiometers
The rotary type potentiometers are mainly for obtaining adjustable supply voltage to a part of electronic
circuit and electrical circuits. The volume controller of a radio transistor is a popular example of a rotary
potentiometer where the rotary knob of the potentiometer controls the supply to the amplifier.
Linear Potentiometers
The Linear potentiometer is basically the same but the only difference is that here instead of rotary
movement the sliding contact gets moved on the resistor linearly. Here two ends of a straight resistor are
connected across the source voltage. A sliding contact can be slide on the resistor through a track attached
along with the resistor. The terminal connected to the sliding is connected to one of the output circuit and
one of the terminals of the resistor is connected to the other end of the output circuit.
2.5 Tachometer and tachogenerator
Tachometer
A tachometer is an instrument that measures the working speed of an engine, typically in revolutions per
minute (RPM). It is commonly used in car, boats, plane and other vehicles. Most Tachometer gauge have
either an analog or digital display.
An electric tachometer works on the principle of relative motion between the magnetic field and shaft of
the coupled device. The motor of tachometer works as a generator, i.e. it produce the voltage based on the
velocity of the shaft. It counts the number of rotations the crankshaft is making per minute. It is essential
for the user to know the RPM of the engine and its operating range to avoid unnecessary damages. The
device works on either an alternating or direct current.
• Types of Tachometer
A. Contact Type
B. Non-Contact Type
C. Electronic tachometer
D. Analog tachometer
E. Digital tachometer
F. Time measuring tachometer
G. Frequency measuring tachometer
H. Mechanical tachometer

Application
1. It is used to measure rotational speed
 2. It can measure the flow of liquid with the help of an attached wheel with an inclined angle.
3. It is applicable for the medical sector to measure the blood pressure flow rate of the patients.
4. It is used in vehicles to display the rate of engine crankshaft rotation.

Tachogenerator
A tachogenerator is attached to the object whose speed be being measured – such as a fan or motor shaft-
and evaluates the voltage of power produced by the generator to determine the rotational speed of object.
Tachogenerators are designed to ensure that the relationship between voltage and speed is extremely
precise and linear with in a specified range.

Fig: Tachogenerator
Working
When the rotor is stationary, there is no relative motion between a magnetic field and winding, the output
voltage is zero. As the rotor speed increases, the relative motion between a magnetic field and winding
also increases and hence the output voltage induced in the winding.
2.6 Thermocouple
The thermocouple can be defined as a kind of temperature sensor that is used to measure the temperature
at one specific point in the form of the EMF or an electric current. This sensor comprises two dissimilar
metal wires that are connected together at one junction. The temperature can be measured at this junction,
and the change in temperature of the metal wire stimulates the voltages.
The amount of EMF generated in the device is very minute (millivolts), so very sensitive devices must be
utilized for calculating the e.m.f. produced in the circuit. The common devices used to calculate the emf
are voltage balancing potentiometer and the ordinary galvanometer. From these two, a balancing
potentiometer is utilized physically or mechanically.
Construction of Thermocouple
Thermocouple comprises two different metal wires and that are connected together at the junction end.
The end of the junction is classified into three type’s namely underground, grounded and exposed
junction.
The thermocouple diagram is shown along side. This circuit can be built with two different metals, and
they are coupled together by generating two junctions. The two metals are surrounded by the connecting
through welding.
In the given diagram, the junctions are denoted by P& Q, and the temperature are denoted by T1 & T2.
When the temperature of the junction is dissimilar from each other, then the electromagnetic force
generates in the circuit.
If the temperature at the junction end turn into equivalent, then the equivalent, as well as reverse
electromagnetic force, produces in the circuit, and there is no flow current through it. Similarly, the
temperature at the junction end becomes imbalanced, then the potential variation induced in this circuit.
The magnitude of the electromagnetic force induces in the circuit relies on the sorts of material utilized
for thermocouple making. The entire flow current through the circuit is calculated by the measuring tools.

2.7 Photo-electric cells

A basic photovoltaic cell consists of a n-type and a p-type semiconductor forming a p-n junction. The
upper area is extended and transparent, generally exposed to the sun. These diodes or cells are exceptional
that generate a voltage when exposed to light. The cells convert light energy directly into electrical
energy.
There is no current flow through the device when no light is applied. In this state, the cell will not be able
to generate current.
It is essential to bias the cell properly which requires a fair amount of light. As soon as light is applied, a
remarkable state of PN junction diode can be observed. As a result, the electrons acquire sufficient energy
and break away from the parent atoms. These newly generated electron-hole pairs in the depletion region
crosses the junction.
2.8 Electromagnetic flow meter
Electromagnetic Flow Meters, simply known as mag flow meter is a volumetric flow meter which is
ideally used for waste water applications and other applications that experience low pressure drop and
with appropriate liquid conductivity required.
The electromagnetic flow meter is a device used for measuring the flow of the liquid when it passes
through the pipeline. Or we can say that the electromagnetic flowmeter use for measuring the flow rate of
the electrically conducting fluid. The electrically conductive liquid means the liquid allows the current to
pass through it.
The electromagnetic flowmeter works on the principle of Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic induction.
This law states that when the conductive liquid passes through the magnetic field, the voltage induces
across the conductor. The magnitude of the voltage is directly proportional to the velocity, length of the
conductor and the strength of the magnetic field.
The magnetic field is generated by the coil which is mounted on the external metallic body of the pipe.
The liquid acts as a conductor and when passes through the magnetic field induce the voltage across the
coil. The magnitude of the voltage depends on the velocity of the liquid.

Construction of Electromagnetic Flow Meter

The electromagnetic flow meter consists the electrically insulated pipe made of fiber. Electrodes placed
opposite to each other, magnetic coil placed on the pipe for generating the magnetic field etc. The
insulated pipe carries the liquid whose flow needs to be measured.
The electromagnet is placed around the insulated pipe. This electromagnet induces the magnetic field
around the pipe. The arrangement is similar to the conductor moving in the magnetic field. The voltage is
induced across the coil because of the flow of the liquid. The induces voltage is expressed as,
E=Blv volt
Where, v – velocity of conductor (flow); m/s
l – length of conductor = diameter of pipe ;m
B = flux X density ; wb/m2
If the magnetic field around the pipe remains constant than the generating voltage is proportional to the
velocity of the fluid.
2.9 Pneumatic displacement detector
Function of Component of pneumatic system
a) Air filter: These are used to filter out the contamination from the air.
b) Compressor: Compressor air is generated by using air compressors.
c) Electric Motor: Transforms electric energy into mechanical energy. It is used to drive the
compressor.
d) Air Cooler: During compression operation, air temperature increases. Therefore coolers are used
to reduce the temperature of compressed air.
e) Receiver tank: The compressed air comping from the compressor in the air receiver.