Jashore University of Science and Technology

Department of Pharmacy
Course Title: Pharmaceutical Microbiology–I

Course Code: PHAR-1111

An Assignment
on
“Yeast”

Submitted by Submitted to
Name: Name:
Rittik Bala Dr. Mst. Farzana Sultana
1st Year, 1st Semester Associate Professor
Session: 2022-2023 Department of Pharmacy
Department of Pharmacy Jashore University of Science and
Jashore University of Science and Technology.
Technology.

Date of submission: 19-10-2023

 YEAST

Introduction :
Yeasts are eukaryotic, single-celled microorganisms classified as members of the fungus kingdom.
The first yeast originated hundreds of millions of years ago, and at least 1,500 species are currently
recognized. They are estimated to constitute 1% of all described fungal species.

The word "yeast" comes from Old English gist, gyst, and from the Indo-European root yes-,
meaning "boil", "foam", or "bubble". Yeast microbes are probably one of the earliest domesticated
organisms.

Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a species of yeast

Some yeast species have the ability to develop multicellular characteristics by forming
strings of connected budding cells known as pseudohyphae or false hyphae, or quickly
evolve into a multicellular cluster with specialised cell organelles function.[5][6] Yeast
sizes vary greatly, depending on species and environment, typically measuring 3-4 µm in
diameter, although some yeasts can grow to 40 µm in size. Most yeasts reproduce
asexually by mitosis, and many do so by the asymmetric division process known as
budding. With their single-celled growth habit, yeasts can be contrasted with molds, which
grow hyphae. Fungal species that can take both forms (depending on temperature or other
conditions) are called dimorphic fungi.

The yeast species Saccharomyces cerevisiae converts carbohydrates to carbon dioxide and
alcohols through the process of fermentation. The products of this reaction have been used
in baking and the production of alcoholic beverages for thousands of years. S. cerevisiae is
also an important model organism in modern cell biology research, and is one of the most
thoroughly studied eukaryotic microorganisms. Researchers have cultured it in order to
understand the biology of the eukaryotic cell and ultimately human biology in great detail.
Other species of yeasts, such as Candida albicans, are opportunistic pathogens and can
cause infections in humans. Yeasts have recently been used to generate electricity in
microbial fuel cells and to produce ethanol for the biofuel industry.

Structure:
Yeasts in general are unicellular fungi and in form and size very similar to bacteria. Like all
fungi, they have a cell wall composed of chitin and possess a nucleus and other
organelles, in particular, mitochondria. In many ways they represent fungi that have
evolved to become 'bacteria-like' in their form and ecology. Baker's yeast is typical of
yeasts in generally - they typically are roughly spherical and around 5 um in diameter.
Nutrition and growth:
Yeasts are chemoorganotrophs, as they use organic compounds as a source of energy and
do not require sunlight to grow. Carbon is obtained mostly from hexose sugars, such as
glucose and fructose, or disaccharides such as sucrose and maltose. Some species can
metabolize pentose sugars such as ribose, alcohols, and organic acids. Yeast species either
require oxygen for aerobic cellular respiration (obligate aerobes) or are anaerobic, but also
have aerobic methods of energy production (facultative anaerobes). Unlike bacteria, no
known yeast species grow only anaerobically (obligate anaerobes). Most yeasts grow best
in a neutral or slightly acidic pH environment.

Yeasts vary in regard to the temperature range in which they grow best. For example,
Leucosporidium frigidum grows at -2 to 20 °C (28 to 68 °F), Saccharomyces telluris at 5 to
35 °C (41 to 95 °F), and Candida slooffi at 28 to 45 °C (82 to 113 °F).[26] The cells can
survive freezing under certain conditions, with viability decreasing over time.

In general, yeasts are grown in the laboratory on solid growth media or in liquid broths.
Common media used for the cultivation of yeasts include potato dextrose agar or potato
dextrose broth, Wallerstein Laboratories nutrient agar, yeast peptone dextrose agar, and
yeast mould agar or broth. Home brewers who cultivate yeast frequently use dried malt
extract and agar as a solid growth medium. The fungicide cycloheximide is sometimes
added to yeast growth media to inhibit the growth of Saccharomyces yeasts and select for
wild/indigenous yeast species. This will change the yeast process.

The appearance of a white, thready yeast, commonly known as kahm yeast, is often a
byproduct of the lactofermentation (or pickling) of certain vegetables. It is usually the
result of exposure to air. Although harmless, it can give pickled vegetables a bad flavor and
must be removed regularly during fermentation.

Ecology:

Yeasts are very common in the environment, and are often isolated from sugar-rich
materials. Examples include naturally occurring yeasts on the skins of fruits and berries
(such as grapes, apples, or peaches), and exudates from plants (such as plant saps or cacti).
Some yeasts are found in association with soil and insects. Yeasts from the soil and from
the skins of fruits and berries have been shown to dominate fungal succession during fruit
decay. The ecological function and biodiversity of yeasts are relatively unknown compared
to those of other microorganisms. Yeasts, including Candida albicans, Rhodotorula rubra,
Torulopsis and Trichosporon cutaneum, have been found living in between people's toes as
part of their skin flora. Yeasts are also present in the gut flora of mammals and some
insects and even deep-sea environments host an array of yeasts.
Reproduction:

Yeasts, like all fungi, may have asexual and sexual reproductive cycles. The most common
mode of vegetative growth in yeast is asexual reproduction by budding,[44] where a small
bud (also known as a bleb or daughter cell) is formed on the parent cell. The nucleus of the
parent cell splits into a daughter nucleus and migrates into the daughter cell. The bud then
continues to grow until it separates from the parent cell, forming a new cell. [45] The
daughter cell produced during the budding process is generally smaller than the mother
cell. Some yeasts, including Schizosaccharomyces pombe, reproduce by fission instead of
budding, [44] and thereby creating two identically sized daughter cells.

The yeast cell's life cycle:

1.Budding
2.Conjugation
3.Spore

In general, under high-stress conditions such as nutrient starvation, haploid cells will die;
under the same conditions, however, diploid cells can undergo sporulation, entering sexual
reproduction (meiosis) and producing a variety of haploid spores, which can go on to mate
(conjugate), reforming the diploi.
The haploid fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe is a facultative sexual
microorganism that can undergo mating when nutrients are limited.Exposure of S. pombe
to hydrogen peroxide, an agent that causes oxidative stress leading to oxidative DNA
damage, strongly induces mating and the formation of meiotic spores. The budding yeast
Saccharomyces cerevisiae reproduces by mitosis as diploid cells when nutrients are
abundant, but when starved, this yeast undergoes meiosis to form haploid spores. Haploid
cells may then reproduce asexually by mitosis. Katz Ezov et al. presented evidence that in
natural S. cerevisiae populations clonal reproduction and selfing (in the form of intratetrad
mating) predominate. In nature, the mating of haploid cells to form diploid cells is most
often between members of the same clonal population and out-crossing is uncommon.
Analysis of the ancestry of natural S. cerevisiae strains led to the conclusion that out-
crossing occurs only about once every 50,000 cell divisions. These observations suggest
that the possible long-term benefits of outcrossing (e.g. generation of diversity) are likely
to be insufficient for generally maintaining sex from one generation to the next.[citation
needed] Rather, a short-term benefit, such as recombinational repair during meiosis, may
be the key to the maintenance of sex in S. cerevisiae. Some pucciniomycete yeasts, in
particular species of Sporidiobolus and Sporobolomyces, produce aerially dispersed,
asexual ballistoconidia.

Matter and energy:

Saccharomyces is a heterotroph with a sweet tooth-it prefers living off of simple sugars,
although some strains can breakdown sugar polymers, e.g. starch, into simple sugars,
thereby broadening its diet. Its mineral needs are obtained by absorbing small organic
molecules (amino acids) and minerals like phosphate. Various strains differ in their ability
to breakdown organic matter and absorb and metabolize nutrients; these features may be
useful in genetic/cell biology experiments.
Alcoholic fermentation: Two molecules of NAD+ are reduced to two NADH while a
glucose is converted to two molecules of pyruvate. Each loses a carbon dioxide to form
two acetaldehydes and then the acetaldehype is reduced to ethanol while NADH is
oxidized back to NAD+, allowing the process to continue

Uses:
The useful physiological properties of yeast have led to their use in the field of
biotechnology. Fermentation of sugars by yeast is the oldest and largest application of this
technology. Many types of yeasts are used for making many foods: baker's yeast in bread
production, brewer's yeast in beer fermentation, and yeast in wine fermentation and for
xylitol production. So-called red rice yeast is actually a mold, Monascus purpureus. Yeasts
include some of the most widely used model organisms for genetics and cell biology.

❖ Baking:
Yeast, most commonly S. cerevisiae, is used in baking as a leavening agent, converting the
fermentable sugars present in dough into carbon dioxide. This causes the dough to expand
or rise as gas forms pockets or bubbles. When the dough is baked, the yeast dies and the air
pockets "set", giving the baked product a soft and spongy texture. The use of potatoes,
water from potato boiling, eggs, or sugar in a bread dough accelerates the growth of yeast.
Most yeasts used in baking are of the same species common in alcoholic fermentation. In
addition, Saccharomyces exiguus (also known as S. minor), a wild yeast found on plants,
fruits, and grains, is occasionally used for baking. In breadmaking, the yeast initially
respires aerobically, producing carbon dioxide and water. When the oxygen is depleted,
fermentation begins, producing ethanol as a waste product; however, this evaporates
during baking. It is not known when yeast was first used to bake bread. The first records
that show this use came from Ancient Egypt.Researchers speculate a mixture of flour meal
and water was left longer than usual on a warm day and the yeasts that occur in natural
contaminants of the flour caused it to ferment before baking. The resulting bread would
have been lighter and tastier than the normal flat, hard cake.

Active dried yeast, a granulated form in which yeast is commercially sold

When yeast is used for making bread, it is mixed with flour, salt, and warm water or milk.
The dough is kneaded until it is smooth, and then left to rise, sometimes until it has
doubled in size. The dough is then shaped into loaves. Some bread doughs are knocked
back after one rising and left to rise again (this is called dough proofing) and then baked. A
longer rising time gives a better flavor, but the yeast can fail to raise the bread in the final
stages if it is left for too long initially.

❖ Bioremediation:
Some yeasts can find potential application in the field of bioremediation. One such yeast,
Yarrowia lipolytica, is known to degrade palm oil mill effluent, TNT (an explosive
material), and other hydrocarbons, such as alkanes, fatty acids, fats and oils.It can also
tolerate high concentrations of salt and heavy metals, and is being investigated for its
potential as a heavy metal biosorbent.Saccharomyces cerevisiae has potential to
bioremediate toxic pollutants like arsenic from industrial effluent. [79] Bronze statues are
known to be degraded by certain species of yeast. Different yeasts from Brazilian gold
mines bioaccumulate free and complexed silver ions.

❖ Alcoholic beverages:
Alcoholic beverages are defined as beverages that contain ethanol (C2H5OH). This
ethanol is almost always produced by fermentation - the metabolism of carbohydrates by
certain species of yeasts under anaerobic or low-oxygen conditions. Beverages such as
mead, wine, beer, or distilled spirits all use yeast at some stage of their production. A
distilled beverage is a beverage containing ethanol that has been purified by distillation.
Carbohydrate-containing plant material is fermented by yeast, producing a dilute solution
of ethanol in the process. Spirits such as whiskey and rum are prepared by distilling these
dilute solutions of ethanol. Components other than ethanol are collected in the condensate,
including water, esters, and other alcohols, which (in addition to that provided by the oak
in which it may be aged) account for the flavour of the beverage.

❖ Wine:
Yeast is used in winemaking, where it converts the sugars present (glucose and fructose) in
grape juice (must) into ethanol. Yeast is normally already present on grape skins.
Fermentation can be done with this endogenous "wild yeast", but this procedure gives
unpredictable results, which depend upon the exact types of yeast species present. For this
reason, a pure yeast culture is usually added to the must; this yeast quickly dominates the
fermentation. The wild yeasts are repressed, which ensures a reliable and predictable
fermentation.

Most added wine yeasts are strains of S. cerevisiae, though not all strains of the species are
suitable.[67] Different S. cerevisiae yeast strains have differing physiological and
fermentative properties, therefore the actual strain of yeast selected can have a direct
impact on the finished wine
Significant research has been undertaken into the development of novel wine yeast strains
that produce atypical flavour profiles or increased complexity in wines.

The growth of some yeasts, such as Zygosaccharomyces and Brettanomyces, in wine can
result in wine faults and subsequent spoilage. Brettanomyces produces an array of
metabolites when growing in wine, some of which are volatile phenolic compounds.
Together, these compounds are often referred to as "Brettanomyces character", and are
often described as "antiseptic" or "barnyard" type aromas. Brettanomyces is a significant
contributor to wine faults within industry.

Researchers from the University of British Columbia, Canada, have found a new stra that
has reduced amines. The amines in red wine and Chardonnay produce off-flavor headaches
and hypertension in some people. About 30% of people are sensitive to biogenic amines,
such as histamines.

❖ Industrial ethanol production:

The ability of yeast to convert sugar into ethanol has been harnessed by the biotechnology
industry to produce ethanol fuel. The process starts by milling a feedstock, such as sugar
cane, field corn, or other cereal grains, and then adding dilute sulfuric acid, or fungal alpha
amylase enzymes, to break down the starches into complex sugars. A glucoamylase is then
added to break the complex sugars down into simple sugars. After this, yeasts are added to
convert the simple sugars to ethanol, which is then distilled off to obtain ethanol up to 96%
in purity.

Saccharomyces yeasts have been genetically engineered to ferment xylose, one of the
major fermentable sugars present in cellulosic biomasses, such as agriculture residues,
paper wastes, and wood chips. Such a development means ethanol can be efficiently
produced from more inexpensive feedstocks, making cellulosic ethanol fuel a more
competitively priced alternative to gasoline fuels.

❖ Probiotics:
Some probiotic supplements use the yeast S. boulardii to maintain and restore the natural
flora in the gastrointestinal tract. S. boulardii has been shown to reduce the symptoms of
acute diarrhea, reduce the chance of infection by Clostridium difficile (often identified
simply as C. difficile or C. diff), reduce bowel movements in diarrhea-predominant IBS
patients, and reduce the incidence of antibiotic-, traveler's-, and HIV/AIDS-associated
diarrheas.
 ❖ Aquarium hobby:
Yeast is often used by aquarium hobbyists to generate carbon dioxide (CO2) to nourish
plants in planted aquaria. CO2 levels from yeast are more difficult to regulate than those
from pressurized CO2 systems. However, the low cost of yeast makes it a widely used
alternative.

Scientific research

Diagram showing a yeast cell

Several yeasts, in particular S. cerevisiae and S. pombe, have been widely used in genetics
and cell biology, largely because they are simple eukaryotic cells, serving as a model for
all eukaryotes, including humans, for the study of fundamental cellular processes such as
the cell cycle, DNA replication, recombination, cell division, and metabolism. Also, yeasts
are easily manipulated and cultured in the laboratory, which has allowed for the
development of powerful standard techniques, such as yeast two-hybrid,synthetic genetic
array analysis,and tetrad analysis. Many proteins important in human biology were first
discovered by studying their homologues in yeast; these proteins include cell cycle
proteins, signaling proteins, and protein-processing enzymes.
 ❖ Genetically engineered biofactories:
Various yeast species have been genetically engineered to efficiently produce various
drugs, a technique called metabolic engineering. S. cerevisiae is easy to genetically
engineer; its physiology, metabolism and genetics are well known, and it is amenable for
use in harsh industrial conditions. A wide variety of chemical in different classes can be
produced by engineered yeast, including phenolics, isoprenoids, alkaloids, and polyketides.
About 20% of biopharmaceuticals are produced in S. cerevisiae, including insulin,
vaccines for hepatitis, and human serum albumin.

Pathogenic yeasts:
Some species of yeast are opportunistic pathogens that can cause infection in people with
compromised immune systems. Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii are
significant pathogens of immunocompromised people. They are the species primarily
responsible for cryptococcosis, a fungal infection that occurs in about one million
HIV/AIDS patients, causing over 600,000 deaths annually. The cells of these yeast are
surrounded by a rigid polysaccharide capsule, which helps to prevent them from being
recognised and engulfed by white blood cells in the human body.

Yeasts of the genus Candida, another group of opportunistic pathogens, cause oral and
vaginal infections in humans, known as candidiasis. Candida is commonly found as a
commensal yeast in the mucous membranes of humans and other warm-blooded animals.
However, sometimes these same strains can become pathogenic. The yeast cells sprout a
hyphal outgrowth, which locally penetrates the mucosal membrane, causing irritation and
shedding of the tissues.A book from the 1980s listed the pathogenic yeasts of candidiasis
in probable descending order of virulence for humans as: C. albicans, C. tropicalis, C.
stellatoidea, C. glabrata, C. krusei, C. parapsilosis, C. guilliermondii, C. viswanathii, C.
lusitaniae, and Rhodotorula mucilaginosa.Candida glabrata is the second most common
Candida pathogen after C. albicans, causing infections of the urogenital tract, and of the
bloodstream (candidemia).C. auris has been more recently identified.

Food spoilage
Yeasts are able to grow in foods with a low pH (5.0 or lower) and in the presence of
sugars, organic acids, and other easily metabolized carbon sources. During their growth,
yeasts metabolize some food components and produce metabolic end products. This causes
the physical, chemical, and sensible properties of a food to change, and the food is spoiled.
The growth of yeast within food products is often seen on their surfaces, as in cheeses or
meats, or by the fermentation of sugars in beverages, such as juices, and semiliquid
products, such as syrups and jams. The yeast of the genus Zygosaccharomyces have had a
long history as spoilage yeasts within the food industry.
This is mainly because these species can grow in the presence of high sucrose, ethanol,
acetic acid, sorbic acid, benzoic acid, and sulfur dioxide concentrations, representing some
of the commonly used food preservation methods. Methylene blue is used to test for the
presence of live yeast cells. In oenology, the major spoilage yeast is Brettanomyces
bruxellensis.

References:

1. Barnett JA (2003). "Beginnings of microbiology and biochemistry: the contribution of

yeast research" (PDF). Microbiology. 149 (3): 557-567.

2. Kurtzman CP, Fell JW (2006). "Yeast Systematics and Phylogeny-Implications of

Molecular Identification Methods for Studies in Ecology".

3. Yong E (16 January 2012). "Yeast suggests speedy start for multicellular life". Nature.

4. Ostergaard S, Olsson L, Nielsen J (2000). "Metabolic Engineering of Saccharomyces

cerevisiae". Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews.

5. Barnett JA (2004). "A history of research on yeasts 8: taxonomy". Yeast. 21 (14): 1141-
1193.

6. Wikipedia

7.internet.