Vectors &

Matrices
02 November 2021
Revision: 589

AZIZ MANVA, PGDM, IIM-L

[email protected]

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

 Aziz Manva ([email protected])

TABLE OF CONTENTS
2.2 Addition, and Subtraction 13
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................. 2 2.3 Scalar Multiplication 13
2.4 Matrix Multiplication 14
Part I: Vectors 3 2.5 Matrix Inverses 18
2.6 Determinants 22
1. VECTORS .................................................. 3 2.7 Solving Equations using Inverses 22
1.1 Basics 3 2.8 Gauss Jordan Elimination 25
1.2 Vectors: Practical Approach 5 2.9 Review and Challenge 27
1.3 Vector Addition 6
1.4 Components of a Vector 8 3. APPLICATIONS...................................... 29
1.5 Vector Subtraction 8 3.1 Representing Data 29
1.6 Scalar Multiplication 8 3.2 Counting 31
1.7 Dot Product 9 3.3 Probability 31
1.8 Cross Product 9
4. SOLVING EQUATIONS .......................... 32
Part II: Matrices 10
5. TRANSFORMATION MATRICES.......... 33
2. MATRICES............................................. 10 5.1 Application: Coordinate Geometry 33
2.1 Basics 10

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PART I: VECTORS
1. VECTORS
1.1 Basics
A. Basics

1.1: Definition
A vector is a directed line segment that has a start point and an endpoint
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 = (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 )
𝐸𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 = (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 )

Example 1.2
Consider the points
𝐴 = (1,2), 𝐵 = (3,5), 𝐶 = (5,2), 𝐷 = (7,4), 𝐸 = (1,2), 𝐹 = (−3, −1)
Plot the following vectors:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
A. 𝐴𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
B. 𝐶𝐷
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
C. 𝐸𝐹

Example 1.3
Consider the points
𝐴 = (1,2), 𝐵 = (3,5)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
A. Are vector 𝐴𝐵, and vector 𝐵𝐴 the same or different?
B. If you plot them, will they look the same? If they look different, what will be the difference?
C. What concept in Euclidean Geometry does this connect to?

1.4: Notation
Vectors are indicated using boldface notation
𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑎 = 𝒂
Vectors when written are usually indicated with an arrow on top of the letter:
𝑎

1.5: Length or Magnitude of a Vector

The length of a vector is the length of the line segment connecting its start point and its end point. It is given by

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the distance formula to be:

𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝒂 = |𝒂| = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2

Just as absolute values cannot be negative, similarly, length cannot be negative.

Hence, the symbol for length of a vector is similar to the symbol for absolute value.

1.6: Unit Vector

A vector with length 1 is called a unit vector.

1.7: Slope of a Vector

The slope of a vector is the slope that the line segment of the vector has, and it is given by:
𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝑥2 − 𝑥1

The slope of a vector can be used to determine the direction of the vector.

1.8: Equality of Two Vectors

Two vectors are equal if and only if they have the same magnitude, and the same direction.

Example 1.9
Consider the points
𝐴(3,4), 𝐵(6,8), 𝐶(1,4), 𝐷(4,8)
A. Show that ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐶𝐷
B. Show that 𝐴𝐵 ≠ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐷𝐶

Part A
Length:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √(6 − 3)2 + (8 − 4)2 = √25 = 5
|𝐴𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √(4 − 1)2 + (8 − 4)2 = √25 = 5
|𝐶𝐷
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = |𝐶𝐷
|𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |

Direction/Slope
𝑦2 − 𝑦1 8 − 4 4
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = = =
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 6 − 3 3
𝑦2 − 𝑦1 8 − 4 4
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐶𝐷 = = =
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 4 − 1 3
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝐷
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

Since both the length and the slope are the same, the vectors are equal.

1.10: Order is important

The vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 is not equal to the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝐴.
The two vectors have the same magnitude but opposite directions.

In fact, we can state that

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −𝐵𝐴
𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

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1.11: Position is not important

Changing the position of a vector does not change the vector. The identity of the vector depends only upon its
magnitude, and its direction, not its position.

1.2 Vectors: Practical Approach

A. Interpretation
A vector is interpreted as a directed line segment that represents:
➢ Displacement
➢ Velocity
➢ Force

Note that these are all concepts from physics. Vectors are used a lot in physics.

Example 1.12
A vector starts at the origin, and ends at (3,5). Find its
A. 𝑥 component
B. 𝑦 component
C. Magnitude
D. Direction

𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 3 𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 5 𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 = √52 + 32 = √25 + 9 = √34

5
𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = (tan−1 ) ° 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙
3

Example 1.13
A vector has a magnitude of 11, and makes an angle of 30° with the horizontal. Determine its horizontal and
vertical component.

Draw a diagram.
𝐵𝐶 1 11
sin 30° = ⇒ 𝐵𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵 sin 30° = 𝐵𝐶 × =
𝐴𝐵 2 2
𝐴𝐶 √3 11√3
cos 30° = ⇒ 𝐴𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵 × cos 30° = 11 × =
𝐴𝐵 2 2

Example 1.14

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Two forces of 30N and 40N act on an object. Find the magnitude and direction of the
resultant, and the angle that it makes the with the smaller force.

𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 = √302 + 402 = 50

𝐵𝐶 40
sin 𝜃 = ⇒ 𝜃 = sin−1 = 53.13°
𝐴𝐵 50

1.3 Vector Addition

Example 1.15
1 3 1
Bill walks 2 mile south, then 4 mile east, and finally 2 mile south. How many miles is he, in a direct line, from his
starting point? (AMC 8 2005/7)

Bill has the following movements:

1
➢ 2
mile south(𝒂)
3
➢ mile east(𝒃)
4
1
➢ 2
mile south(𝒄)

The diagram shows three vectors (one for each movement). Note
that
➢ the starting point of 𝒃 is placed precisely where 𝒂 ends.
➢ the starting point of 𝒄 is placed precisely where 𝒃 ends.
(This approach, which can be done intuitively to get Bill’s movement is exactly the definition of vector
addition.)

Using the Pythagorean Theorem, we get:

3 2 9 25 5
𝑑 = √12 + ( ) = √1 + =√ =
4 16 16 4

1.16: Adding Two Vectors: Tip to Tail

To add vectors 𝒂 and 𝒃:
➢ Place the tail of the second vector where the tip of the first vector ends.
➢ The sum of the two vectors is the vector starting from the tail of the first vector, and ending at the tip of
the second vector

This approach is also the triangle approach because it creates a triangle.

Example 1.17
Add the vectors
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴 = (2,3) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐵 = (1,4)
Where 𝑂 is the origin.

Method I: Use the tip to tail approach

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If you draw the vectors, you will get the diagram on the
left.

To add the vectors, pick any vector and move it to the tip
of the other vector.
Suppose, we choose to move ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴 and put it at the tip of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐵 .
We then get the diagram to the right.

And
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐵 = (3,7)

Method II: Add the components

We can work out the components of each of the
vectors we want to add up (see the diagram on the
left):
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴 = (2,3) ⇒ 2 𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡, 3 𝑈𝑝
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐵 = (1,4) ⇒ 1 𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡, 4 𝑈𝑝

We can add the components in the right direction,

and the components in the up direction directly:
𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡: 2 + 1 = 3
𝑈𝑝: 3 + 4 = 7

And, hence, the final answer is:

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑂𝐵
𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (2 + 1,3 + 4) = (3,7)

Example 1.18
Add the vectors
1 2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (1, ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑂𝑄
𝑂𝑃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ( , 2)
2 3
Where 𝑂 is the origin.

1.19: Adding Two Vectors: Parallelogram Law

Example 1.20
Consider two vectors with length 54 and 43 respectively, which have an angle of 150° between them. Find the
resultant vector. Give the magnitude of the vector, and the angle that it makes with the first vector.

By Law of Cosines:
|𝑢 + 𝑣|2 = 𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 − 2 𝑢𝑣 cos 𝜃
Substituting and taking square roots:
|𝑢 + 𝑣| = √542 + 432 − 2(54)(43)(cos 30) = 27.26

By the law of Sines:

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sin 𝜃 sin 30 sin 30 sin 30

= ⇒ sin 𝜃 = × 43 ⇒ 𝜃 = sin−1 ( × 43) = 52.06
43 27.26 27.26 27.26

1.4 Components of a Vector

Example 1.21
A man on a wheelchair is being pushed up a hospital ramp by an attendant. The man weighs 70 kg, his
2
wheelchair 15 kg, and the attendant weighs 60 kg. 3
𝑟𝑑 of the way up the ramp, the attendant stops briefly. At
this point, what are the components of the system’s mass parallel and perpendicular to the ramp if the ramp
makes an angle of 20° with the horizontal.
Consider the man, his wheelchair, and the attendant to be a point mass.

Step I: Focus on the Geometry

The ramp makes an angle of 20° with the horizontal. Hence

∠𝐽𝐷𝐼 = 20°

Let the man/wheelchair/attendant be a point mass at F. We

want the components of the system’s mass parallel and
perpendicular to the ramp.
Hence, draw
𝐹𝐻 ∥ 𝐽𝐷, 𝐹𝐻 ⊥ 𝐹𝐺, 𝐹𝐼 ⊥ 𝐺𝐷

∠𝐹𝐼𝐷 = 90° ⇒ ∠𝐼𝐽𝐷 = 70°

By corresponding angles in parallel lines FH and JD:

∠𝐽𝐹𝐻 = ∠𝐼𝐻𝐷 = 70°

Since 𝐹𝐻 ⊥ 𝐹𝐺
∠𝐺𝐹𝐻 = 90° ⇒ ∠𝐺𝐹𝐼 = 90 − ∠𝐼𝐹𝐻 = 90 − 70 = 20°

Step II: Focus on the Vector

𝑜𝑝𝑝 𝐵𝐶
sin 𝐴 = ⇒ sin 20° = ⇒ 𝐵𝐶 = sin 20 ° × 145 = 45.59 𝑘𝑔
ℎ𝑦𝑝 145
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴𝐵
cos 𝐴 = ⇒ cos 20° = ⇒ 𝐴𝐵 = cos 20 ° × 145 = 136.26 𝑘𝑔
ℎ𝑦𝑝 145

1.5 Vector Subtraction

1.6 Scalar Multiplication

1.22: Scalar Multiplication

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1.7 Dot Product

1.23: Dot Product

1.8 Cross Product

1.24: Cross Product

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PART II: MATRICES

2. MATRICES
2.1 Basics
A. Definition

2.1: Matrix
A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers.

Let’s look at an example of a matrix:

4 7 9
[ ]
2 3 10
The matrix above six numbers arranged in:
➢ Three Columns
➢ Two Rows

2.2: Order of a Matrix

An 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix and 𝑚 rows and 𝑛 columns
𝑚 × 𝑛 is called the order of the matrix

Example 2.3
State the order of the matrix
4 7 9
[ ]
2 3 10

The order of the matrix is

⏟
2 × ⏟
3
𝑅𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛𝑠

B. Naming Matrices
In general, when naming matrices, we will use capital, boldface letters.
4 7 9
𝑨=[ ]
2 3 10

C. Elements of a Matrix

𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13

𝑨 = [𝑎 𝑎22 𝑎23 ]
21

Example 2.4
Matrix 𝑨 is a 2 × 3 matrix such that the value of the 𝑎𝑡ℎ element is the sum of its column number and its row
number. Write 𝑨.

2 3 4
𝑨=[ ]
3 4 5

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D. Square Matrices
Some types of matrices occur frequently enough for them to be given names. We are going to look at a few
types of matrices that have names, starting with square matrices.

2.5: Square Matrix

In a matrix, if
𝑚=𝑛
That is, the number of rows is equal to the number of columns, then it is a square matrix.

5 2 7
𝑿 = [ 8 1 3] , 𝑋 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 3 × 3 𝑆𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥
2 7 4
1 2
𝑨=[ ], 𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 2 × 2 𝑆𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥
3 4

E. Diagonals and Diagonal Matrices

2.6: Diagonal of a Matrix

The diagonal of a matrix goes from top left to bottom right.

Example 2.7
5 2 7
Identify the diagonal of the matrix [ 8 1 3]
18 7 4

𝟓 2 7
[ 8 𝟏 3]
𝟏𝟖 7 𝟒
The elements
𝟓, 𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟒
Lie on the diagonal of the matrix.

Example 2.8
1 2
Identify the elements that lie on the diagonal of the matrix [ ]
3 4

𝟏 2
[ ]
3 𝟒
2.9: Diagonal Matrix
In a matrix, if all the elements except those on the diagonal are zero, then the matrix is called a diagonal matrix.
The term is usually applicable to square matrices only.

Example 2.10
5 2 7
Convert the matrix [8 1 3] into a diagonal matrix, keeping the values intact, wherever possible.
2 7 4

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5 0 0
[0 1 0]
0 0 4

2.11: Upper Triangular Matrix

An upper triangular matrix is a square matrix with non-zero entries only above or on the main diagonal (the
left to right diagonal).

2.12: Lower Triangular Matrix

A lower triangular matrix is a square matrix with non-zero entries only below the main diagonal.

F. “One” and “Zero” Matrices

2.13: Identity Matrix

If in a diagonal matrix, all the elements are 1, then the matrix is called the identity matrix.

By convention, we use the variable 𝐼 for an identity matrix.

1 0
𝑰𝟐 = [ ]
0 1

1 0 0
𝑰𝟑 = [0 1 0]
0 0 1

In general,
𝑰𝒏 = 𝑛 × 𝑛 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥

The identity matrix serves the role of the multiplicative identity in the matrix system. We will see this property
in action when we do multiplication of matrices later on.

Recall that in the real numbers, the multiplicative identity is given by:
𝑥×𝑎 =𝑥 ⇒𝑎 =1

2.14: Zero Matrix

If in a matrix, all the elements are 0, then the matrix is a zero matrix.
Zero matrices, unlike identity matrices, are not necessarily square matrices

A zero matrix takes the form

𝑶𝒎×𝒏 , 𝑚 𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑠, 𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛𝑠
Note the use of the letter 𝑶, which reminds you of zero.

Example 2.15
Write the following
A. 𝑂2×2
B. 𝑂3×2
0 0
𝑂2×2 = [ ]
0 0

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0 0
𝑂3×2 = [0 0]
0 0

G. Row and Column Vectors

2.16: Row Vector

2.17: Column Vector

Example 2.18
Find the order of the matrices below. Also, state whether they are row vectors, or column vectors.

H. Transpose of a Matrix

2.19: Transpose of a Matrix

I. Equality of Matrices

2.2 Addition, and Subtraction

A. Addition
Addition is only defined for two matrices that have the same order.
In other words, they must have the same shape.

Example 2.20
1 2 5 7
Given that 𝑋 = [ ], 𝑌 = [ ] find
3 4 8 1
A. 𝑋 + 𝑌
B. 𝑋 − 𝑌

1 2 5 7 6 9
𝑋+𝑌 =[ ]+[ ]=[ ]
3 4 8 1 11 5
1 2 5 7 −4 −5
𝑋−𝑌 =[ ]−[ ]=[ ]
3 4 8 1 −5 1

2.3 Scalar Multiplication

2.21: Scalar Multiplication
To multiply a matrix by a scalar 𝑘, we multiply each element of the matrix by 𝑘.

𝑎 𝑏 𝑘𝑎 𝑘𝑏
𝑨=[ ] ⇒ 𝑘𝑨 = [ ]
𝑐 𝑑 𝑘𝑐 𝑘𝑑

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2.4 Matrix Multiplication

A. Definition

2.22: Multiplying Two Matrices

To multiply two matrices, you need a 𝐴 = 𝑚
⏟ × ⏟
𝑛 matrix, and a 𝐵 = ⏟
𝑛 × 𝑝
⏟ matrix, which gives
𝑅𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛𝑠 𝑅𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛𝑠
you a 𝑚
⏟ × 𝑝
⏟ matrix
𝑅𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛𝑠

𝐴𝑚×𝑛 𝐵𝑛×𝑝 = (𝐴𝐵)𝑚×𝑝

➢ The number of rows in 𝑩 is equal to the number of columns in the 𝑨.
➢ 𝑨𝑩 has the same number of rows as 𝑨 and the same number of columns as 𝑩.

Example 2.23

𝑎 𝑏 𝑝 𝑞
𝑨=[ ], 𝑩=[ ]
𝑐 𝑑 𝑟 𝑠

𝑎 𝑏 𝑝 𝑞
𝑪 = 𝑨𝑩 = [ ][ ]
𝑐 𝑑 𝑟 𝑠

𝑪𝟏𝟏 = 𝑪 ⏟
𝟏 ⏟
𝟏 ⇒1st Row from A and 1st Column from B:
𝑹𝒐𝒘 𝑪𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒏
𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓
𝒂 𝒃 𝒑 𝑞
[ ][ ] = 𝑎𝑝 + 𝑏𝑟
𝑐 𝑑 𝒓 𝑠

𝑪𝟏𝟐 ⇒1st Row from A and 2nd Column from B:

𝒂 𝒃 𝑝 𝒒
[ ][ ] = 𝑎𝑞 + 𝑏𝑠
𝑐 𝑑 𝑟 𝒔
𝑪𝟐𝟏 ⇒2nd Row from A and 1st Column from B:
𝑎 𝑏 𝒑 𝒒
[ ][ ] = 𝑐𝑝 + 𝑑𝑟
𝒄 𝒅 𝑟 𝑠
𝑪𝟐𝟐 ⇒2nd Row from A and 2nd Column from B:
𝑎 𝑏 𝑝 𝒒
[ ][ ] = 𝑐𝑞 + 𝑑𝑠
𝒄 𝒅 𝑟 𝒔

𝑎 𝑏 𝑝 𝑞 𝑎𝑝 + 𝑏𝑟 𝑎𝑞 + 𝑏𝑠
𝑪 = 𝑨𝑩 = [ ][ ]=[ ]
𝑐 𝑑 𝑟 𝑠 𝑐𝑝 + 𝑑𝑟 𝑐𝑞 + 𝑑𝑠

Example 2.24
Find 𝑨𝑩 given that:
3 6 1 4
𝑨=[ ], 𝑩=[ ]
0 2 2 5

15 42
𝑨𝑩 = [ ]
4 10

Example 2.25
Find 𝑨𝑩 given that:
1
3 0
𝑨 = [ 2 −2] , 𝑩=[ ]
1 2
0.3 0
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1
𝑨𝑩 = [− 2 −4]
0.9 0
B. Identifying the Order

Example 2.26
Each part below gives two matrices 𝑨 and 𝑩. Decide whether 𝑨𝑩 is possible. Also, decide 𝑩𝑨 is possible. For
matrices which can be multiplied, give the order of the product of the two matrices.
1. 𝑨 is a 3 × 4 matrix. 𝑩 is a 4 × 2 matrix.
2. 𝑨 is a 4 × 4 matrix. 𝑩 is a 4 × 6 matrix.
3. 𝑨 is a 𝑥 × 𝑦 matrix. 𝑩 is a 𝑦 × 𝑥 matrix.
4. 𝑨 is a 2 × 3 matrix. 𝑩 is a 3 × 2 matrix.
5. 𝑨 is a 5 × 9 matrix. 𝑩 is a 5 × 11 matrix.

Part 1
𝐴𝐵 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 3 × 2
𝐵𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒
Part 2
𝐴𝐵 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 4 × 6
𝐵𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒

Part 3
𝐴𝐵 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑥 × 𝑥
𝐵𝐴 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑦 × 𝑦
Part 4
𝐴𝐵 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 2 × 2
𝐵𝐴 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 3 × 3
Part 5
𝐴𝐵 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒
𝐵𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒

C. Commutative Property

2.27: Commutative Property in Multiplication for Real Numbers

The commutative property for real numbers says that:
𝑎×𝑏 = 𝑏×𝑎

2.28: Commutative Property in Matrix Multiplication

Matrix multiplication, in general, is not commutative.
𝑨𝑩 ≠ 𝑩𝑨

Example 2.29
Consider the matrix
1 0 2 1
𝑨=[ ],𝑿 = [ ]
2 0 3 0
A. Determine 𝑨𝑿.
B. Determine 𝑿𝑨.
C. Are the two equal?

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1 0 2 1 2+0 1+0 2 1
𝑨𝑿 = [ ][ ]=[ ]=[ ]
2 0 3 0 4+0 2+0 4 2
2 1 1 0 2+2 0+0 4 0
𝑿𝑨 = [ ][ ]=[ ]=[ ]
3 0 2 0 3+0 0+0 3 0

Example 2.30
Consider two matrices 𝑿 and 𝒀, where 𝑿𝒀 is defined. State always true or always false, or sometimes true and
sometimes false.
A. 𝒀𝑿 exists.
B. If 𝒀𝑿 exists, then 𝒀𝑿 = 𝑿𝒀

D. Multiplicative Identity

2.31: Multiplicative Identity for Matrices

𝑰𝑨 = 𝑨𝑰 = 𝑨

The identity matrix (covered earlier) serves the role of 1 in matrices. Multiplying any matrix by 𝑰 does not
change it.
𝑎 𝑏 1 0 𝑎×1+𝑏×0 𝑎×0+𝑏×1 𝑎 𝑏
𝑨𝑰 = [ ][ ]=[ ]=[ ]
𝑐 𝑑 0 1 𝑐×1+𝑑×0 𝑐×0+𝑑×1 𝑐 𝑑
1 0 𝑎 𝑏 1×𝑎+0×𝑐 1×𝑏+0×𝑑 𝑎 𝑏
𝑰𝑨 = [ ][ ]=[ ]=[ ]
0 1 𝑐 𝑑 0×𝑎+1×𝑐 0×𝑏+1×𝑑 𝑐 𝑑

Example 2.32
Show that
𝑨𝑰𝟐 = 𝑨

We need to show this for any matrix 𝑨, so we take the most general value of A, without any restrictions.
Let
𝑎 𝑏
𝑨=[ ]
𝑐 𝑑
Then,
𝑎 𝑏 1 0 𝑎×1+𝑏×0 𝑎×0+𝑏×1 𝑎 𝑏
𝐿𝐻𝑆 = 𝑨𝑰𝟐 = [ ][ ]=[ ]=[ ] = 𝑨 = 𝑅𝐻𝑆
𝑐 𝑑 0 1 𝑐×1+𝑑×0 𝑐×0+𝑑×1 𝑐 𝑑

Example 2.33

2.34: Multiplicative Identity for Matrices

𝑰𝒏 = 𝑰, 𝒏 ∈ ℕ

1 0 1 0 1 0
𝑰𝟐 = [ ][ ]=[ ]=𝑰
0 1 0 1 0 1

𝑰𝒏 = ⏟
𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰 … . 𝑰𝑰
𝒏 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒔
Since 𝑰𝟐 = 𝑰, we can simplify the last two matrices as 𝑰:
𝑰𝒏 = ⏟𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰 … . 𝑰𝑰
𝒏−𝟏 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒔

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And if we keep repeating the above process, we will eventually get:

𝑰𝒏 = 𝑰, 𝒏 ∈ ℕ

2.35: Multiplicative Identity for Matrices (Proof by Induction)

𝑰𝒏 = 𝑰, 𝒏 ∈ ℕ

For 𝑛 = 1:
1 0
𝑰𝟏 = [ ]
0 1

Base Case
Prove the base case.
For 𝑛 = 2:
1 0 1 0 1 0
𝑰𝟐 = [ ][ ]=[ ]
0 1 0 1 0 1

Inductive Step
Let
𝑰𝒏 = 𝑰 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑛
Then
𝑰𝒏+𝟏 = 𝑰𝑰𝒏 = 𝑰𝑰 = 𝑰𝟐 = 𝑰
Hence, by induction:
𝑰𝒏 = 𝑰, 𝒏 ∈ ℕ
E. Zero Matrix

2.36: Zero Matrix

𝑶𝑨 = 𝑨𝑶 = 𝑶

𝑎 𝑏 0 0 𝑎×0+𝑏×0 𝑎×0+𝑏×0 0 0
𝑨𝑶 = [ ][ ]=[ ]=[ ]
𝑐 𝑑 0 0 𝑐×0+𝑑×0 𝑐×0+𝑑×0 0 0
0 0 𝑎 𝑏 0×𝑎+0×𝑐 0×𝑏+0×𝑑 0 0
𝑶𝑨 = [ ][ ]=[ ]=[ ]
0 0 𝑐 𝑑 0×𝑎+0×𝑐 0×𝑏+0×𝑑 0 0

F. Distributive Property

2.37: Distributive Property

𝑨(𝑩 + 𝑪) = 𝑨𝑩 + 𝑨𝑪

Let:
𝑎 𝑏 𝑝 𝑞 𝑤 𝑥
𝑨=[ ], 𝑩=[ ], 𝑪 = [𝑦 𝑧]
𝑐 𝑑 𝑟 𝑠
Then:
𝑎 𝑏 𝑝+𝑤 𝑞+𝑥 𝑎(𝑝 + 𝑤) + 𝑏(𝑟 + 𝑦) 𝑎(𝑞 + 𝑥) + 𝑏(𝑠 + 𝑧)
𝑨(𝑩 + 𝑪) = [ ][ 𝑠 + 𝑧 ] = [𝑐(𝑝 + 𝑤) + 𝑑(𝑟 + 𝑦) 𝑐(𝑞 + 𝑥) + 𝑑(𝑠 + 𝑧)]
𝑐 𝑑 𝑟+𝑦

𝑎𝑝 + 𝑏𝑟 𝑎𝑞 + 𝑏𝑠
𝑨𝑩 = [ ]
𝑐𝑝 + 𝑑𝑟 𝑐𝑞 + 𝑑𝑠
𝑎𝑤 + 𝑏𝑦 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑧
𝑨𝑪 = [ ]
𝑐𝑤 + 𝑑𝑦 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑𝑧

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𝑎𝑝 + 𝑏𝑟 + 𝑎𝑤 + 𝑏𝑦 𝑎𝑞 + 𝑏𝑠 + 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑧 𝑎(𝑝 + 𝑤) + 𝑏(𝑟 + 𝑦) 𝑎(𝑞 + 𝑥) + 𝑏(𝑠 + 𝑧)

𝑨𝑩 + 𝑨𝑪 = [ ]=[ ]
𝑐𝑝 + 𝑑𝑟 + 𝑐𝑤 + 𝑑𝑦 𝑐𝑞 + 𝑑𝑠 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑𝑧 𝑐(𝑝 + 𝑤) + 𝑑(𝑟 + 𝑦) 𝑐(𝑞 + 𝑥) + 𝑑(𝑠 + 𝑧)

G. Associative Property

2.38: Associative Property of Multiplication

(𝑨𝑩)𝑪 = (𝑨𝑩)𝑪

H. Squaring a Matrix

2.39: Squaring a Matrix

If the matrix multiplication is defined, then:
𝑨𝟐 = 𝑨𝑨
𝑨𝟑 = 𝑨𝑨𝑨
𝑨𝒏 = ⏟
𝑨𝑨 … 𝑨
𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠

For the matrix multiplication to be defined,

𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑜𝑤𝑠
I. Matrix Equations
Because the commutative property does not hold for matrices, the order of multiplication in matrices matters.

2.40: Pre-Multiplication and Post Multiplication

Consider matrix 𝑨.
➢ If you multiply with a matrix before A, then it is called pre-multiplication.
➢ If you multiply with a matrix after A, then it is called post-multiplication.

Example 2.41
𝑨=𝑩
A. Premultiply both sides by X.
B. Postmultiply both sides by X.

𝑿𝑨 = 𝑿𝑩
𝑨𝑿 = 𝑩𝑿
2.5 Matrix Inverses
A. Multiplicative Inverse

2.42: Multiplicative Inverse for Real Numbers

If a and b are real numbers and
1 1
𝑎𝑏 = 1 ⇒ 𝑎 = ⇒𝑏=
𝑏 𝑎
Then:
➢ 𝑏 is called the multiplicative inverse of 𝑎
➢ 𝑎 is called the multiplicative inverse of 𝑏

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2 1
=2÷3=2×
3 3

1
3
is the multiplicative inverse of 3 because
1
3× =1
3

2.43: Multiplicative Inverse for Matrices

Given a matrix A, the multiplicative inverse of the matrix is 𝐴−1 is a matrix that satisfies the conditions:
𝑨𝑨−𝟏 = 𝑨−𝟏 𝑨 = 𝑰
Where:
𝑰 = 𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥

Example 2.44
−2 1 1 2
Show that the matrix 𝑨 = [ 3 − 1] is the inverse of the matrix 𝑩 = [ ] using matrix multiplication.
2 2 3 4

We can show that:

−2 1
𝑩𝑨 = [
1 2 3
][ 1] = [−2 + 3 1−1
]=[
1 0
] = 𝑰𝟐
3 4 − −6 + 6 3−2 0 1
2 2

−2 1 −2 + 3 −4 + 4
𝑨𝑩 = [ 3 1] [ 1 2] = [ 3 3 ]=[
1 0
] = 𝑰𝟐
− 3 4 − 3−2 0 1
2 2 2 2

2.45: Finding the Inverse

𝑎 𝑏
Given a matrix 𝑨 = [ ], the inverse of 𝑨, denoted 𝑨−𝟏 is given by:
𝑐 𝑑
1 𝑑 −𝑏
𝑨−𝟏 = [ ]
𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 −𝑐 𝑎

Example 2.46
1 2
Find the inverse of the matrix 𝑩 = [ ], if it exists.
3 4

1 −2 1
4 −2
𝑩−𝟏 = [ ]=[ 3 1]
4 − 6 −3 1 −
2 2

[ ]

Example 2.47
3 11
Find the inverse of the matrix 𝑿 = [ ], if it exists.
1 4

1 4 −11 4 −11
𝑋 −1 = [ ]=[ ]
12 − 11 −1 3 −1 3

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Example 2.48
6 8
Find the inverse of the matrix 𝑿 = [ ], if it exists.
3 4
1 6 8
𝑋 −1 = [ ] ⇒ 𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡
24 − 24 3 4

Example 2.49
7 3
Find the inverse of the matrix 𝑿 = [ ], if it exists.
9 4
1 4 −3 4 −3
𝑋 −1 = [ ]=[ ]
28 − 27 −9 7 −9 7

Example 2.50
−1 2
Find the inverse of the matrix 𝑿 = [ ], if it exists.
4 7

7 2
1 1 −
7 −2 7 −2
𝑋 −1 = [ ]= [ ] = [ 15 15]
(−1)(7) − (2)(4) −4 −1 −15 −4 −1 4 1
15 15
B. Existence of Inverses

2.51: Singular Matrices

If the quantity 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 for a 2 × 2 matrix is zero, then the matrix does not have an inverse.
Such matrices are called singular.

The converse is also true. If a matrix is singular, then the quantity 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 = 0

(Calculator Allowed) Example 2.52

Find the exact values of 𝑥 for which the matrix given below is singular:
3𝑥 + 4 5𝑥 + 9
[ ]
4𝑥 + 3 2𝑥 − 7

(3𝑥 + 4)(2𝑥 − 7) = (4𝑥 + 3)(5𝑥 + 9)

6𝑥 2 − 21𝑥 + 8𝑥 − 28 = 20𝑥 2 + 36𝑥 + 15𝑥 + 27
0 = 14𝑥 2 + 64𝑥 + 55

−64 ± √4096 − (4)(14)(55) −32 ± √254

𝑥= =
28 14

2.53: Non-Singular Matrices

If the quantity 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 for a 2 × 2 matrix is non-zero, then the matrix has an inverse.
Such matrices are called invertible, or non-singular.

Example 2.54
𝑎 7
If 𝑨 = [ ] is a singular matrix and 𝑎 ∈ ℝ, then determine the value of 𝑎.
4 3

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28
3𝑎 − 7 × 4 = 0 ⇒ 3𝑎 − 28 = 0 ⇒ 3𝑎 = 28 ⇒ 𝑎 =
3

Example 2.55
𝑎 𝑣
If 𝑨 = [ ] is a singular matrix and 𝑎, 𝑣 ∈ ℝ, then is it true that 𝑎 = 𝑣?
𝑣 𝑎

𝑎2 − 𝑣 2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑎2 = 𝑣 2 ⇒ 𝑎 = ±𝑣

Example 2.56
Find the inverse of the following matrix, and state the values of k for which A^-1 exists
2
[𝑘 𝑘 − 1]
2𝑘 1

1 1 1−𝑘
[ ]
(𝑘 2 )(1) − (2𝑘)(𝑘 − 1) −2𝑘 𝑘2

The denominator of the fraction cannot be zero. Hence, we find the zeroes of the denominator
(𝑘 2 )(1) − (2𝑘)(𝑘 − 1) = 0
𝑘 2 − 2𝑘 2 + 2𝑘 = 0
−𝑘 2 + 2𝑘 = 0
𝑘(−𝑘 + 2) = 0
𝑘 ∈ {0,2}

Example 2.57
1
(𝑘𝑨) ( 𝑨−𝟏 )
𝑘

1 1
(𝑘𝑨) ( 𝑨−𝟏 ) = (𝑘 × ) (𝑨 × 𝑨−𝟏 ) = (1)(𝑰) = 𝑰
𝑘 𝑘

C. Inverse of an Inverse

Example 2.58
Simplify
A. (𝑿−1 )−1 (𝑿−1 )
B. (𝑿−1 )(𝑿−1 )−1

Use a change of variable. Let 𝑿−𝟏 = 𝒀:

(𝑿−1 )−1 (𝑿−1 ) = (𝒀)−1 (𝒀) = 𝑰

Hence:
(𝑿−1 )−1 (𝑿−1 ) = 𝑰
But, the only matrix that will multiply with 𝑿−1 to give 𝑰 is 𝑿.
Hence,
(𝑿−1 )−1 = 𝑿
D. Self-Inverse Matrices

2.59: Self Inverse Matrices

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A self-inverse matrix is a matrix such that it is its own inverse.

𝑨 = 𝑨−𝟏

Example 2.60
Show that the matrix below is a self-inverse matrix.

2.61: Square of a Self-Inverse Matrix

If a matrix 𝑨 is a self-inverse matrix, then
𝑨𝟐 = 𝑰

Since 𝑨 is a self-inverse matrix, we must have:

𝑨 = 𝑨−𝟏
Post-multiply both sides by 𝐴:
𝑨𝑨 = 𝑨−𝟏 𝑨
𝑨𝟐 = 𝑰
2.6 Determinants
A. Properties of Determinants

2.62: “Distributing” the Determinant

det(𝑨𝑩) = det 𝑨 × det 𝑩

Let
𝑎 𝑏 𝑤 𝑥
𝑨=[ ] , 𝑩 = [𝑦 𝑧]
𝑐 𝑑
First, calculate det 𝑨 × det 𝑩
= (𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐)(𝑤𝑧 − 𝑥𝑦) = 𝑎𝑑𝑤𝑧 − 𝑎𝑑𝑥𝑦 − 𝑏𝑐𝑤𝑧 + 𝑏𝑐𝑥𝑦

Then, calculate 𝑨𝑩
𝑎𝑤 + 𝑏𝑦 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑧
=[ ]
𝑐𝑤 + 𝑑𝑦 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑𝑧
Then, det 𝑨𝑩
= (𝑎𝑤 + 𝑏𝑦)(𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑𝑧) − (𝑐𝑤 + 𝑑𝑦)(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑧)
= 𝑎𝑐𝑤𝑥 + 𝑎𝑑𝑤𝑧 + 𝑏𝑐𝑥𝑦 + 𝑏𝑑𝑦𝑧 − 𝑎𝑐𝑤𝑥 − 𝑏𝑐𝑤𝑧 − 𝑎𝑑𝑥𝑦 − 𝑏𝑑𝑦𝑧
= 𝑎𝑑𝑤𝑧 + 𝑏𝑐𝑥𝑦 − 𝑏𝑐𝑤𝑧 − 𝑎𝑑𝑥𝑦

2.63: Determinant of a Multiple of a Matrix

det 𝑘𝑨 = 𝑘 2 det 𝑨

Let
𝑎 𝑏 𝑘𝑎 𝑘𝑏
𝑨=[ ] ⇒ 𝑘𝑨 = [ ]
𝑐 𝑑 𝑘𝑐 𝑘𝑑

𝐿𝐻𝑆 = det 𝑘𝑨 = (𝑘𝑎)(𝑘𝑑) − (𝑘𝑏)(𝑘𝑐) = 𝑘 2 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑘 2 𝑏𝑐 = 𝑘 2 (𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐) = 𝑘 2 det 𝑨

2.7 Solving Equations using Inverses

A. Writing equations as matrix equations

Example 2.64
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1
2𝑥 − 5𝑦 + 7𝑧 =
2
3𝑥 + 5𝑦 = 5 + 2𝑧
3𝑥 − 2𝑧 = 6 − 8𝑦

1
2 −5 7 𝑥
[3 5 −2] [𝑦] = [2]
5
3 8 −2 𝑧
6

B. Solving Equations

2.65: Solving Matrix Equations

𝑨𝑿 = 𝑩

Premultiply both sides by 𝑨−𝟏 :

𝑨−𝟏 𝑨𝑿 = 𝑨−𝟏 𝑩 ⇒ 𝑰𝑿 = 𝑨−𝟏 𝑩 ⇒ 𝑿 = 𝑨−𝟏 𝑩

2.66: Solving Matrix Equations

𝑿𝑨 = 𝑩 ⇒ 𝑿 = 𝑩𝑨−𝟏

Postmultiply both sides by 𝐴−1 :

𝑿𝑨𝑨−𝟏 = 𝑩𝑨−𝟏
𝑿𝑰 = 𝑩𝑨−𝟏
𝑿 = 𝑩𝑨−𝟏

Example 2.67
5𝑥 + 7𝑦 = 11
2𝑥 − 9𝑦 = 4

Write the LHS as a matrix, and the RHS as a matrix:

5𝑥 + 7𝑦 11
[ ]=[ ]
2𝑥 + 9𝑦 4

Note that the LHS can be factored into two matrices:

5 7 𝑥 11
[ ][ ] = [ ]
2 9 𝑦 4

5 7 𝑥 11
Let 𝑨 = [ ] , 𝑿 = [𝑦] , 𝑩 = [ ]
2 9 4
𝑨𝑿 = 𝑩 ⇒ 𝑿 = 𝑨−𝟏 𝑩

9 7
1 9 −7 1 9 −7 − 31
Substitute 𝑨 −𝟏
= [
(5)(9)−(7)(2) −2
] = 31 [ ] = [ 312 5 ]:
5 −2 5 − 31 31
9 7 99 28 99 28 71
− − −
11
𝑿 = 𝑨−𝟏 𝑩 = [ 31 31] [ ] = [ 31 31 ] = [ 31 31 ] = [ 31 ]
2 5 4 22 20 22 20 2
− − + − + −
31 31 31 31 31 31 31

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C. Infinite Solutions

Example 2.68
𝑥+𝑦=1
2𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 2

1 1 𝑥 1
[ ][ ] = [ ]
2 2 𝑦 2

1 1
𝐷𝑒𝑡 ([ ]) = (2)(1) − (1)(2) = 2 − 2 = 0
2 2

2.69: Infinite Solutions

If a system of equations has infinite solutions, then when it is written in matrix form 𝑨𝑿 = 𝑩, the matrix 𝑨 is
not invertible.

A linear system of equations in two variables can be represented as a pair of lines.

When the system has infinite solutions, the two lines are the same line, and hence, if we have two equations,
one equation is a multiple of the other equation.
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 = 𝑐
𝑘𝑎𝑥 + 𝑘𝑏𝑦 = 𝑘𝑐

𝑎 𝑏 𝑥 𝑐
[ ] [𝑦] = [ ]
𝑘𝑎 𝑘𝑏 𝑘𝑐

The determinant of matrix A is

𝑎(𝑘𝑏) − 𝑏(𝑘𝑎) = 𝑘𝑎𝑏 − 𝑘𝑎𝑏 = 0 ⇒ 𝐷𝑒𝑡 = 0 ⇒ 𝑨 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒

D. No Solutions

Example 2.70
𝑦 =𝑥+1
𝑦 =𝑥+2

−1 1 𝑥 1
[ ][ ] = [ ]
−1 1 𝑦 2

The determinant of A is:

(−1)(1) − (1)(−1) = −1 + 1 = 0
E. Review

Example 2.71
Find the value(s) of 𝜃 such that the system of equations below does not have a unique solution:
cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 𝑥 1
[ ][ ] = [ ]
sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 𝑦 2

If the system of equations does not have a unique solution, then the determinant must be zero:
cos2 𝜃 − sin2 𝜃 = 0

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cos2 𝜃 = sin2 𝜃
Take square roots both sides:
cos 𝜃 = ± sin 𝜃

The values of the 𝜃 that will work are:

𝜋 𝜋
+ 𝑛, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ
4 2

Example 2.72
𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑘 𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
A system of linear equations 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 = 𝑐 and 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑒𝑦 = 𝑓 is written in matrix form:
𝑎 𝑏 𝑥 𝑐
𝑨=[ ] , 𝑿 = [𝑦] , 𝑩 = [𝑓 ] ⇒ 𝑨𝑿 = 𝑩
𝑑 𝑒
If 𝑨 is not invertible. Then, which of the following can be true:
A. The system has zero solutions
B. The system has one solution
C. The system has two solutions
D. The system has infinite solutions

Example 2.73
𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑘 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
A system of linear equations 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 = 𝑐 and 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑒𝑦 = 𝑓 is written in matrix form:
𝑎 𝑏 𝑥 𝑐
𝑨=[ ] , 𝑿 = [𝑦] , 𝑩 = [𝑓 ] ⇒ 𝑨𝑿 = 𝑩
𝑑 𝑒
If 𝑨 is not invertible. Then, which of the following must be true:
A. The system has zero solutions
B. The system has one solution
C. The system has infinite solutions
D. None of the above

2.8 Gauss Jordan Elimination

Example 2.74
2𝑥 − 𝑦 + 4𝑧 = −3
𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 10𝑧 = −6
3𝑥 + 0𝑦 + 4𝑧 = 7

Write the augmented matrix for the equations above.

𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 Constant
Terms
2 −1 4 −3
1 −2 −10 −6
3 0 4 7

𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 Constant

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Terms
1 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
0 1 𝑑 𝑒
0 0 1 𝑓

0𝑥 + 0𝑦 + 𝑧 = 𝑓 ⇒ 𝑧 = 𝑓

0𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑒
𝑦 + 𝑑𝑓 = 𝑒
𝑦 = 𝑒 − 𝑑𝑓

𝑥 + 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑏𝑧 = 𝑐
𝑥 = 𝑐 − 𝑎𝑦 − 𝑏𝑧 = 𝑐 − 𝑎(𝑒 − 𝑑𝑓) + 𝑏(𝑓) = 𝑐 − 𝑎𝑒 + 𝑎𝑑𝑓 + 𝑏𝑓

Example 2.75
2𝑥 − 𝑦 + 4𝑧 = −3
𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 10𝑧 = −6
3𝑥 + 0𝑦 + 4𝑧 = 7

Write the augmented matrix:

2 −1 4 −3
[1 −2 −10 −6]
3 0 4 7

For the first step, we want a 1 in the first row, first column.
One easy way to do it to interchange Row 1 and Row 2:
1 −2 −10 −6
[2 −1 4 −3]
3 0 4 7

Multiply the first row by -2, and add it to the second row.
[−2 4 20 12]

1 −2 −10 −6
[0 3 24 9]
3 0 4 7

Multiply the first row by -3, and add it to the third row.
[−3 6 30 18]

1 −2 −10 −6
[0 3 24 9]
0 6 34 25
1
Multiply Row 3 by 3:
1 −2 −10 −6
[0 1 8 3]
0 6 34 25

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Multiply the second row by −6 and add it to the third row:

[−0 −6 −48 −18]

1 −2 −10 −6
[0 1 8 3]
0 0 −14 7
1
Multiply Row 3 by − 14
1 −2 −10 −6
0 1 8 3
[ 1]
0 0 1 −
2

We have now reached Row Echelon Form.

Multiply Row 3 by 10, and add it to the first Row.
[0 0 10 −5]

1 −2 0 −11
0 1 8 3
[ 1]
0 0 1 −
2

Multiply Row 3 by −8, and add it to the second Row.

[0 0 −8 4]

1 −2 0 −11
0 1 0 7
[ 1]
0 0 1 −
2

Multiply Row 2 by 2 and add it to the first Row

[0 2 0 14]

1 0 0 3
0 1 0 7
[ 1]
0 0 1 −
2

1
(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (3,7, − )
2

2.9 Review and Challenge

Example 2.76
Consider a system of equations
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 = 𝑐
𝑑𝑥 + 𝑒𝑦 = 𝑓
which is represented using matrices as
𝑎 𝑏 𝑥 𝑐
[ ] [ 𝑦 ] = [𝑓 ]
𝑑 𝑒
𝑎 𝑏 𝑥 𝑐
Let 𝑨 = [ ] , 𝑿 = [𝑦 ] , 𝑩 = [𝑓 ]
𝑑 𝑒

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If 𝑨 is invertible, then we have:

𝑨𝑿 = 𝑩 ⇒ 𝑨−𝟏 𝑨𝑿 = 𝑨−𝟏 𝑩 ⇒ 𝑰𝑿 = 𝑨−𝟏 𝑩 ⇒ 𝑿 = 𝑨−𝟏 𝑩

However, if 𝑨 is not invertible then, what can we conclude about the system of equation given above?

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3. APPLICATIONS
3.1 Representing Data
A. Addition and Subtraction

Example 3.1

B. Scalar Multiplication

Example 3.2
John’s Groceries bought the following at wholesale prices:
𝑅𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑅𝑠. 95 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑘𝑔
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑅𝑠. 85 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑘𝑔
𝑆𝑎𝑙𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑅𝑠. 30 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑘𝑔
They sold at the following retail prices:
𝑅𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑅𝑠. 100 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑘𝑔
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑅𝑠. 87 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑘𝑔
𝑆𝑎𝑙𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑅𝑠. 40 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑘𝑔
A. Write a column matrix 𝑪 to with the cost of the items.
B. Write a column matrix 𝑹 to with the selling price of the items
C. Calculate 𝑷 = 𝑹 − 𝑪 and interpret it.
D. John’s Groceries bought and sold 30 kg of each item on Wed, 5th June. Calculate 30𝑷 and interpret it.

C. Equality of Matrices

Example 3.3
Find the value of 𝑥 if:
𝑎+2 𝑎+3 𝑏−3 7−𝑏
[ ]=[ ]
𝑧+2 𝑧 𝑏 𝑥+7

𝑎 + 2 = 𝑏 − 3 ⇒ 𝑎 − 𝑏 = −5
𝑎+3 =7−𝑏 ⇒ 𝑎+𝑏 = 4

1
2𝑎 = −1 ⇒ 𝑎 = − ⇒ 𝑏 = −4.5
2

𝑧 + 2 = 𝑏 ⇒ 𝑧 = 𝑏 − 2 = 4.5 − 2 = 2.5

𝑥 + 7 = 𝑧 ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑧 − 7 = 2.5 − 7 = −4.5

Example 3.4
Find the value of 𝑥 if:
𝑥 𝑥 2 |𝑥|
[ ] = [𝑥 ]
√𝑥 𝑥𝑥 𝑥 𝑥

𝑥 = 𝑥2
𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 𝑆𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑠

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𝑥≠0⇒𝑥=1

𝑥 = |𝑥| ⇒ 𝑥 ≥ 0

√𝑥 = 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ {0,1}

𝑥 𝑥 = 𝑥 ⇒ 𝟎𝟎 𝒊𝒔 𝒏𝒐𝒕 𝒅𝒆𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 ⇒ 𝒙 = 𝟏
D. Matrix Multiplication

Example 3.5
𝑎 𝑏 1 2 4 3
[ ][ ]=[ ]
𝑐 𝑑 3 4 2 1

𝑎 + 3𝑏 2𝑎 + 4𝑏 4 3
[ ]=[ ]
𝑐 + 3𝑑 2𝑐 + 4𝑑 2 1

Example 3.6
A. My weekly grocery shopping list comprises 3 packs of apple juice, 4 packets of breakfast cereal, and 2
packets of my favorite biscuit. Write these quantities as row matrix 𝑸.
B. Starbazaar offers apple juice at Rs. 95 per pack, breakfast cereal at Rs. 30 per pack, and a biscuit packet
at Rs. 12 per packet. DMart offers apple juice at Rs. 100 per pack, breakfast cereal at Rs. 27 per pack,
and a biscuit packet at Rs. 10 per packet. Write these quantities as a column matrix 𝑪 with two columns
C. Determine 𝑸𝑪 using matrix multiplication.
D. Interpret 𝑸𝑪.
E. I can purchase the items from one place. From where should I purchase and why?

Part A
𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 = 𝑸 = [3 4 2]1×3
Part B
95 100
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 = 𝑪 = [30 27 ]
12 10 𝟑×𝟐

Part C
First, check the feasibility:
𝑄1×3 , 𝐶𝟑×𝟐
Number of Columns of Q is same as number of rows of C.
Hence, we can carry out the multiplication.

The answer matrix will have

➢ Same number of Rows as 𝑄 = 1
➢ Same number of Columns as C= 2

95 100
𝑸𝑪 = [3 4 2]𝟏×𝟑 [30 27 ] = [𝑎11 𝑎12 ]
12 10 𝟑×𝟐

= [3 × 95 + 4 × 30 + 2 × 12 3 × 100 + 4 × 27 + 2 × 10] = [429 428]

Part D

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𝑸𝑪 = [429 428]
The first entry represents the cost if items are purchased at Starbazaar.
The second entry represents the cost if items are purchased at DMart.

Part E
You should purchase from Star Bazaar, because you will save:
429 − 428 = 1 𝑅𝑠.

3.2 Counting
A. Number of Elements

Example 3.7

B. Distinct Matrices

Example 3.8

C. Singular Matrices

Example 3.9
𝑎 𝑏
Find the number of matrices 𝑨 = [ ] such that 𝑨 is a singular matrix and 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 are distinct natural
𝑐 𝑑
numbers less than 10.

3.3 Probability
A. Probability Vector

Example 3.10

B. Stochastic Matrix

Example 3.11

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4. SOLVING EQUATIONS

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5. TRANSFORMATION MATRICES
5.1 Application: Coordinate Geometry
5.1: Scaling
𝑘 0
For a constant 𝑘, the matrix [ ] , 𝑘 > 0 defines a scaling.
0 𝑘
➢ 𝑘 > 1 is a stretch
➢ 0 < 𝑘 < 1 is a shrink

Example 5.2
1
2
0
Consider the point (1,3), and the matrix [ 1 ]. Find the product of the point and the matrix.
0 2

1 1
1 ×1+0×3
1
[2 0] [ ] = [2 ] = [ 2]
3 1 3
0 0×1+ ×3
2 2

5.3: Rotation
The matrix of a counterclockwise rotation in ℝ2 through an angle 𝜃 is given by
cos 𝜃 − sin 𝜃
[ ]
sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
This matrix has the form:
𝑎 −𝑏
[ ]
𝑏 𝑎

Example 5.4
Consider
cos 𝜃 − sin 𝜃
[ ]
sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
Show that
𝑎 −𝑏
A. it is of the form [ ]
𝑏 𝑎
B. 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = 1
C. The column vectors are unit vectors

𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = cos 2 𝜃 + sin2 𝜃 = 1
cos 𝜃
First Column Vector is 𝒗 = [ ]
sin 𝜃
|𝒗| = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = √cos 2 𝜃 + sin2 𝜃 = √1 = 1

5.5: Reflection
The matrix
𝑎 𝑏
[ ], 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = 1
𝑏 −𝑎
Is a reflection

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Example 5.6
Consider the matrix
3 4
−
[ 5 5]
4 3
5 5
A. Show that the column vectors of this matrix are unit vectors.
B. Find the product of the point (1,2) and the matrix above.

3
− 3 2 4 2 9 16 25
𝒗 = [ 5] ⇒ |𝒗| = √(− ) + ( ) = √ + = √ = √1 = 1
4 5 5 25 25 25
5
3 4 3 4
− − ×1+ ×2
1 1
[ 5 5] [ ] = [ 5 5 ]=[ ]
4 3 2 4 3 2
×1+ ×2
5 5 5 5

3 4 3 4
− 𝑎 − 𝑎+ 𝑏
[ 5 5] [ ] = [ 5 5 ] = [𝑎]
4 3 𝑏 4 3 𝑏
𝑎+ 𝑏
5 5 5 5

3 4 4 8
− 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑎 ⇒ 𝑏 = 𝑎 ⇒ 4𝑏 = 8𝑎 ⇒ 𝑏 = 2𝑎
5 5 5 5
4 3
𝑎+ 𝑏=𝑏
5 5

7 Examples

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