BIOCHEM LAB pH Common Acids

M1 Lesson 1 - pH of Common Solutions 0 Hydrochloric Acid (HCl)

Battery Acid (H2SO4 sulfuric acid) and

1.0
stomach acid

2.0 Lemon Juice

2.2 Vinegar

3.0 Apples, Soda

3.0 to 3.5 Sauerkraut

3.5 to 3.9 Pickles

4.0 Wine and Beer

4.5 Tomatoes
Learn the pH of Common Solutions
pH is a measure of how acidic or basic a chemical is 4.5 to 5.2 Bananas
when it's in an aqueous (water) solution. A neutral pH
value (neither an acid nor a base) is 7. Substances with a around
Acid Rain
pH greater than 7 up to 14 are considered bases. 5.0
Chemicals with a pH lower than 7 down to 0 are
5.0 Black Coffee
considered acids. The closer the pH is to 0 or 14, the
greater its acidity or basicity, respectively. Here's a list
of the approximate pH of some common chemicals. Neutral pH Chemicals
Distilled water tends to be slightly acidic because
 pH is a measure of how acidic or basic an aqueous
solution is. pH usually ranges from 0 (acidic) to 14
of dissolved carbon dioxide and other gases. Pure
(basic). A pH value around 7 is considered neutral. water is nearly neutral, but rainwater tends to be
 pH is measured using pH paper or a pH meter. slightly acidic. Natural water rich in minerals tends
 Most fruits, vegetables, and body fluids are acidic. to be alkaline or basic.
While pure water is neutral, natural water may be
7.0 - Pure Water
either acidic or basic. Cleaners tend to be basic.
 Not All Liquids Have a pH Value, pH only has pH of Common Bases
meaning in an aqueous solution (in water). Many
chemicals, including liquids, do not have pH Many common cleaners are basic. Usually, these
values. If there's no water, there's no pH. For chemicals have a very high pH. Blood is close to neutral
example, there is no pH value for vegetable oil, but is slightly basic.
gasoline, or pure alcohol.
pH Common Bases
pH of Common Acids
7.0 to 10 Shampoo
Fruits and vegetables tend to be acidic. Citrus fruit, in
particular, is acidic to the point where it can erode tooth 7.4 Human Blood
enamel. Milk is often considered to be neutral since it's
only slightly acidic. Milk becomes more acidic over 7.4 Human Tears
time. The pH of urine and saliva is slightly acidic,
around a pH of 6. Human skin, hair, and nails tend to 7.8 Egg
have a pH of around 5.
around 8 Seawater
8.3 Baking Soda (Sodium Bicarbonate) pH = -log[H+]

where the log is the base-10 logarithm and [H+] stands

around 9 Toothpaste
for the hydrogen ion concentration in units of moles per
liter solution. The term "pH" comes from the German
10.5 Milk of Magnesia
word "potenz," which means "power," combined with
11.0 Ammonia H, the element symbol for hydrogen, so pH is an
abbreviation for "power of hydrogen."
11.5 to 14 Hair Straightening Chemicals

12.4 Lime (Calcium Hydroxide) Note About Safety

13.0 Lye Chemicals that have very low or very high pH are often
corrosive and can produce chemical burns. It's fine to
14.0 Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) dilute these chemicals in pure water to test their pH.
The value won't be changed, but the risk will be
Other pH Values reduced.

Soil pH ranges from 3 to 10. Most plants prefer a pH

between 5.5 and 7.5. Stomach acid contains
hydrochloric acid and other substances and has a pH
M1 Lesson 2 - Buffer
value of 1.2. While pure water free of undissolved gases
is neutral, not much else is. However, buffer solutions Preparation
may be prepared to maintain a pH near 7. Dissolving
table salt (sodium chloride) in water does not change its There are a number of applications in chemistry
pH. and biology where changes in pH can have a major
negative effect. One example of this exists in the
How to Measure pH human body; changes to blood pH could have a
There are multiple ways to test the pH of substances. devastating effect, so a mechanism within the body
known as the bicarbonate buffering system keeps
The simplest method is to use pH paper test strips. You
your blood's pH in check. In laboratory settings, a
can make these yourself using coffee filters and cabbage
buffer solution is used to achieve similar results.
juice, use Litmus paper, or other test strips. The color of
The buffer solution maintains a balance in the pH
the test strips corresponds to a pH range. Because the
of whatever is being worked with, preventing
color change depends on the type of indicator dye used
outside influences from shifting the pH and
to coat the paper, the result needs to be compared
potentially ruining everything.
against a chart of standard.

Another method is to draw a small sample of a

Buffer Solutions
substance and apply drops of pH indicator and observe A buffer solution is made up of a weak acid and its
the test change. Many home chemicals are natural pH conjugate base or a weak base and its conjugate
indicators. acid. The two components maintain a pH balance
pH test kits are available to test liquids. Usually, these that resists change when strong acids or bases are
are designed for a particular application, like aquaria or added to it.
swimming pools. pH test kits are fairly accurate but
may be affected by other chemicals in a sample.

The most accurate method of measuring pH is using a

pH meter. pH meters are more expensive than test
papers or kits and require calibration, so they are
generally used in schools and labs. Buffer Preparation

pH Equation The solution is made by taking a weak acid and

adding its conjugate base (which is formed by
The equation for calculating pH was proposed in 1909
removing a proton from the same type of acid) or
by Danish biochemist Søren Peter Lauritz Sørensen:
by combining a weak base with its conjugate acid. color concentration when using dyes. Buffer
The use of conjugates is what gives a buffer solutions are also used to calibrate equipment,
solution its resistance to pH changes; it creates an especially pH meters that might be miscalibrated if
equilibrium between the acid and the base which is a buffer is not present. It's worth noting that buffer
difficult for other acids or bases to overcome. Even solutions do not necessarily have a neutral pH, just
when strong acids or bases are added, the a balanced one; buffer solutions made from citric
equilibrium between the weak acid/base and its acid, ammonia, acetic acid (which is found in
conjugate reduces the impact of the addition on vinegar in low concentrations) and other
overall solution pH. compounds can have pH values as low as 2 or
higher than 10. This allows the use of buffer
solutions in work with very strong acids or bases.
Examples of Buffers

 blood - contains a bicarbonate buffer system Buffer Capacity

 TRIS buffer
 phosphate buffer While buffer solutions are resistant to changes in
pH, this doesn't mean that the pH of a buffer
As stated, buffers are useful over specific pH solution can't change if enough strong acid or
ranges. For example, here is the pH range of strong base is added. The amount of a strong acid
common buffering agents: or base that a buffer solution can take before
significant pH changes occur is known as the
buffer capacity. The capacity differs depending on
Buffer pKa pH range
the core components of the buffer solution and
how much of the strong acid or base is added to
citric acid 3.13., 4.76, 6.40 2.1 to 7.4 the solution. If adding a strong acid to the buffer
solution, the capacity is equal to the amount of the
acetic acid 4.8 3.8 to 5.8 base in the solution. If adding a strong base, the
capacity is equal to the amount of the acid in the
solution.
KH2PO4 7.2 6.2 to 8.2
M2 Lesson 1- Unbuffered and
borate 9.24 8.25 to 10.25 Buffered Solutions
You were able to compare buffered and unbuffered
CHES 9.3 8.3 to 10.3
solutions using the image provided in the pre-task.

When a buffer solution is prepared, the pH of the The next activity will further enhance your
solution is adjusted to get it within the correct understanding by comparing the pH values of
effective range. Typically a strong acid, such as unbuffered and buffered solutions as you view the
hydrochloric acid (HCl) is added to lower the pH following virtual labs or video presentations:
of acidic buffers. A strong base, such as sodium
Take note of your observations and results. Then
hydroxide solution (NaOH), is added to raise the
answer the check-in activity.
pH of alkaline buffers.
Buffers and Buffer Capacity

M2 Lesson 2- Computation of pH of
Unbuffered Solutions and Buffered
Buffering pH
Solutions
Buffer solutions have a wide range of applications,
both in the real world and in the lab. A buffered The pH of solutions is directly measured using pH
pH is required for most enzymes to function paper and pH meter. However, this can also be
correctly, and buffering is used to ensure proper determined by computation using appropriate
mathematical formulas and equations such as the
Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation.
Buffers are chosen with an appropriate pH range
for control. This pH range is measured by the
Henderson-Hasselbalch equation derived as
follows: we will imagine a buffer composed of
acid, HA, and its conjugate base, A-. We know that
the acid dissociation constant pKa of the acid is
given by this expression:
Ka = [H+] [A-] / [HA]
The equation can be rearranged as follows:
1. Prokaryotic Cell
[H+] = Ka [HA] / [A-]
These are unicellular organisms that do not develop or
pH = pKa + log ( [A-] / [HA]) Henderson- differentiate into multicellular forms. They are identical
Hasselbalch equation and capable of independent existence.
Where pH refers to the concentration of H+, pKa is They lack a nucleus and membranous organelles.
the acid dissociation constant, [A-] is the
concentration of the conjugate base, and [HA] is Include all bacteria and archaea (archaebacteria).
the concentration of the starting acid. 2. Eukaryotic Cell
From the equilibrium constant K and the initial These cells contain a nucleus and membrane-bound
concentration of the acid, the pH of a buffer compartments, called organelles, in which specific
solution can be calculated. The equilibrium metabolic activities take place.
constant reveals the strength of the weak acid or
the buffer. The concentration of [H+] can also be Include fungi, animals, and plants as well as some
solved using the Ka and the equilibrium equation. unicellular organisms.
pH of the solution can also be calculated from the Parts of a Eukaryotic Cell
concentration of [H+] as follows: pH = - log ([H+])
1. Cell membrane – It controls what gets in and out of
Buffer Effectiveness. the cell

An effective buffer should be made of an acid and 2. Cytoplasm – It is the living substance of the cell
its conjugate base or a base and its conjugate acid
Cytosol - It is the fluid portion of the cell.
where the Ka value is very similar to the desired
pH. Organelles – small, membrane-bound compartments.
The exact ratio of the conjugate base to the acid is Mitochondrion – It is the powerhouse of the cell
determined from the Ka value and the Henderson-
Endoplasmic Reticulum – Responsible for intracellular
Hasselbalch equation for the desired pH. The
transport
buffer is most effective when the amounts of acid
and its conjugate base are approximately equal. Golgi body – Modifies, packages and transports
proteins

Lysosome – Suicide bag of the cell

M3 Lesson 1 - Types of Cells
Peroxisome – Detoxifies the cell
Types of Cell
3. Nucleus - A rounded structure at the center of the
cell that controls the metabolic activities. It contains the
DNA
Plant Cell vs. Animal Cell

Structurally, plant and animal cells are very similar

because they are both eukaryotic cells.

However, plant cells are usually larger than animal

cells. They also contain structures that are absent in a
typical animal cell, such as chloroplasts, plastids cell
wall and large vacuoles.

On the other hand, there are organelles found in an

animal cell that are absent in plant cells. These incudes
centrioles, lysosomes (rarely seen in plant cells),
microvilli, cilia, and filaments.

FUNCTION OF THE CELL MEMBRANE

M3 Lesson 2 - The Cell 1. Delimits the cell from its surroundings.

Membrane 2. Controls what gets in and out of the cell.

3. Provides attachment for the skeleton of the cell.

The Cell Membrane 4. Receives and sends out stimuli.

5. Provides binding sites and receptors for enzymes and other

substances.

6. Allows cell-to-cell recognition.

7. Forms specialized junctions with cell membrane of adjacent

cells

CELL MEMBRANE

1. Phosphate head
The cell membrane serves as a clear boundary between the
cell’s internal and external environment. It is also called
 Polar
plasma membrane or plasmalemma. It is semi-permeable
 Phosphate and glycerol
with a framework of fat-based molecules called
phospholipids, which prevent hydrophilic substances from  Hydrophilic
entering or escaping the cell.
2. Fatty Acid Tail
All membranes are phospholipid bilayers with embedded
proteins. Some of these proteins act as gatekeepers,  Non-polar
determining what substances can and cannot cross the  Hydrophobic
membrane. Others function as markers, identifying the cell  A. Saturated Fatty Acid
as part of the same organism or foreign. Some proteins work
 b. Unsaturated Fatty Acid
like fasteners, binding cells together so they can function as a
unit. Other membrane proteins serve as communicators,
sending and receiving signals from other cells. 3. Proteins

o Transmembrane Proteins
o Integral Proteins
o Peripheral Proteins
Parts of the Cell Membrane:

TYPES OF TRANSPORT

Active
• Requires energy CYTOLYSIS & PLASMOLYSIS

• Goes against the concentration gradient Cytolysis

Passive -cells placed in distilled water, cells swell and burst

• Does not require energy Plasmolysis

• Goes with the concentration gradient -cells placed in concentrated salt and solution, cells
shrink and shrivel

SIMPLE DIFFUSION FACILITATED DIFFUSION

• Diffusion is the random movement of molecules from
• Does not require energy
an area of high concentration to low concentration
• Uses transport proteins to move high to low
• Requires NO energy
concentration
MOLECULES THAT DIFFUSE THROUGH CELL
• Molecules will randomly move through the pores in
MEMBRANES
Channel Proteins.
1. Oxygen – Non-polar so diffuses very quickly.
• Examples: Glucose or amino acids
2. Carbon dioxide – Polar but very small so diffuses
moving from blood into a cell.
quickly.
TYPES OF TRANSPORT PROTEINS
3. Water – Polar but also very small so diffuses quickly
Channel proteins are embedded in the cell membrane &
OSMOSIS
have a pore for materials to cross
• Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a membrane
Carrier proteins can change shape to move material
Moves from HIGH water concentration to LOW water from one side of the membrane to the other
concentration
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
DIFFUSION ACROSS A MEMBRANE
 Requires energy or ATP
High water concentration  Low water concentration
 Moves materials from LOW to HIGH concentration
Low solute concentration  High solute concentration
 AGAINST concentration gradient
CELLS IN SOLUTIONS
 Example: Sodium-Potassium Pump
Isotonic
ACTIVE TRANSPORT—EXOCYTOSIS
A solution whose solute concentration is the
Molecules are moved out of the cell by vesicles that fuse
same as the solute concentration inside the cell. the with the plasma membrane.

Hypotonic This is how many hormones are secreted and how

nerve cells communicate with each other.
A solution whose solute concentration is lower
ACTIVE TRANSPORT--ENDOCYTOSIS
than the solute concentration inside a cell
Large molecules move materials into the cell by one of
- Burst or swelling three forms of endocytosis.

Hypertonic Pinocytosis

A solution whose solute concentration is higher Receptor-mediated endocytosis

than the solute concentration inside a cell. Phagocytosis

- shrink