MODULE- II

Lec 5 Listening – Definition – Listening vs Hearing – Active listening – Types of

listening –Guidelines for effective listening – Developing listening skills -
Barriers to listening – Listening misconceptions

What Is Listening?
Defining listening is like defining love. It is an interrelated concept that cannot
only be defined by one word.
Listening can be defined in various ways but can be summarized by the following
descriptions:
1- Listening is understanding what we hear the natural response of a human being
when hearing a sound
According to Floyd, "Hearing is a passive process that occurs when sound waves
cause the bones in your inner ear to vibrate and send signals to your brain, but listening
requires much more than just perceiving the sound around you" (Floyd, 2009, p. 262).
Listening actually completes the hearing process by understanding the meaning of the
information.
2- Listening is a necessary skill for day-to-day communication
In various areas of our life, we need to listen. Family members and friends will
not only love us because we have beautiful eyes, but because when they talk, we care
about what they say by listening to them; our classmates and colleagues will be more
than willing to work with people who show interest through understanding what they say.
3- Listening is an habit
Even though we are born with the ability to listen, it should be remembered that
good listening requires practice and effort. As Cuban said, "Listening looks easy, but it's
not simple. Every head is a world." .
Listening is not reflex, it is an habit. If a person puts food into his or her mouth,
he or she will be more likely to make his or her teeth move instead of swallowing the
aliment right away. When listening, in the other hand, having the info inside the head is
not enough, there is a need to analyze it in order to fully understand its meaning
Sample of Listening Definitions
Tucker 1925 - An analysis of the impressions resulting from concentration where
an effort of will is required.

Rankin 1926 - The ability to understand spoken language.

Nichols 1948 - The comprehension of expository materials presented orally in a

classroom situation

Barbe & Meyers 1954 - The process of reacting to, interpreting, and relating the
spoken language in terms of past experiences and further course of action.
 Barbara 1957 - A definite, usually voluntary, effort to apprehend acoustically.

Spearritt 1962 - The active process involved in attach[ing] meaning to sounds.

Barker 1971- The selective process of attending to, hearing, understanding, and
remembering aural symbols.

Weaver 1972 - A process that takes place when a human organism receives data
orally. The selection and retention of aurally received data.

Kelly 1975 -A rather definite and deliberative ability to hear information, to

analyze it, to recall it at a later time, and to draw conclusions from it.

Steil et al. 1983 - Consists of four connected activities – sensing, interpreting,

evaluating, and responding.

Wolff et al. 1983 -A unitary-receptive communication process of hearing and

selecting, assimilating and organizing, and retaining and covertly responding to aural and
nonverbal stimuli.

Wovin & Coakley 1988 - The process of receiving, attending to, and assigning
meaning to aural stimuli.
Brownell 1994 - An overt behavior that conceptualizes the teaching and training
process

ILA 1996 - The process of receiving, constructing meaning from and responding
to spoken and/or nonverbal messages.

Cooper 1997 - Listening competency means behavior that is appropriate and

effective. Appropriateness means that the content is understood and effectiveness deals
with the achievement of interactive goals.

de Ruyter & Wetzels 2000 -[as perceived by customers] A set of interrelated

activities, including apparent attentiveness, nonverbal behaviors, verbal behavior,
perceived attitudes, memory and behavioral responses.

Bostrom 2011 - The acquisition, process, and retention of information in the

interpersonal context.

Meaning
Hearing refers to one's ability to perceive sounds, by receiving vibrations through
ears. Listening is something done consciously, that involve the analysis and
understanding of the sounds you hear.
BASIS FOR HEARING LISTENING
COMPARISON
What is it? An ability A skill
Nature Primary & Continuos
Secondary & temporary
Psychological Act Physiological
Process Passive bodily process Active mental process
Occurs at Subconscious level Conscious level
Use of senses Only one More than one
Reason We are neither aware We listen to acquire
knowledge and receive.
Concentration Not required Required

Types of listening :

Sympathetic listening

In sympathetic listening we care about the other person and show this concern in
the way we pay close attention and express our sorrow for their ills and happiness at their
joys.

Empathetic listening
When we listen empathetically, we go beyond sympathy to seek a truer
understand how others are feeling. This requires excellent discrimination and close
attention to the nuances of emotional signals. When we are being truly empathetic, we
actually feel what they are feeling.
In order to get others to expose these deep parts of themselves to us, we also need
to demonstrate our empathy in our demeanor towards them, asking sensitively and in a
way that encourages self-disclosure
Evaluative listening
In evaluative listening, or critical listening, we make judgments about what the
other person is saying. We seek to assess the truth of what is being said. We also judge
what they say against our values, assessing them as good or bad, worthy or unworthy.
Evaluative listening is particularly pertinent when the other person is trying to
persuade us, perhaps to change our behavior and maybe even to change our beliefs.
Within this, we also discriminate between subtleties of language and comprehend the
inner meaning of what is said. Typically also we weigh up the pros and cons of an
argument, determining whether it makes sense logically as well as whether it is helpful to
us.
Evaluative listening is also called critical, judgmental or interpretive listening.

Appreciative listening
In appreciative listening, we seek certain information which will appreciate, for
example that which helps meet our needs and goals. We use appreciative listening when
we are listening to good music, poetry or maybe even the stirring words of a great leader.
Comprehension listening
The next step beyond discriminating between different sound and sights is to
make sense of them. To comprehend the meaning requires first having a lexicon of words
at our fingertips and also all rules of grammar and syntax by which we can understand
what others are saying.
The same is true, of course, for the visual components of communication, and an
understanding of body language helps us understand what the other person is really
meaning.
In communication, some words are more important and some less so, and
comprehension often benefits from extraction of key facts and items from a long spiel.
Comprehension listening is also known as content listening, informative listening and
full listening.

Critical listening
Critical listening is listening in order to evaluate and judge, forming opinion about
what is being said. Judgment includes assessing strengths and weaknesses, agreement and
approval.
This form of listening requires significant real-time cognitive effort as the listener
analyzes what is being said, relating it to existing knowledge and rules, whilst
simultaneously listening to the ongoing words from the speaker.
Biased listening
Biased listening happens when the person hears only what they want to hear,
typically misinterpreting what the other person says based on the stereotypes and other
biases that they have. Such biased listening is often very evaluative in nature.

GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVE LISTENING

Stop talking! Remember, you cannot listen if you are speaking.
Pay attention! Give your full attention to the speaker. You cannot communicate if both
parties are not actively involved in the process.
Read nonverbal cues. Along with hearing and processing the words of the speaker, you
should pay careful attention to the nonverbal language being communicated. Watch for
eye contact, facial expressions, gestures, posture changes, and any physical responses
(i.e., fidgeting).
Ask questions. A good way to ensure that you have accurately understood the message is
to ask questions.
Resist distractions. Stop doodling! Do not shuffle papers, draw, or doodle when you are
listening.
Don’t interrupt! Even though you may get angry or upset by something
the speaker says, do not interrupt. Let the speaker finish, and resist the temptation to
focus on your emotional response to the speaker‘s words.
Open your mind. Try to look at the situation from the speaker‘s point of view and not
just your own. Be flexible.
Paraphrase. Use your own words to mirror what you have heard. Restating information
in your own words helps you to remember what you have heard.

BARRIERS TO LISTENING

This handout talks through a number of different barriers to listening. As you‘re

reading through them – identify if any of the barriers apply to you. Do some apply when
you are listening to certain people!
Selective listening
We all listen selectively at some time or other. It is a necessary skill in order to survive in
often very noisy environments, however our selectivity can sometimes be based on two
things.
1) our preconceptions about the other person
2) our preconceptions about the importance of what‘s being said
Identifying any preconceptions before the review meeting will help reduce this barrier.
Talking speed vs speed of thought
There is a considerable difference between the speed at which people talk and the speed
at which they think. The average person speaks at about 125 words per minute, whereas
thinking speed is in the region of 500 words per minute. We all think a lot faster than we
realise! The result is that when listening to someone we are continually jumping ahead of
what is actually being said. Try to avoid jumping to conclusions in the review meeting.
Keep an open mind!
Lack of interest
This could be due to lack of interest in the individual speaking or being distracted by
things that are happening to you personally (e.g. poorly child, deadline for research
project funding/reporting) Remember, the review meeting is the opportunity for the
reviewee to talk about themselves, their thoughts and feelings.
Beliefs and attitudes
We all have opinions on a variety of current issues; we feel strongly about certain
subjects; we value certain behaviours. How do you react when someone inadvertently
challenges your beliefs and attitudes? Try to avoid getting emotional particularly in the
review situation, remember, the review is about the reviewee not you!
Reactions to speaker
Our reactions to the person speaking rather than what they are saying can cause us to
listen less effectively.
Our preconceptions
Our preconceptions often mean we don‘t even give another person a chance to speak. We
can prejudge what they have to say. The implication of this behaviour is that it implies
we don‘t value what they might have to offer.
The words we hear
Over-repetition of words and phrases is one distraction, the use of unfamiliar (e.g. jargon)
words is another. Another important point to remember is that words can mean different
things to different people. Good – to one person may mean only just acceptable, to
another it might mean ‗perfect‘.
Physical distractions
This can come in a number of different guises and ranges from the background noises
that are going on (i.e. a telephone ringing or a fire engine racing down the road), whether
we are physically comfortable (i.e. too warm, too cold, the seat is uncomfortable – too
high/too low, thirsty), the lighting in the room, to distracting pictures on the wall. Some
distractions are within our control (i.e telephone calls) and where possible it‘s important
to try and stop them from becoming distractions (e.g. divert all calls).
MISCONCEPTION ABOUT LISTENING :
Listening is misunderstood by most people. Because these misunderstandings so greatly
affect our communication, we need to take a look at four common misconceptions that
many communicators hold.
1. Listening and Hearing Are Not the Same Thing
Hearing is the process in which sound waves strike the eardrum and cause vibrations that
are transmitted to the brain. Listening occurs when the brain reconstructs these
electrochemical impulses into a representation of the original sound and then gives them
meaning. Barring illness, injury, or earplugs, hearing can‘t be stopped. Your ears will
pick up sound waves and transmit them to your brain whether you want them to or not.
Listening, however, isn‘t automatic. Many times we hear but do not listen. Sometimes we
deliberately tune out unwanted signals: .
Listerning consists of several stages.
a) After hearing, the next stage is ATTENDING—the act of paying attention to a
signal. An individual‘s needs, wants, desires, and interests determine what is attended to,
or selected
b) The next step in listening is UNDERSTANDING—the process of making
sense of a message. In addition to these steps, understanding often depends on the ability
to organize the information we hear into recognizable form. The successful understanding
consists number of factors, most prominent among which were verbal ability,
intelligence, and motivation.
c). RESPONDING to a message consists of giving observable feedback to the
speaker. Offering feedback serves two important functions: It helps you clarify your
understanding of a speaker‘s message, and it shows that you care about what that speaker
is saying.Good listeners showed that they were attentive by nonverbal behaviors such as
keeping eye contact and reacting with appropriate facial expressions. A slumped posture,
bored expression, and yawning send a clear message that the audience are not tuned in to
the speaker. Listening isn‘t just a passive activity. As listeners we are active participants
in a communication transaction.
d)The final step in the listening process IS REMEMBERING. This is true even if
people work hard at listening. A listener can be remembered only half of after were
retained. Within two months half of the half is forgotten, that is we remember 25 percent
of the original message. People start forgetting immediately (within eight hours the 50
percent remembered drops to about 35 percent).
2. Listening Is Not a Natural Process
Another common myth is that listening is like breathing: a natural activity that
people do well. The truth is that listening is a skill much like speaking: Everybody does
it, though few people do it well. Listening requires Effort Most people assume that
listening is fundamentally a passive activity in which the receiver absorbs a speaker‘s
ideas, rather the way a sponge absorbs water. Every kind of listening requires mental
effort by the receiver. And experience shows that passive listening almost guarantees that
the respondent will fail to grasp at least some of the speaker‘s ideas and misunderstand
others.
All Listeners Do Not Receive the Same Message When two or more people are
listening to a speaker,we tend to assume that they all are hearing and understanding the
same message. In fact, such uniform comprehension isn‘t the case. Physiological
factors,social roles,cultural background,personal interests, and needs all shape and distort
the raw data we hear into uniquely different messages.

Misconceptions On Listening
Here are the top 10 myths about listening.
Myth 1: "Listening is a matter of intelligence."
Fact: "Careful listening is a learned behaviour."
Myth 2: "Speaking is more important than listening in the communication process."
Fact: "Speaking and listening are equally important."
Myth 3: "Listening is easy and requires little energy."
Fact: "Active listeners undergo the same physiological changes as a person jogging."
Myth 4: "Listening and hearing are the same process."
Fact: "Listening is a conscious, selective process while hearing is an involuntary act."
Myth 5: "Speakers are able to command listening."
Fact: "Speakers cannot make a person really listen."
Myth 6: "Hearing ability determines listening ability."
Fact: "Listening happens mentally—between the ears."
Myth 7: "Speakers are totally responsible for the communication success."
Fact: "Communication is a two-way street."
Myth 8: "Listening means only understanding a speaker‘s words."
Fact: "Nonverbal signals also help listeners gain understanding."
Myth 9: "Daily practice eliminates the need for listening training."
Fact: "Without effective listening training, most practice merely reinforces negative
behaviors."
Myth 10: "Competence in listening develops naturally."
Fact: "Untrained people listen at only 25 percent efficiency
Lec 6 Writing skill – Importance – Effective writing - Components of writing :
Introduction , Audience and format ,Composition and style, Structure,
Grammatical errors , Proofing and Conclusion – Ways to improve writing
skills – Technical writing

Introduction:
Writing is a visual representation of speech. In writing and speaking the language
learner is engaged in communicating his ideas and feelings. In the case of speaking, a
kind of give and take situation exists between the listener and the speaker. But, in the
case of writing the message communicated is higher and to be effective. Writing is an act
of forming letters or characters and artfully putting them together so as to express ideas;
an essential component of any language learning. To learn written mode of second
language, in addition to L1, one requires an additional ability and time.

For learning writing of L1, one need not learn words and their meaning without
any kind of hindrance if he/she has literacy skill in L1, to correlate the sounds with
graphemes and to sequence the graphemes into words and words into sentences, cohering
the sentences with meaning and ability to organize them in a readable manner.But, to
learning writing of L2 one requires learning deliberately and consciously each and every
linguistic element through instruction or proper guidance.

Since writing is an essential component of language learning. Earlier, ‗writing‘

skills were emphasizing on the correct use of grammatical forms. Students used to copy
sentences, making discrete changes in person or tense. This philosophy grew as a result
of audio-lingual method, where error was prevented and accuracy was expected to arise
out of practice with structure. Subsequently, teachers were more aware of current
practices in English composition and there was a shift from strictly controlled writing to
guided writing. Writing was limited to structuring sentences often in direct answers to
questions or by combining sentences - the result of which looked like a short piece of
discourse. Like speaking, writing is a productive skill. It involves producing language
rather than receiving it.

Writing involves communicating a message. In order to write, learners need to

form letters and words, join these together to make words, sentences or a series of
sentences that link together to communicate a message. Learning to write in a second
language is not merely learning to put down on paper the conventional symbols of the
writing system that represents the utterances one has in mind, but it is also purposeful
section and organization of ideas, facts and experiences. In order words aims at
compactness and precision in expression as well as grammatical, idiomatic and
orthographic accuracy. Therefore, learning to write involves learning to use grammar
with ease and present fact in a sequential order. Writing is required to communicate with
other people, to understand them, talk to them, read what others have written and to write
to them. The sub- skills of writing are planning, forming letter, punctuate correctly,
linking, using the appropriate layout, paragraphing and so on.
Importance of writing skills:
Bacon (1989) rightly said, ―Reading makes a full man, conference a ready man,
and writing an exact man‖. Writing is an important medium and it is used for different
purposes. Writing performs many functions in a person‘s day to day life in different
areaslike academic, official, media, social, cultural and personal settings.
Communicationis the medium of writing personal correspondence, telegrams, circulars,
reports, memos, minutes of meetings, instructions, email messages, assessment reports,
projects etc.knowledge of writing is important to access journals, magazines, books, bills,
letters, etc.The need to learn to write in English for academic and occupational purposesis
increasing.
In the field of education, writing plays a dominan role for writing projects,
assignments, examinations etc. in the Indian educational system, assessing academic
abilities is closely linked with proficiency in writing. In fact, writing is the only medium
through which learners are assessed formally in Schools, Colleges and Universities.
Written tests are administrated, even for job placements. Writing virtually has become the
tool for survival today. Certain jobs related to writing (content writing, technical writing,
editing, etc) are the highly paid in India today.
Not only is writing an important academic skill, but it is also an important skill that
translates into any career field. Since writing is used in all fields and jobs, it is a skill
that all students and workers should learn and become better at.Without writing the flow
of ideas halted shortly beyond the source. The importance of writing stems from the fact
that writing is the primary basis upon which communication, history, record keeping, and
art is begun. Writing is the frame work of our communication. We are encountered with
writing every day of our lives.Importance of Writing Skills in Students. Be it any field
or any profession, writing skill is required in some part of the journey in life. Moreover,
writing also facilitates a person to think better. When students learn how to write, he or
she becomes more capable of analyzing what they read, interpret, and think.
Effective writing skills:
Know your goal and state it clearly. ...
Tone can help your writing be more effective. ...
Explain in clear terms what you want the reader to do. ...
Language needs to be simple. ...
Less is more when it comes to length. ...
Using an active voice will strengthen your writing. ...
Good grammar and punctuation are very important.
Components of Writing:
Here are five steps towards creating or identifying your personal writing process.
*Prewriting_ You're ready to start ....
*Writing_Now you have your plan and you're ready to start writing. ...
*Revision_Your story can change a great deal during this stage. ...
*Editing_You have overhauled your story.
*Publishing.
Many people may be able to get by with two out of three, but the greats have all three.
These components are: Grammatical skill, compositional skill, and domain knowledge.
Audience&format:
Because focusing on audience will enhance your writing, your process, and your
finished product, you must consider the specific traits of your audience members. Use
your imagination to anticipate the readers‘ demographics, education, prior knowledge,
and expectations.
An audience is a group of readers who read a particular piece of writing.
Determining your Audience Type. Writers determine their audience types by considering:
Three Types of Audience.
Managerial Audience.
Academic Audiences.
Nonacademic Audiences
Format of writing:
Advertising is a type of communication whereby people promote or persuade
customers to utilize their services.

:
Composition &styles in writing skills:
Composition Writing Skills. To write a composition precisely, writers need to follow a
few basic steps. They should brush up their skills, including writing skill, understanding
skill, imagination skill, analyzing skill and others. They can focus on the structure and
style of the composition.
 Writing composition is adding words and making sentences by following a
conventional pattern. Students must follow the right grammatical rules while expressing
their ideas and opinions. In brief, it is an activity of writing, which is concerned with
handwriting, basic knowledge of language and spelling. Additionally, it includes
cognitive, meta-cognitive and other relevant aspects. However, writing composition is a
process that allows students to write about something or express their views on
something in an intelligible manner.

Styles
writing style is the manner of expressing thought in language characteristic of an
individual, period, school, or nation. Thus, style is a term that may refer, at one and the
same time, to both conventions that go beyond the individual writer and to singular
aspects of individual writing. Beyond the essential elements of spelling, grammar, and
punctuation, writing style in the choice of words, sentence structure, and paragraph
structure, used to convey the meaning effectively.
The former are referred to as rules, elements, essentials, mechanics, or handbook;
the latter are referred to as style, or rhetoric. The rules are about what a writer does;
style is about how the writer does it. While following the rules drawn from established
Englishusage, a writer has great flexibility in how to express a concept. The point
of good writing style is to express the message to the reader simply, clearly, and
convincingly. keep the reader attentive, engaged, and interested. not to display the
writer‘s personality. demonstrate the writer‘s skills, knowledge, or abilities although
these are usually evident and are what experts consider the writer‘s individual style.

TYPES OF WRITING STYLES

There are four main types of writing: expository, descriptive, persuasive, and
narrative. Each of these writing styles is used for a specific purpose. A single text may
include more than one writing style.

EXPOSITORY
Expository writing is one of the most common types of writing. When an author
writes in an expository style, all they are trying to do is explain a concept, imparting
information from themselves to a wider audience. Expository writing does not include the
author‘s opinions, but focuses on accepted facts about a topic, including statistics or other
evidence.

DESCRIPTIVE
Descriptive writing is often found in fiction, though it can make an appearance in
nonfiction as well (for example, memoirs, first-hand accounts of events, or travel guides).
When an author writes in a descriptive style, they are painting a picture in words of a
person, place, or thing for their audience. The author might employ metaphor or other
literary devices in order to describe the author‘s impressions via their five senses (what
they hear, see, smell, taste, or touch). But the author is not trying to convince the
audience of anything or explain the scene – merely describe things as they are.
PERSUASIVE
Persuasive writing is the main style of writing you will use in academic papers.
When an author writes in a persuasive style, they are trying to convince the audience of a
position or belief. Persuasive writing contains the author‘s opinions and biases, as well as
justifications and reasons given by the author as evidence of the correctness of their
position. Any ―argumentative‖ essay you write in school should be in the persuasive
style of writing.
NARRATIVE
Narrative writing is used in almost every longer piece of writing, whether fiction
or nonfiction. When an author writes in a narrative style, they are not just trying to impart
information, they are trying to construct and communicate a story, complete with
characters, conflict, and settings.
Structure of writing skills
Structure refers to the order of ideas; the progression of your writing should feel
smooth with similar points linked together. Structuring your work is a key aspect of good
academic writing ensuring that related sections are linked together and that the ideas and
arguments progress in a logical and orderly manner.

Grammatical error:
Effective writing does not contain errors. Here are some common grammatical
errors that people make:
Affect and effect - "Affect" means "to influence" and it is a verb, like "It affected
his work." "Effect" is a noun and means "result" like in "side effects."
Then and than - "Then" is an adverb which refers to a time, like "We ate and then
saw a movie". "Than" is used in a comparison and is a conjunction, like "My car is bigger
than yours."
Your and you're - "Your" is possessive, like "Is that your boat?" "You're" is a
contraction for "you are" like "You're so funny."
Its and it's - "Its" is possessive, like "Its shape is oval." "It's" is a contraction for
"it is" like "It's time to go."
 Company's and companies - "Company's" is possessive, like "The company's logo
is colorful." "Companies" is plural, like "He owns three companies."
There, their, and they're - "There" is an adverb meaning in or at that place, like
"There it is!" "Their" is the possessive form of the pronoun "they", like "Their hair was
soaked." "They're" is a contraction for "they are" like "They're going to get in trouble."
Hopefully these tips and information about proper grammar will help you make your
writing more effective.
Proofing & conclusion:
Writing is the most important skill in language teaching. Writing is one of the major
literary skills. Writing has to be taught to the students even though it is developed by
individuals. In this chapter discussed more about writing skills,defining writing, aim of
writing, functions of writing, purposes of writing, process of writing, sub-skills in
writing, micro-skills in writing, writing ability, importance of writing, writing as a
complex skill, characteristics of writing, approaches to teaching writing, kinds of writing,
forms of writing, teaching writing in the ESL classroom,use of writing skills, problems in
teaching and learning in writing.
Way improve writing skills:
Brush up on the basic principles of writing, grammar and spelling.
Write like it's your job and practice regularly.
Read more so you develop an eye for what effective writing looks like.
Find a partner.
Join a workshop or meetup.
Technical writing:
Technical writing is a type of writing where the author is writing about a particular
subject that requires direction, instruction, or explanation. This style of writing has a very
different purpose and different characteristics than other writing styles such as creative
writing, academic writing or business writing.
Uses for Technical Writing
Technical writing is straightforward, easy to understand explanations and/or
instructions dealing with a particular subject. It is an efficient and clear way of explaining
something and how it works.
The subject of technical writing can either be:
 Tangible - Something that can be seen or touched, such as a computer or software
program, or information on how to assemble a piece of furniture.
 Abstract - Something that involved a series of steps that aren't related to a
tangible object. One example of this might be steps required to complete an office
process.
Some examples of technical writing include:
 Instruction manuals
 Policy manuals
 Process manuals
 User manuals
 Reports of analysis
 Instructions for assembling a product
 A summarization of a long report that highlights and shortens the most
important elements
Tips for Good Technical Writing
Regardless of the type of document which is written, technical writing requires the
writer to follow the properties of knowing their audience, writing in a clear, non-personal
style and doing extensive research on the topic. By including these properties, the writer
can create clear instructions and explanations for the reader.
 Know your audience. An expert in the field will understand certain abbreviations,
acronyms, and lingo that directly applies to such a field. The novice will not
understand in the same manner and, therefore, every detail must be explained and
spelled out for them.
 Use an impersonal style. Write from a third person perspective, like a
teacher instructing a student. Any opinions should be omitted.
 The writing should be straightforward, to the point, and as simple as possible to
make sure the reader understands the process or instruction. This at times may
appear as simply a list of steps to take to achieve the desired goal or may be a short
or lengthy explanation of a concept or abstract idea.
 Know how to research. Gather information from a number of sources, understand
the information gathered so that it can be analyzed thoroughly, and then put the
information into an easy to understand format to instruct those who read it. The more
inexperienced your audience, the more information you will need to gather and
explain.
 Be thorough in description and provide enough detail to make your points; but,
you also have to consider that you need to use an economy of words so that you
do not bore your reader with gratuitous details.
A good technical writer can make a difficult task easy and can quickly explain a complex
piece of information.
Lec 7 Oral presentation skills – Basics of effective oral presentation : Planning ,
preparing (Introduction, Body and conclusion), Delivery, Body language
and Handling anxiety – Strategies for giving oral presentation

ORAL PRESENTATION:

An oral presentation is similar to giving a speech but is usually not just a person
behind a lectern. Visual aids and teaching tools are used to further enhance the spoken
words. An oral presentation can be given as an individual or as part of a group. It also
might add components of technology, such as a slide show, video clip or audio recording.
Another term for an oral presentation with technology or other aids is a multimedia
presentation, indicating that forms of media are being used. Most oral presentations
require the presenter to use a combination of spoken words and visual aids to present an
idea or explanation to their audience.

Oral presentations incorporate a variety of skills including intonation, eye-contact,

speech preparation and engaging an audience. The presenter learns to hone their public
speaking skills which includes keeping track of time and offering well-researched
information. The presenter might also learn multimedia skills as they prepares visual and
auditory aids for his presentation as well as research skills when studying the topic. If the
presentation takes place in the classroom setting, the additional skill of teaching others a
new subject is another benefit.

BASIC OF EFFECTIVE ORAL PRESENTATION:

The next phase towards improving your effective oral presentation skills is
organizing your thoughts. There are a number of steps to this process:

Step #1 Brainstorm main ideas. Use index cards or post it notes and only use one idea per
card.

Step #2 State the sub points. Ideally there should be between 2-5 sub points in your
presentation. Be specific using explanations, data and evidence to back up your points.

Step #3 State the benefits. Specifically state the benefits before and at the end of the body
of your presentation.

Step #4 Develop handouts. Handouts should reinforce important points, summarize

action items and include supporting data.

Step #5 Develop visual aids (PowerPoint slides, charts and graphs). Visual aids should be
used to focus the attention of your audience, reinforce the verbal message and to
stimulate interest. Keep in mind that effective presentations are people-centered, not
media-centered. Too many presentations rely on the media to carry the message. While
the media can certainly help, it‘s your interaction and rapport with the audience that
makes the difference between an effective or ineffective presentation.

Step #6 Main idea preview/review sentence (i.e. Tell them what you‘re going to tell
them, tell them, then tell them what you told them).

Step #7 Develop the introduction. Get the audience to focus their attention on you,
provide background information and introduce yourself – who you are and why you‘re
qualified.

Step #8 Develop the conclusion. Your conclusion should be persuasive like a ―call to
action‖. Spell out what specifically they need to do, when andhow.

PLANNING:

Planning your presentation is another component to becoming an effective

speaker and presenter. There are essentially two steps that should be followed prior to
delivering a presentation: 1) develop your objectives and 2) analyze your audience. In
preparation, one must identify the values, needs and constraints of the attendees and the
level of knowledge of the audience. For example, do not use slang, jargon, acronyms, or
technical terms without explanation. It should also be determined in advance ―what
will work‖ and ―what won‘t work‖. In other words, what will gain you the most
favorable reaction. In order to ascertain these items in advance, you should put yourself in
the shoes of the people who will be listening to your presentation.

PREPARING AND DELIVERY:

The delivery of your presentation is another key to a successful presentation. An

effective presentation should be delivered in the following sequence:

 Introduction
 Preview Sentence
 Main Ideas and Sub Ideas
 Benefits
 Review Sentence
 Conclusion

In order to come across to your audience as confident and persuasive, you should
consider the way you physically deliver your points to your audience. The following are
some helpful tips to help you achieve a level of confidence in delivering your
presentation
BODY LANGUAGE:
 Posture – Stand up straight, but avoid being stiff. Do not shift your weight from
side to side.
 Movement – Keep yourself at least 4-8 feet from the front row – don‘t pace!
 Gestures – Your presentation should be a form of animated conversation. Avoid
keeping your hands in your pockets or on your hips, crossing your arms or
wringing your hands.
 Eye Contact – Do not look at the back of the room or over their heads. Maintain
good eye contact to build rapport, trust and confidence.
 Using your Voice – Avoid being monotone which is generally caused by anxiety.
Also avoid talking too fast. When people are nervous, they sometimes trip on
their words. Be cognizant of your volume. Make sure that everyone can hear you.

At the conclusion of a presentation, there is generally a question and answer session

that should be prepared for in advance. To prepare for this last hurdle, you should
anticipate the questions that you could potentially be asked ahead of time. The key is to
prepare for the worst and rehearse your responses to such questions. The more you
prepare your answers the more well versed and confident you will be.

One tip you might employ during the question and answer session is to repeat the
question being asked. This will give you some additional time to prepare your response.
In general, we think five times faster than we speak! Whatever you do, it is important that
you maintain your style. If you don‘t know the answer to the question you are being
asked, be honest and say that you don‘t know but that you will find out. Remember to
really listen to the questions, do not interrupt and make sure that you stay focused on the
individual asking the question. Finally, don‘t forget to thank your audience for all of their
excellent question.

HANDLING:

 Don‘t read your presentation word-for-word from a script or from PowerPoint

slides - listening to someone read aloud is boring for an audience. Aim to talk
instead.
 Written and spoken language are different. Use appropriate language; generally a
formal but conversational tone is best (avoid slang or colloquial language).
 Speak clearly and at a moderate pace. Don‘t rush; nervous speakers tend to speed
up, so try to pace yourself.
 Slow down to emphasise key points.
 Don‘t be afraid to pause. Short pauses can add emphasis to important points and
give you a chance to collect your thoughts.
 Make eye contact with your audience. Don‘t just look at your tutor or stare off
into space. A good technique is to divide the room into three sections (left, middle
and right) and sweep your eyes across the audience. If you don‘t want to look
anyone in the eye, look at a point in the middle of their foreheads.

 Keep your body turned toward the audience and your body language open and
friendly.
ANXIETY:

 One of the most important techniques you can apply to become a more confident
and effective speaker is to reduce anxiety. If implemented, the following tips
could help reduce your anxiety
 Organize – Focus on your presentation.
 Visualize – Mentally rehearse a perfect presentation with questions and answers.
 Practice – Standing up, out loud, using visual aids. Obtain feedback from others.
 Breathe – Sit up or stand erect, not relaxed. Inhale deeply a number of times.
 Focus on Relaxing!
 Release Tension – Try isometric exercises. Tighten and release your muscles.
Start with toes and end with fists.
 Move – Flex your muscles – don‘t lock! Use a cordless microphone.
 Eye Contact with the Audience – Think one on one. Connect with the audience
and make yourself personable. Use the feedback and energy you receive from
your audience.

Strategies for giving oral presentation

An oral presentation is more than just reading a paper or set of slides to an
audience. How you deliver your presentation is at least as important in effectively
communicating your message as what you say. Use these guidelines to learn
simple tools that help you prepare and present an effective presentation, and
design PowerPoint slides that support and enhance your talk.

Preparing an Effective Presentation

An effective presentation is more than just standing up and giving information.

A presenter must consider how best to communicate the information to the
audience. Use these tips to create a presentation that is both informative and
interesting:
 Organize your thoughts. Start with an outline and develop good transitions
between sections. Emphasize the real-world significance of your research.
 Have a strong opening. Why should the audience listen to you? One good
way to get their attention is to start with a question, whether or not you expect
an answer.
 Define terms early. If you are using terms that may be new to the audience,
introduce them early in your presentation. Once an audience gets lost in
unfamiliar terminology, it is extremely difficult to get them back on track.
 Finish with a bang. Find one or two sentences that sum up the importance
of your research. How is the world better off as a result of what you have done?
 Design PowerPoint slides to introduce important information. Consider
doing a presentation without PowerPoint. Then consider which points you
cannot make without slides. Create only those slides that are necessary to
improve your communication with the audience.
 Time yourself. Do not wait until the last minute to time your presentation.
You only have 15 minutes to speak, so you want to know, as soon as possible,
if you are close to that limit.
 Create effective notes for yourself. Have notes that you can read. Do not
write out your entire talk; use an outline or other brief reminders of what you
want to say. Make sure the text is large enough that you can read it from a
distance.
 Practice, practice, practice. The more you practice your presentation, the
more comfortable you will be in front of an audience. Practice in front of a
friend or two and ask for their feedback. Record yourself and listen to it
critically. Make it better and do it again.
PowerPoint Tips

Microsoft PowerPoint is a tremendous tool for presentations. It is also a tool

that is sometimes not used effectively. If you are using PowerPoint, use these tips
to enhance your presentation:
 Use a large font. As a general rule, avoid text smaller than 24 point.
 Use a clean typeface. Sans serif typefaces, such as Arial, are generally
easier to read on a screen than serif typefaces, such as Times New Roman.
 Use bullet points, not complete sentences. The text on your slide provides an
outline to what you are saying. If the entire text of your presentation is on your
slides, there is no reason for the audience to listen to you. A common standard is
the 6/7 rule: no more than six bulleted items per slide and no more than seven
words per item.
 Use contrasting colors. Use a dark text on a light background or a light text
on a dark background. Avoid combinations of colors that look similar. Avoid
red/green combinations, as this is the most common form of color blindness.
 Use special effects sparingly. Using animations, cool transition effects,
sounds and other special effects is an effective way to make sure the audience
notices your slides. Unfortunately, that means that they are not listening to what
you are saying. Use special effects only when they are necessary to make a
point.
Presenting Effectively

When you start your presentation, the audience will be interested in what you say.
Use these tips to help keep them interested throughout your presentation:
 Be excited. You are talking about something exciting. If you remember to
be excited, your audience will feel it and automatically become more interested.
 Speak with confidence. When you are speaking, you are the authority on
your topic, but do not pretend that you know everything. If you do not know the
answer to a question, admit it. Consider deferring the question to your mentor
or offer to look into the matter further.
 Make eye contact with the audience. Your purpose is to communicate with
your audience, and people listen more if they feel you are talking directly to
them. As you speak, let your eyes settle on one person for several seconds
 before moving on to somebody else. You do not have to make eye contact with
everybody, but make sure you connect with all areas of the audience equally.
 Avoid reading from the screen. First, if you are reading from the screen,
you are not making eye contact with your audience. Second, if you put it on
your slide, it is because you wanted them to read it, not you.
 Blank the screen when a slide is unnecessary. A slide that is not related to
what you are speaking about can distract the audience. Pressing the letter B or
the period key displays a black screen, which lets the audience concentrate
solely on your words. Press the same key to restore the display.
 Use a pointer only when necessary. If you are using a laser pointer,
remember to keep it off unless you need to highlight something on the screen.
 Explain your equations and graphs. When you display equations, explain
them fully. Point out all constants and dependent and independent variables.
With graphs, tell how they support your point. Explain the x- and y-axes and
show how the graph progresses from left to right.
 Pause. Pauses bring audible structure to your presentation. They emphasize
important information, make transitions obvious, and give the audience time to
catch up between points and to read new slides. Pauses always feel much longer
to speakers than to listeners. Practice counting silently to three (slowly)
between points.
 Avoid filler words. Um, like, you know, and many others. To an audience,
these are indications that you do not know what to say; you sound
uncomfortable, so they start to feel uncomfortable as well. Speak slowly
enough that you can collect your thoughts before moving ahead. If you really
do not know what to say, pause silently until you do.
 Relax. It is hard to relax when you are nervous, but your audience will be
much more comfortable if you are too.
 Breathe. It is fine to be nervous. In fact, you should be all good presenters
are nervous every time they are in front of an audience. The most effective way
to keep your nerves in check aside from a lot of practice before hand is to
remember to breathe deeply throughout your presentation.
 Acknowledge the people who supported your research. Be sure to thank the
people who made your research possible, including your mentor, research team,
collaborators, and other sources of funding and support.
Lec 8 Field diary – Definition – Components to be included – Parts of field diary
– Field diary in social sciences

Definition:
Fieldnotes refer to qualitative notes recorded by scientists or researchers in the course
of field research, during or after their observation of a specific phenomenon they are
studying. The notes are intended to be read as evidence that gives meaning and aids in the
understanding of the phenomenon.
Refers to notes created by the researcher during the act of qualitative fieldwork to
remember and record the behaviors, activities, events, and other features of an
observation. Field notes are intended to be read by the researcher as evidence to produce
meaning and an understanding of the culture, social situation, or phenomenon being
studied. The notes may constitute the whole data collected for a research study [e.g., an
observational project] or contribute to it, such as when field notes supplement
conventional interview data.
Components of Field diary:
Fieldnotes can also include sketches, diagrams, and other drawings. Visually
capturing a phenomenon requires the observer to pay more attention to every detail as to
not overlook anything.
Parts of Field diary:
However, all field notes generally consist of two parts:
Descriptive information: in which you attempt to accurately document factual data [e.g.,
date and time] and the settings, actions, behaviors, and conversations that you observe;
and,
Reflective information: in which you record your thoughts, ideas, questions, and
concerns as you are conducting the observation.
Field notes should be fleshed out as soon as possible after an observation is completed.
Your initial notes may be recorded in cryptic form and, unless additional detail is added
as soon as possible after the observation, important facts and opportunities for fully
interpreting the data may be lost.
Field diary in social science:
The purpose of a field report in the social sciences is to describe the observation of
people, places, and/or events and to analyze that observation data in order to identify and
categorize common themes in relation to the research problem underpinning the study.
Field reports are most often assigned in disciplines of the applied social sciences
[e.g., social work, anthropology, gerontology, criminal justice, education, law, the health
care professions] where it is important to build a bridge of relevancy between the
theoretical concepts learned in the classroom and the practice of actually doing the work
you are being taught to do. Field reports are also common in certain science disciplines
[e.g., geology] but these reports are organized differently and serve a different purpose
than what is described below.
Professors will assign a field report with the intention of improving your
understanding of key theoretical concepts through a method of careful and structured
observation of, and reflection about, people, places, or phenomena existing in their
natural settings. Field reports facilitate the development of data collection techniques and
observation skills and they help you to understand how theory applies to real world
situations. Field reports are also an opportunity to obtain evidence through methods of
observing professional practice that contribute to or challenge existing theories.
We are all observers of people, their interactions, places, and events; however, your
responsibility when writing a field report is to create a research study based on data
generated by the act of designing a specific study, deliberate observation, a synthesis of
key findings, and an interpretation of their meaning.

Examples of Things to Document While Observing

Physical setting. The characteristics of an occupied space and the human use of the place
where the observation(s) are being conducted.
Objects and material culture. This refers to the presence, placement, and arrangement
of objects that impact the behavior or actions of those being observed. If applicable,
describe the cultural artifacts representing the beliefs--values, ideas, attitudes, and
assumptions--used by the individuals you are observing.
Use of language. Don't just observe but listen to what is being said, how is it being said,
and, the tone of conversation among participants.
Behavior cycles. This refers to documenting when and who performs what behavior or
task and how often they occur. Record at which stage is this behavior occurring within
the setting.
The order in which events unfold. Note sequential patterns of behavior or the moment
when actions or events take place and their significance.
Physical characteristics of subjects. If relevant, note age, gender, clothing, etc. of
individuals being observed.
Expressive body movements. This would include things like body posture or facial
expressions. Note that it may be relevant to also assess whether expressive body
movements support or contradict the language used in conversation [e.g., detecting
sarcasm].
Brief notes about all of these examples contextualize your observations; however,
your observation notes will be guided primarily by your theoretical framework, keeping
in mind that your observations will feed into and potentially modify or alter these
frameworks.
Lec 9 Lab record : Definition –Importance of keeping a lab record - Features of
a lab record - Contents of lab record – Guidelines for keeping a lab record

LAB RECORDS:
Laboratory notebooks are the means for keeping a permanent record of the details
of an individual‘s day-to-day research and development work in the laboratory or office.
They provide a basic reference which the individual and others can refer to a later date;
legal evidence with respect to the materials recorded, such as conception of an invention
and the date thereof or date of reduction to practice and test results; in some instances are
required for compliance with the provisions in many grant and contractual arrangements.

A laboratory notebook is a primary record of research. Researchers use a lab

notebook to document their hypotheses, experiments and initial analysis or interpretation
of these experiments. The notebook serves as an organizational tool, a memory aid, and
can also have a role in protecting any intellectual property that comes from the research.

Importance of keeping a lab records:

An inventor is the person who contributes to the conception of the invention.
Therefore, it is important that the scientist captures his/her ideas/conception of an
invention in written format. Laboratory notebooks, if used properly, can serve as the basis
of conception for proving inventorship.

For proper support of patenting application, good record keeping must have been done in
the form of lab notebooks with appropriate witnessing. There are dos and don‘ts in best
practices for NIH scientists to follow for keeping lab records and notebooks:

Do:

 use a bound notebook

 write legibly
 write in ink
 explain acronyms, trademarks, code or unfamiliar jargon
 attach to your lab notebook loose notes, emails, letters, graphs, figures and charts
containing any part of conception of an idea or result of an experiment
 title, sign and date each attachment, as well as each laboratory notebook page
 record the objective of an experiment as well as the results obtained in as much
detail as possible
 have at least one non-inventor person who is familiar with your field sign and
date each page, stating that he/she has ―read and understood‖ your work
 record thoughts, conversations, lab meeting discussions, contractor oral
reports and discussions, as well as wild speculations and future plans
  write in the active voice
 report completed experiments in the past tense
 give cross references to previous experiments and/or projects
 use a table of contents to provide cross references
 keep your lab notebook under lock and key when you are not in the lab
 track and save completed lab notebooks

Do not:

1. use binders, loose leaf or spiral notebooks

2. blot out or erase mistakes
3. modify the data
4. rip pages out
5. skip pages
6. leave a page blank
7. cover any writings in the notebook by affixing graphs and/or charts over them
8. write in the passive voice
9. use words such as ―obvious‖ or ―abandoned‖ as they have tremendous
legal significance

Features of lab records:

Record keeping of laboratory activities is an essential requirement under Good

Documentary Practices (GDP). An earlier article covered the importance of keeping
record of all laboratory activities. A laboratory notebook is a record of experimental
activities. In addition to the results a notebook includes following details:

 Calculations
 Experimental conditions
 Observations
 Weight records
 Support data such as chromatograms, spectra, etc
The backup data available in the laboratory notebook is of use in case a recheck of
obtained values becomes necessary. In such cases you can refer to the earlier conditions
under which a particular analysis was carried out.

Content of lab records:

 Data should be recorded honestly and concurrently

 Overwriting is not acceptable. Wrong entries should be crossed with a single line
and correct entries made after putting initials and date over the corrected entries
  Changes in any standard test procedure should bear authentication of authorized
persons
 Weighing records, absorbance readings, etc should be preserved in notebook or
under reference in the data folder
 Entries should be made with indelible ink and under no circumstances should
pencil entries be permitted
 It is illegal to make post dated or back dated entries in the notebook.
Issue and control of laboratory notebooks

 Each laboratory note notebook should be issued by laboratory incharge or quality

assurance department and should be uniform in shape and size
 Pages should be serially numbered so that no page can be removed
 Enough space should be provided to show calculations alongside the entered data
 No one should be permitted to take a laboratory notebook out of the laboratory
premises
 On completion each notebook should be returned to section in charge and only
thereafter a fresh notebook should be issued. The section in charge should maintain
a record of notebooks issued and received back

Guidelines for keeping a lab records:

On leaving a job the notebook in possession of the analyst should be returned to the
section The guidelines for lab notebooks vary widely between institution and between
individual labs, but some guidelines are fairly common, for example, like those in the
reference.[3] The lab notebook is typically permanently bound and pages are numbered.
Dates are given as a rule. All entries are with a permanent writing tool, e.g., a ballpoint
pen (though a permanent marker may be undesirable, as the ink might bleed through
multiple pages). The lab notebook is usually written as the experiments progress, rather
than at a later date.
In many laboratories, it is the original place of record of data (no copying is carried out
from other notes) as well as any observations or insights. For data recorded by other
means (e.g., on a computer), the lab notebook will record that the data was obtained and
the identification of the data set will be given in the notebook. [4] Many adhere to the
concept that a lab notebook should be thought of as a diary of activities that are described
in sufficient detail to allow another scientist to replicate the steps. In laboratories with
several staff and a common laboratory notebook, entries in the notebook are signed by
those making them.
 Lecture 11 - Indexing – Definition – Importance – Types of indexing with
advantages and limitations
In general, indexing refers to the organization of data according to a specific schema
or plan. In IT, the term has various similar uses including, among other things, making
information more presentable and accessible.
―Indexing‖ is a theory of news content and press-state relations first formulated
as the ―indexing hypothesis.‖ ... Indexing theory thus attempts to predict the nature of the
content of news about political and policy topics.
Importance of Indexing
Digital Index. Digital indexing is a way of finding documents but on a computer
system, not in an office. Businesses use software to help file records,
and indexinginvolves titling files and adding keywords. File names
are important because they must be searchable.
Index is not something publishers put at the end of the book because of tradition.
It is included to help readers locate important information contained in the text. Indexes
should support all levels of user subject experience.

Book Index/Page Index

A book or page index involves a large bound volume set up alphabetically. It
looks like a large version of an address book with the alphabet laid out on the right side
of the index. This makes it easy to open the book to the right section. The records are
notated within the book and state where each is located in the office. The files can be
filed by name of the client, of their business, or however is easiest to remember. The
system should be uniform throughout/

Card Index
Card indexing is usually seen in large libraries. The records are notated on strong
quality cards of a uniform size, then filed in a cabinet in an order specific to the business.
The cards can be filed alphabetically or numerically (i.e. invoice numbers). This allows
for constant adding of records over time, because the cards can be added to the original
set without any issues. Card indexing uses individual and unattached cards so the card
can be pulled out of the file and put back when needed.

Strip Index
Strip indexing is a rarer form of indexing. Visualize a set of small strips on card
stock, placed so each is visible. These strips are then attached on the left by binding
string/ribbon or metal rings. This will make all records visible instead of having to thumb
through them. The strip index can hang up on a wall. This also means that this system
cannot carry as much information on the strip. The records can be indexed per the
business need, alphabetically or numerically would be find
Rotary Index
A rotary index is the classic style that you see in the image above. It is similar to
the card index but placed in a simple wheel, so the numeric or alphabetic filing system on
top of the cards is visible. Rotaries can contain many files, and cards can be added as
more records are created. Since most sit atop desks, rotary indexes are cumbersome, but
they make records accessible to everyone.
Advantages

 Speed up SELECT query

 Helps to make a row unique or without duplicates(primary,unique)
 If index is set to fill-text index, then we can search against large string values. for
example to find a word from a sentence etc.

Disadvantages

 Indexes take additional disk space.

 Indexes slow down INSERT,UPDATE and DELETE, but will speed up UPDATE
if the WHERE condition has an indexed field. INSERT, UPDATE and DELETE
becomes slower because on each operation the indexes must also be updated.
Lecture 12 - Footnote and Bibliographic procedure : Footnote system of citation ;
Bibliographic procedures : Citation in Text, Citation in Journal, Citation from
Book(One author / Multiple authors), Citation from an Edited Book, Citation of
Seminar/Conference Proceedings, Citation from Institutional Publication, Citing
Government Publications, Abbreviations for Names of Journals, Paraphrasing,
Abbreviations in citations (Art of publication)
CITATION STYLE GUIDE
The following examples were formatted using Endnote software. They are in the
style proposed in

A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations, by Kate L.

Turabian, sixth edition, revised by John Grossman and Alice Bennett, 1996. A copy of
the Manual is available at the Reference Desk for further consultation, as are the manuals
for several other styles. You may want to ask your professor which style is preferred.
 Note the differences between the format for a footnote and the format for a
bibliography entry.
 The first footnote citation to an item should be a full reference, but later citations
to the same item may be shortened in the style shown at the end of this guide.
 If you are using parenthetical citations instead of footnotes, the list of works
cited is called the reference list, and the entries are in a different format

Footnote (Important points in the form of notes)

Footnotes are the notes meant for the simplification of a view point. This means
that a particular point of expression or quotation, citation of sources, acknowledgement or
authority / comments are explained separately from the body of the written text or in
other words it is also known as explanatory notes. It is therefore, generally used in
explaining quotations or points/text which may or may not be necessary for the
immediate matter but still holds a value added supplementary content/ information. It is
also used to acknowledge the source of information one has taken or what is called your
copyright permission footnotes.
Footnotes are generally placed at the bottom of the page on which the quotation or
text is given or appeared. The footnotes should be written with proper references based
on the nature of sources, authors, page numbers etc. Some people use endnotes instead of
footnotes on a separate page at the end of everything else.i.e. after the references.

Some important points/format in the writing up of footnotes are:

• The note number should be recorded successively in a superscripted form
• Notes are written single spaced while, the first line is always indented upto five spaces
• The space/distance between two notes are doubled spacing
• A space is maintained between the footnotes and the text usually by a typed line.

Let us have a look at this image of footnote:

 This shows two sections, one is the text/content and other is the footnote divided
by a typed line. In the body of the text, we observe note numbers which are successively
recorded as 1,2,3 and 4 in a superscripted form. Now, at the bottom of the page, notes are
written in single spacing while double spacing is reported in between the notes. You also
might have noticed the abbreviations such as ibid, op.cit, etc. In a piece of work, if the
very next quotation is again cited from the same source which has already mentioned in
the previous quotation/note number then one uses the abbreviation ibid followed by a
page reference. While, op.cit, is used when the first quotation or note is referenced fully
in the endnote and this source is again used for citation in the same work. This is also
meant short referencing in the work already quoted. Ibid and op.cit, are always followed
by page number or numbers represented by p or pp.
However, recent trend in writing footnotes and also end notes avoided to use the
Latin terms ibid and op.cit instead, it is becoming more common to use the author‘s last
name or short title or any basic minimal information in case of the absence of author‘s
name. And each of the entry is considered as one sentence or statement.
The whole idea of using footnotes is very common and recommended in the MLA
(Modern Language Association) Style Guide while APA does not encourage for it. The
use of ibid and op.citis not considered in the APA Style Guide as in-text citation (source
of information being provided in the text of the write up particularly author name and
year of publication) is the mandate referencing style of it and referring to the same source
can be done without the year of publication in the succeeding information however, upon
the beginning of a new paragraph, author‘s name and year of publication is required to be
used in the in-text citation.
Reference (lists of sources used in a paper or a report)
It is often misunderstood as the simplest or difficult task of recording all the
significant sources or literatures one has worked in relation to a particular topic. In real
sense, it is not that muchsimple or difficult but the product of regular practise where the
students need to be well structured and diligent. For this, they need to find out the
suggested format and follow a style guide to report the sources or citations mentioned in
the report for developing a systematic way of keeping records of sources efficiently and
effectively which will allow in authentication as well as credibility of the work without
having any controversies of plagiarism.
Referencing is a good academic training to acknowledge the sources properly,
referring the work of people also help in generating new ideas, gaining efficiency,
strengthening one‘s arguments on a particular piece of work. But when referencing the
sources, should we reference every sourcethat we have read. We should use referencing
each time whenever we read a source and referred something using a direct quote or
words from a source and paraphrases meaning that putting someone‘s idea into our own
words. And also, all the referencing should be kept in the reference list.
References generally appeared in the form of a list at the end of the papers (in
case of articles) or reports (in case of a research study). The nature of position and its
representation varies from one style guide to another. For example APA (American
Psychological Association) style of referencing is different from the MLA (Modern
Language Association) style of referencing. First step for learning referencing is
familiarisation of a particular style guide so that you do not have problems in the future
while following a prescribed style of referencing. Let us take APA style as one for your
practise and try to understand the rules/format of referencing given under it.

Some important points for writing references: (APA style Guide)

• Reference list should be entered in alphabetic order.
• Authors' names are inverted i.e. last name is written first. Initials are abbreviated and
used punctuations accordingly. If the authors are more than seven, first six would be
listed and then would use ellipses and at the end after the ellipses the last author would be
listed.
• Year of publication should be entered just after the authors‘ names followed by titles of
the book, book chapters, journal articles, webpages, magazines etc.
• All major words in journal titles should be capitalized.
• Capitalization is only for the first letter of the first word of the title and subtitle and
proper nouns. Capitalization is not done for the first letter of the second word in a
hyphenated word in case of referencing books, articles, book chapters, or webpages or of
nay sources.
• Books and journal titles should be italicized including the volume number in case of the
Journals.
• The titles of shorter works such as journal articles or essays in edited collections should
not be italicised or quoted. Instead, italicization is done for the title of the edited
collections.
• Referencing different articles by the same or multiple authors are listed in order by the
year of publication, beginning with the first.

Let us discuss at the work sheet provided to understand the referencing format of APA
Style:
Recommended format
Single Author Book:
• Kavoori , P. (1999). Pastoralism in expansion: The transhumant herders of
Western Rajasthan. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.

Two authors book:

• Gadgil,M. &Guha, R. (1992). This fissured land: An ecological history of India. Delhi:
Oxford University Press. [ use ampersand (&) , not and in writing authors more than one
however, it should be ―and‖ in case of in-text citation. i.e. when you refer the
authors‘ name in the body of the text ]

Articles in Periodicals:
• Kuehn, B. M. (2005).Experts charge new US dietary guidelines pose daunting challenge
for the public. JAMA (Journal of the American Medical Association), 293 (8), 918-920.

[Journal title is italicised along with the volume number. In case of APA style guide
pagination is done without p/pp.]
If a student has difficulty in following and writing the full references, he/she may jot
down only the short references. For example:
Kuehn, B. M. (2005).
However, this is only for the first time learners and is not encouraged rather go
through the examples and analyse it carefully, practise frequently and you will gain
familiarity with the format of referencing. Once you are familiar with a particular
format/style guide, you will be able to pick up any of the referencing style conveniently.
Each of the references recorded in the list at the end of the article/report is the
detailed account of the citations/quotations which was mentioned in the body of the text.
We need to make sure that the necessary information is included and correct to the best
level of knowledge meaning thereby that no discrepancy is surfaced. Now, let us try to
practise/analyse a particular format of referencing a book source which is going to be
helpful in familiarising on what we include in reference. They are:
• The author(s)/ Editor(s) (ed.)
• The author‘s initials
• Title ( subtitle , if present)
• Year/Date of Publication
• Place of publication
• The publisher

In case of Journal articles, we may note the elements such as :

• The author(s)
• The author‘s initials
• Title of the article ( subtitle , if present)
• Year of Publication
• Name of the journal
• The volume and issue number of the journal
• The starting and ending page numbers

Once it is noted, you would become familiarise to arrange the points in relation to the
particular prescribed format which is supposed to be followed.

Bibliography (science of listing books)

Bibliographyis the representation of a list of sources (books, journals, websites,
periodicals, etc.) which includes information such as author, title, year of publication;
publishing house/publisher etc. These sources are the one which a researcher used for
researching a topic. This has got similarity with references or sometimes used as
references however, the two terminologies are different in ideas and also in
representation. References are the listing of those sources which are referred in the text or
body of the paper or what is called in text-citation.
Thus, those references mentioned inside the text particularly in the form of
quotations and paraphrases mentioning page numbers would be compulsorily listed in the
references however, the sources enlisted in the bibliography may or may not be part of
such references referred inside the text but remain relevant to the research topic. It is
thereforethe listing of all sources you have read including those you made references
inside the text. And the listing format of bibliography remain same with the above
discussed examples of referencing but the differences in between the two (references and
bibliography) is in the enlisting of sources only.
Appendix
It is the information which cannot be included in the main body of a write up but
need to be explained or provided at the end in case of any requirement. In other words, it
is the extra information provided to the reader for the purpose of detail knowledge
generation. Appendices are the materials/information which are too detailed, technical or
complex one has used or referred but not always remain essential as part of the main
body of the report. Appendices are listed in detail at the very end of the report which can
be numbered clearly for convenience. The numbered appendices can be referred within
the parenthesis inside the text.
It can be tables, questionnaire, data, figures,maps,local terminologies, or jargons
related to the study topic which has already referred inside the text.
Suppose, you are reading a report or a book and a representative table is analysed in the
text or main body, you may get the details of the data present in the table in the form of
questionnaires/schedules at the end of the report as appendix where, good numbers of
questions are set to gather the reported data in the table. This generally answers lot of
queries of the readers or provided a good source of knowledge for related studies.
So, an appendix is the organised way of putting supplementary information that
will provide a scope to the reader in understanding the material presented. The first step
for making appendix is the systematic categorisation of the information. Next task is the
naming of the appendix. If there is a single appendix, it may be titled as Appendix or
Appendix A and if it is more than one,
appendices can be Appendix A, Appendix B, Appendix C… and so on.
After the finalisation of appendices, each appendix should be kept on its
own separate pages. We should also try to follow the style we use in the
main part of the text in order to maintain a consistency. One can use
different font styles in the body but the major headings should be kept not
below 7 points.
Conclusion
The way in which researchers and academicians use scientific
writings to incorporate various elements are discussed in this module
and this can be considered as the tip of a highly standardised self-
conscious and reflexive domain of understanding writing up process of
any essay or paper. The above descriptions and illuminations of the
scientific terminologies of research write-up are in fact the powerhouse
of gaining the credibility and efficiency of the overall product of
a researching topic or a paper. All these are the representative body to
show the relevance of what has been studied and recorded in answering
a statement of problem. These are the points where, one can think of
establishing or exploring new ideas or theories or in a way a lighted
bulb to develop new avenues for study.