MOHAN BABU UNIVERSITY

THEORY

AEX 201 Communication Skills and Personality Development

EXTN-291 (1+1)

COURSE TEACHER
Dr. Golla Ravi

Department of Agricultural Extension

 EXTN - 291 Communication Skills and Personality Development (1+1 )

Theory
Communication Skills: meaning and process of communication, verbal and nonverbal communication;
listening
and note taking, writing skills, oral presentation skills; field diary and lab record; indexing, footnote and
bibliographic procedures. Reading and comprehension of general and technical articles, precise writing,
summarizing, abstracting; individual and group presentations, impromptu presentation, public speaking;
Group
discussion. Organizing seminars and conferences.
Module I Communication Skills: meaning and process of communication, verbal and
nonverbal communication
Module II Listening and note taking, writing skills, oral presentation skills; field diary and lab
record; indexing, footnote and bibliographic procedures.
Module III Reading and comprehension of general and technical articles, precise writing,
summarizing, abstracting
Module IV Individual and group presentations, impromptu presentation, public speaking

Module V Group discussion. Organizing seminars and conferences.

Referecnce G.L. Ray and Sagar mondal. 2010. Journalism –Farm journalism and communication skills.
Kalyani publishers. Sagar Mondal. 2016. Agricultural extension , Kalyani publishers G. L. Ray 2007
Extension Communication and Management , Kalyani publishers Communication and Instructional
Technology, By: Indu Grover, Shusma Kaushik, Lali Yadav, Deepak Grover & Shashikanta Verma Indu
Grover, Lali Yadav & Deepak Grover Extension Management, Agrotech Everett Rogers, and
FloydShoemaker, Communication of Innovation – a Cross Cultural Approach, New York Free Press.
Knapp, Mark L., & Hall, Judith A .(2007) Nonverbal Communication in Human Interaction. (8th ed.)
Wadsworth: Thomas Learning.
Kathleen M. German, Bruce E Gronbeck Principles of Public Speaking
e- Referecnce
1. www.managementstudyguide.com
2. www.ajms.co.in
3. www.mindtools.com
 Module -1

Lec 1 Communication – meaning and process –Functions and Types of

communication

COMMUNICATION
Origin
The world ‗Communications‘ comes from the Latin word ‗ communis’, meaning
common. This implies that when we communicate, we are trying to establish
‗Commonality‘ with someone through a message. Communication, then, is a conscious
attempt to establish commonality over some idea, fact, feelings and the like, with others.
In essence, it is a process of getting a source and a receiver tuned together for a particular
message or a series of messages.

DEFINITIONS OF COMMUNICATION
 Communication is anything that conveys meaning, that carries a message from one
person to another‘ [Brooker, 1949]
 Communication is a process by which two or more people exchange ideas, facts,
feelings, or impressions in ways that each gains a common understanding of meaning,
intent and use of message.[ Leagans, 1961]
 Communication may be defined as a process by which an individual – the
communicator, transmits (usually verbal symbols) to modify the behaviour of other
individuals Communicates‘. [Hovland,1964]
 Communication has as its central interest those behavioural situations in which a
source transmits a message to a receiver(s) with conscious intent to affect the latter‘s
behaviour‘. [ Miller,1966]
 Communication is the process of affecting an interchange of understanding between
two or more people‘. [Thayer,1968]
 Communication is a purposeful process, which involves sources, messages, channels,
and receivers‘. [ Andersch et al, 1968].
 Communication is the process by which the messages are transmitted from the source
to the receiver.[Rogers,1983]
 Communication is the process by which messages are transferred from a source to
receiver (Rogers and Shoemaker, 1971).

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 Communication is the process of sending and receiving messages through channels
which establishes common meanings between a source and a receiver (Van den Ban
and Hawkins, 1988).

FUNCTION OF COMMUNICATION
Communication has four basic functions
1) Information function: The basic requirement of adapting and adjusting oneself to
the environment is information. There must be some information which concerns the
people. The getting or giving of information underlies all communication functions,
either directly or indirectly.
2) Command or instructive function: Those who are hierarchically superior, in the
family, society or organization, often initiate communication either for the purpose of
informing their subordinates or for the purpose of telling them, what to do, how to do,
when to do etc. The command and instructive functions of communication are more
observable in formal organizations.
3) Influence or persuasive function: According to Berlo (1960), the sole purpose of
communication is to influence people, persuasive function of communication is
extremely important for extension in changing their behavior in the desirable
direction.
4) Integrative function: A major function of communication is integration at the
interpersonal or at the organizational level. This helps to maintain individual, societal
or organizational stability and identity.
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
Types of communication may be different according to media and means adopted.
Communication is the flow of messages from communicator to the receiver. The
organization is concerned with flow of communication. As such, it may flow by words,
letters, symbols or messages. Thus, the total communication set up is broadly classified
as follows:
According to organizational structure and function
a. Formal
b. Informal
According to the directions of flow
c.Downward communication
d.Upward communications
e.Horizontal Communication or lateral communication or cross wise
Communication

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2. According to way of expression
a. Oral or verbal communication
b. Written communication or black and white communication
c. Non-verbal communication

I. ACCORDING TO ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE

a. Formal communication
When information is transmitted by virtue of one‘s status, placement in the
organization it is termed as formal communication. It flows through officially prescribed
route in which there are officially recognized positions. E.g.: Executive instructs his
subordinates. It is a two way communication
b. Informal or grapevine communication
When an informal channel is used to communicate it is termed as grapevine or
informal communication. It is information communication network formed out of
personal relationship, social and group relations but not out of position of line of
authority, superior and Subordinate or based on organisational hierarchy. IT IS A QUICK
VEHICLE FOR MESSAGE. E.g.: RUMOURS Informal communication may be
conveyed by a simple glance, gesture, smile or mere silence.

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II. ACCORDING TO DIRECTION OF FLOW
a. Down ward communication
When information comes from higher level to a lower level in the orgnisation
structure, it is termed as downward communication. E.g. Information passes through
written orders, reports, rules, Instructions, manuals, policy directives etc,
Down ward communication is needed
 To get things done
 To prepare for changes
 To discourage misinformation and suspicion
 To let the people feel the pride of being relatively well informed.
b. Up ward communication
Whenever information moves from a lower level to a higher level in the
organization it is named as upward communication. Through this, executives can know
the activities and progress achieved by their subordinates.
c. Horizontal communication / side ways / lateral / crosswise /inter scalar
communication
A communication is said to be horizontal when it takes place between two
subordinates of the same superior.
III. ACCORDING TO THE WAY OF EXPRESSION
a. Verbal or oral communication
The process is a face to face conversation through oral words or words of mouth.
It is the most widely practiced medium of communication
b. Written Communication
The process involves sending message by written words. Media for written
communication are letters, circulars, notes, explanation and memorandum.
c. Non – Verbal communication
One of the multimedia of communication is non-verbal communication or
communication by implication. Communicating a message without using arbitrary
symbols i.e., words or meaning of words is termed as ‗non-verbal communication or
word-less communication. Non – verbal messages consists of hidden messages. It is the
cues which convey message. These messages are necessarily wordless or non-verbal,
conveyed through without resorting to words or meaning of words, but conveyed through
other media like spatial, Kinesics, oral cues, objective language, action etc., Kinesics is
the most generally used medium of non-verbal communication. Non – Verbal
communication includes all messages other than those expressed in oral or written words.
Smile symbolizes friendliness, in much the same way as cordiality is expressed in words.

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ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION
I. The Communicator
This is the person who starts the process of communication in operation. He is the source
or originator of messages. He is the sender of messages. He is the first to give expression
to message intended to reach an audience in a manner that results in correct interpretation
and desirable response. When a communicator does not hold the confidence of his
audience, communication as conceived will not take place.

Characteristics of good communicator

1. The Communicator Knows -
 The specifically defined objectives.
 The needs, interests, abilities etc. of the audience.
 The content, validity, usefulness and importance of the message
 The channels that will reach the audience and their usefulness
 The tactics of organising and treating the message
 His/her professional abilities and limitations.
2. The communicator is interested in -
 The intended audience and their welfare
 The specific message and its effects in helping the people
 The entirety of communication process
 The proper use and limitation of communication channels.

3. The communicator prepares -

 A specific teaching plan for communication
 Materials and equipments needed for communication
 A plan for evaluation of results.

4. The communicator has skill in

 selecting messages
 Treating messages
 Expressing messages in verbal and written forms
 The selection and use of channels

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  Understanding the audience
 Collecting evidence of results.
Characteristics of Poor Communicator.
 Fail to have ideas to present that are really useful to the audience.
 Fail to give the complete story and show its relationship to people's problems
 Forget that time and energy are needed to absorb the material presented.
 Feel they are always clearly understood.
 Refuse to adjust to 'closed' minds.
 Talk while others are not listening.
 Get far too ahead of audience understanding.
 Fail to recognise others' view - point and develop presentation accordingly
 Fail to recognise that communication is a two-way process.
 Let their own biases over-influence the presentation.
 Fail to see that everyone understands questions brought up for discussion
 Fail to provide a permissive atmosphere.
 Disregard the values, customs, prejudices and habits of people with whom they
attempt to communicate.
 Fail to start where people are, with respect to knowledge, skill, interest and need.

II. Message or content

A message is the information communicator wishes his audience to receive,
understand, accept and act upon. Messages, for example, may consist of statements of
scientific facts about agriculture, sanitation or nutrition; description of action being taken
by individuals, groups or committees ; reasons why certain kinds of action should be
taken ; or steps necessary in taking given kinds of action.

Characteristics of good message

A good message must be -
 In line with the objectives to be attained.
 Clearly understandable by the audience
 In line with the mental, social, economic and physical capabilities of the audience

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  Significant-economically, socially or aesthetically to the needs, interests and
values of the audience.
 specific in terms of audience and locale
 Accurate so as to be scientifically sound, factual and current in nature.
 Appropriate to the channel selected.
 Appealing and attractive to the audience signifying the utility values and
immediacy of use.
 Adequate in such a way to have effective proportionate combination of principle
and practice manageable so as to be handled by the communicator within the
resources availability.

In contrast, poor communicators often commit the following which the effectiveness
of message sending :
 Fail to clearly separate the key message from the supporting content or subject-
matter.
 Fail to prepare and organise their message properly.
 Use inaccurate of 'fuzzy' symbols-words, visuals, or real objects-to represent the
message.
 Fail to select messages that are sharply in line with the felt needs of the audience.
 Fail to present the message objectively-present the material, often biased, to
support only one side of the proposition.
 Fail to view the message from the standpoint of the audience.
 Fail to time the message properly within a presentation or within a total
programme.
Selecting and 'packaging' messages so they have a good chance of being
understood, accepted and acted upon when received is a crucial step in the
communication process. It is one of the six keys to success in efforts to influence people
to change their ways of thinking and of doing, that lead to social and economic
improvement.

III. Channels of Communication

The sender and the receiver of messages must be connected or 'tuned' with each
other. For this purpose, channels of communication are necessary. They are the physical
bridges between the sender and the receiver of messages-the avenues between a

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communicator and an audience on which messages travel to and for. They are the
transmission lines used for carrying messages to their destination. Thus, the channels
serve as essential tools of the communicator.

A channel may be anything used by a sender of messages to connect him with

intended receivers. The crucial point is that he must get in contact with his audience. The
message must get through.
However, channels are no good without careful direction or use in the right way, at the
right time, to do the right job, for the right purpose with the right audience, all in relation
to the right message. So, proper selection and use of channels constitutes a third
determinant of successful communication. Without proper use of channels, messages, no
matter how important, will not get through to the intended audience. Many obstructions
can enter channels. These are often referred to as 'noise' - that is, some obstruction that
prevents the message from being heard by or carried over clearly to the audience. 'Noise'
emerges from a wide range of sources and causes.

Sources and causes for noise:

 Failure of a channel to reach the intended audience. Usually, no one channel
will reach an entire audience. Some examples: Meetings-all people cannot or may
not attend. Radio-all people do not have access to a receiving set or may not be
tuned in if they did. Written material-many people cannot read, and others may
not.
 Failure on the part of a communicator to handle channels skillfully. If a
meeting, tour, radio programme or any other channel is not used according to
good procedure and technique, its potential for carrying a message is dissipated.
 Failure to select channels appropriates to the objective of a communicator. All
channels are not equally useful in attaining a specific objective.
 Failure to use channels in accordance with the abilities of the audience. Written
materials, for example, cannot serve as useful channels for communicating
information to people who are unable to read or to understand the level of
complexity or abstraction of the message.
 Failure to avoid physical distraction. When using the channel of meetings, for
example, distractions including people moving in and out, loud noises in or out of
the group, heat, lighting, crowded condition and many other forms of distraction
often obstruct successful message sending.

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  Failure of an audience to listen or look carefully. The only messages that get
through to an audience are those which are heard, seen or experienced.
An unfortunate tendency of people is not to give undivided attention to the
communicator. This is a powerful obstruction that prevents messages from
reaching desired destination.
 Failure to use enough channels in parallel. The more channels a communicator
uses in parallel or at about the same time,. the more chances he has for the
message getting through and being properly received . No single channel will
ordinarily reach all people who need to receive a message. Research indicates that
up to five or six channels used in combination are often necessary to get a
message through to large numbers of people with enough impact to influence
significant changes in behaviour.
 Use of too many channels in a series. An important principle of communication
is that the more channels used in a series the less chance a communicator has for
getting his message through to the intended audience. In this context, the
following principles are to be borne in mind : (1) The more steps by which the
communicator is removed from his intended receiver, the greater are his chances
of losing the proper message. (2) When lines of communication get too long for
assured communication they can be improved in two primary ways : (a) by using
additional channels in parallel, and (b) by eliminating some of the channels in the
series.

IV. Treatment of Messages

Treatment has to do with the way a message is handled to get the information
across to an audience. It relates to the technique, or details of procedure, or manner of
performance, essential to expertness in presenting messages. Hence, treatment deals with
the design of methods for presending messages. Designing the methods for treating
messages does not relate to formulation of the message or to the selection of channels,
but to the technique employed for presentation within the situation provided by a
message and a channel. The purpose of treatment is to make the message clear,
understandable and realistic to the audience. Designing treatment usually requires
original thinking, deep insight into the principles of human behaviour and skill in creating
and using refined techniques of message presentation. Treatment of messages can be
varied in an almost infinite number of ways. The following are the three categories of
bases useful for varying treatment

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a. Matters of general organisation:
 Repetition of frequency of mention of ideas and concepts
 Contrast of ideas.
 Chronological-compared to logical, compared to psychological.
 Presenting one side compared to two sides of an issue.
 Emotional compared to logical appeals.
 Starting with strong arguments compared to saving them until the end
of presentation.
 Inductive compared to deductive.
 Proceeding from the general to the specific and vice versa.
 Explicitly drawing conclusions compared to leaving conclusions implicit for
the audience to draw.
b. Matters of speaking and acting:
 Limit the scope of presentation to a few basic ideas and to the time allotted. Too
many ideas at one time are confusing.
 Be yourself. You can't be anyone else. Strive to be clear, not clever.
 Know the facts. Fuzziness means sure death to a message.
 Don't read your speech. People have more respect for a communicator who is sure
of his subject.
 Know the audience. Each audience has its own personality. Be responsive to it.
 Avoid being condescending. Do not talk or act down to people, or over their
heads.
 Decide on the dramatic effect desired. In addition to the content of messages, a
communicator should be concerned with 'showmanship'. Effective treatment
requires sincerity, smoothness, enthusiasm, warmth, flexibility and
appropriateness of voice, gestures, movements and tempo.
 Use alternative communicators when appropriate, as in group discussions, panels,
interviews, etc.Remember that audience appeal is a psychological bridge to
getting a message delivered.
 Quit on time. Communicators who stop when they are 'finished' are rewarded by
audience goodwill.

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c. Matters of symbol variation and devices for representing
ideas: To represent ideas by effective treatment with reference to the desired
behavioural changes, a variety of audio-visual aids may be used. Communicators should
be aware that teaching message to achieve maximum audience impact is a highly
professional task. Treatment is a creative task that has to be 'tailor-made' for
each instance of communication. Experience, thinking and planning, skill in
verbalisation and writing, understanding of the principles of teaching and learning,
knowledge of a) the subject b) the audience to be reached and c) skill in the use of
channels etc will help the communicator to undertake the process of message treatment.

V. The Audience
An audience is the intended receiver of message. It is the consumer of messages.
It is the intended respondent in message sending, and is assumed to be in a position to
gain economically, socially or in other ways by responding to the message in particular
ways. In good communication the communicator already identifies the audience aims at..
The importance of clearly identifying an audience cannot be over-stressed. The
more homogeneous an audience, the greater the chances of successful communication.
Likewise, the more a communicator knows about his audience and can pin-point its
characteristics the more likely he is to make an impact.
The following are some of the issues to clarify the nature of audience:
 Communication channels established by the social organisation.
 The system of values held by the audience-what they think is important.
 Forces influencing group conformity-custom, tradition etc.
 Individual personality factors-susceptibility to change etc.
 Native and acquired abilities.
 Educational, economic and social levels.
 Pressure of occupational responsibility-how busy or concerned they are.
 People's needs as they see them, and as the professional communicator sees them.
 Why the audience is in need of changed ways of thinking, feeling and doing.
 How the audience views the situation.
It is useful to a communicator to understand these and other traits of an audience
in making his plan for communication.

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VI. Audience Response
This is the terminating element in communication applied to rural development
programmes. Response by an audience to messages received is in the form of some kind
of action of some degree, mentally or physically. Action, therefore, should be viewed as a
product, not as a process; it should be dealt with as an end, not as a means. Consequently,
the five elements hither to analysed viz., communicator, message, channel, treatment and
audience are intended to be viewed as an organised scheme (means) for attaining the
desired action (end) on the part of an intended audience.

VII. Feed back

Extension communication is never complete with out feedback information.
Feedback means, carrying some significant responses of the audience back to the
communicator, communication work is not an end in itself communicator should know
what has happened to the audience, the farmers, after the message has reached them.
For effective communication, feedback is of paramount importance. It concerns to
and fro communication. This return process is called feed back . It serves to control and
the signals and go forward. It also serves to realign all the signals within the network in
relation to one another . Feedback‘s an error-correcting mechanism that can overcome
noise. It makes persons truly interacting members of a communication system and tells us
how our message are being interpreted. An experienced communicator is attentive to
feedback and constantly modifies his message in the light of what he observe in, or hears,
from the audience.
Feed back provides the source with the information concerning his success in
accomplishing his objective. In doing its exerts control over future messages which the
source encodes.

Characteristics
Feedback has the following characteristics.
 Feedback is source oriented.
 Feedback varies in different communication situation
 Feedback affects the source or communicator.
 Feedback exerts control over future messages.
 Feedback affects communication fidelity.
 Feedback maintains the stability and equilibrium of communication system.

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BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION
In between the communicator and the receiver, certain barriers considerably affect the
quality of information transmission. Some of the major barriers are discussed below.
 Filtering
Because of the many other concerns which constantly influence our ability to
concentrate on what we hear, the average listener will normally "filter out" certain things
that he hears. They will simply ignore a point made by the speaker, as though it had never
been presented. This can be deliberate or unintended.

 Distortion
For the same reason, the human mind can also distort what it hears. It is an
unconscious process. Every person tends to remember best what agrees with his own
values.

 Communication Overload
Our minds can receive and retain only a limited amount of information without
showing strain. This is called channel capacity. This ability can vary with different
audiences. Overloading the system will in effect below the mental fuse and defensively
shut down the communication process.

 Absence of Redundancy
It is the use of repetition. Even under the best condition an audience can have
problems grasping or fully appreciating the significance of something new which has
been presented to them. By repeating it, or by illustrating it or by restating the same point
in different ways a speaker can make it easier for an audience to understand and retain the
information passed on by the speaker.
Further the barriers of communication can be classified under broad headings as
follows

a. Relating to communicator
1. In-effective environment
2. Unorganized efforts to communicate
3. Standard of correctness
4. Standard of social responsibility
4. Cultural values and social organisations

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5. Incorrect concept of communication process
b. Relating to the transmission of message
1. Incorrect handling of the channels
2. Wrong selection of channels
3. Physical distraction
4. Use of inadequate channels in Parallel
c. Relating to receiver
1. Attention of the listeners
2. Problems of cooperation, participation and involvement
3. Problem of homogeneity
4. Attitude of the audience towards the communicator

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Lec 2 Communication models - Aristotle, Shannon and Weaver, Schramm, Berlo
Westly and Maclean,Leagan, Rogers and Shoemaker, Littererls model and
Dance’s Helical Model – Elements of communication – communication
barriers

MODELS OF COMMUNICATION
Different models have been developed by writers on communication to illustrate the
key elements of the communication process.
 Source: Some person / group of persons with a purpose
 Message: The purpose of the source is expressed in this form called message.
 Code : System of signals for communication
 Encode: To put the message into code or cipher.
 Encoder: Takes ideas of source and put them in a code; thus, the source‘s purpose
is expressed as message
 Channel: A medium / a carrier of message through which signals move.
 Decoder : Converts message in the code into ordinary language which may be easily
understood
 Receiver: The target of communication.

A few important models are illustrated as follows:

I. ARISTOTLE MODEL: [384-322B-C] According to Aristotle Model, communication
process has three elements
1. Speaker – Person who speaks
2. Speech – The speech that the individual produces
3. Audience – The person who listens

II. SHANNON-WEAVER MODEL (1949): model is consistent with Aristotle‘s

proposition. According to them, the ingredients of communication are-

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 Compared with the Aristotelian model, the source is the speaker, the signal is the
speech and the destination is the audience, plus two added ingredients, a transmitter
which sends out the source‘s message and a receiver which catches the message for the
destination.

III. Berlo's Model of Communication (1966)

Berlo model is one of the most widely used and based on an impressive,
background of behavioural theory and research. As a result it has exercised a far-reaching
influence on communication research in the social sciences. According to this model, all
human communication has some source Given a source with ideas, needs intentions,
information and purpose for communicating, a second ingredient is necessary for
communicating. The purpose of the source has to be expressed in the form of message.
This requires a third ingredient, an encoder. The communication encoder is responsible
for taking ideas of the source and putting them into a code, expressing the source‘s the
purpose in the form of message.
The fourth ingredient needed in a communication act is a channel. A channel is a
medium, a carrier of a message. It is correct to say that message can exist only in some
channel. However, the choice of a channel is an important factor in the effectiveness of
communication. When we talk, somebody must listen; when we write somebody must
read. The person(s) at the other end can be called the communication receiver(s), the
target of communication. Just as a source needs an encoder to translate his purpose into a
message, to express purpose in a code, the receiver needs a decoder to retranslate, to
decode the message and to put into a form that the receiver can use. So, according to
Berlo (1960), the ingredients in a communication process include
 the communication source
 the encoder
 the message
 the channel
 the decoder
 the communication receiver

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 In this model, communication is seen as a continuous process in which noise is
reduced by a process called feedback. As stated earlier, this model includes four elements
– source, message, channel and receiver. It is fairly explicit about the elements involved
in each. In sources, we find that the source‘s communication skills, attitudes, knowledge
and social and cultural systems are the important variables. The receiver has the same
variables. Channels include seeing, hearing, touching, smelling and tasting, and messages
are varied in their structure, elements, content, code and treatment. Berlo emphasizes that
this model is far from static and needs feedback between a source and a receiver, when
the source actually becomes a receiver and the receiver becomes a source. Once again,
this is a linear model of communication with emphasis on the communicator. As stated
earlier, this model has had a far-reaching influence on communication literature.

S M C R
COMM. SKILLS SEEING COMM. SKILLS

ATTITUDES HEARING ATTITUDES

ELEMENTS STRUCTURE

KNOWLEDGE TREATMENT TOUCHING KNOWLEDGE

C
O C
SOC. SYSTEM N O SMELLING SOC. SYSTEM
T D
E E
N
T
CULTURE TASTING CULTURE

Fig : Berlo’s Model of Communication

IV. SCHRAMM (1961), MODEL OF COMMUNICATION PROCESS involves
This model of communication is particularly relevant for the mass media. In human
communication it is most important whether the people can properly encode or decode
the signal i.e., message and how they interpret it in their own situations.

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V. LEAGANS (1963) OF COMMUNICATION PROCESS has the following
elements

The task of communication, according to him, is to provide powerful incentives for

change. Success at this task requires through understanding of the six elements of
communication, a skilful communicator sending useful message through proper channel,
effectively treated, to an appropriate audience that responds as desired.

VI. ROGERS AND SHOEMAKER (1971)

Thought of communication process in terms of S-M-C -R-E model, the
components of which are

According to them a source (S) sends a message (M) via certain channels (C) to the
receiving individual (R), which cause some effects (E) i.e. changing the existing behavior
pattern of the receiver. Communication in extension may also be thought of as two-way
stimulus-response situation in which the necessary stimulus is provided by the
communicator, the extension agent, in the form of a message, which produces certain
response on the audience, the farmers and vice-versa. A favourable response by the
audience reinforces learning.
VII. WESTLEY-MACLEAN’S MODEL OF COMMUNICATION PROCESS:

VIII. Dance’s Helical Model

Frank Dance proposed a communication model inspired by a helix in 1967,
known as Helical Model of Communication. A helix is a three dimensional spring like
curve in the shape of a cylinder or a cone.

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 Helix is compared with evolution of communication of a human since birth to
existence or existing moment. Helical model gives geometrical testimony of
communication. The model is linear as well as circular combined and disagrees the
concept of linearity and circularity individually.
Concept of Helical Model of Communication

Helical model of communication introduces the concept of time where

continuousness of the communication process and relational interactions are very
important. Communication is taken as a dynamic process in helical model of
communication and it progresses with age as our experience and vocabulary increases.

At first, helical spring is small at the bottom and grows bigger as the
communication progresses. The same effect can be seen with communication of humans,
where you know nothing about a person at first and the knowledge grows steadily as you
know the person better. It considers all the activities of the person, from the past and
present.

Communication is affected by the curve from which it emerges which denotes

past behavior and experiences. Slowly, the helix leaves its lower levels of behavior and
grows upward in a new way. It always depends on the lowest level to form the message.
Thus, the communicative relationship reaches to the next level in which people share
more information.

Communication is supposed to be continuous and non-repetitive. It is always

growing and accumulative.

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VIII. Littererls model

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Lec 3 Verbal and Non verbal communication – Verbal communication –
definition and meaning – Verbal vs Oral communication – Types – Styles -
Barriers to effective verbal communication

Verbal communication

The sharing of information between individuals by using speech. Individuals

working within a business need to effectively use verbal communication that employs
readily understood spoken words, as well as ensuring that the enunciation, stress and tone
of voice with which the words are expressed is appropriate.
USAGE EXAMPLES
The company used memos as a way to communicate with the workers at large but
management had found using more verbal communication better at resolving conflicts or
problems.
You need to have strong verbal communication skills if you want to be able to move up
in most any business job.
They had good verbal communication with each other and would always be able to pick
up on how the other one was feeling.

Verbal communication vs non verbal communication

BASIS FOR COMPARISON VERBAL NON-VERBAL
COMMUNICATION COMMUNICATION

Meaning The communication in which The communication that takes

the sender uses words to place between sender and
transmit the message to the receiver with the use of signs
receiver is known as verbal is known as non-verbal
communication. communication.
Types Formal and Informal Chronemics, Vocalics,
Haptics, Kinesics, Proxemics,
Artifacts.
Time consuming Not happen
Chances of transmission of Rarely happens. Happens most of
wrong messages the time.

Advantage The Message can be clearly Helpful in understanding

understood and immediate emotions, status, lifestyle and
feedback is possible. feelings of the sender.

Documentary Evidences Yes, in case of written No

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 communication.
Presence The message can be The personal presence of both
transmitted through letters, the parties to communication
phone calls, etc. so the is a must.
personal presence of the
parties, doesn't make any
change. .

FOUR TYPES OF VERBAL COMMUNICATION

Verbal communication include sounds, words, language, and speech. Speaking is
an effective way of communicating and helps in expressing our emotions in words. This
form of communication is further classified into four types, which are:

1. Intrapersonal Communication
This form of communication is extremely private and restricted to ourselves. It includes
the silent conversations we have with ourselves, wherein we juggle roles between the
sender and receiver who are processing our thoughts and actions. This process of
communication when analyzed can either be conveyed verbally to someone or stay
confined as thoughts.

2. Interpersonal Communication
This form of communication takes place between two individuals and is thus a one-on-
one conversation. Here, the two individuals involved will swap their roles of sender and
receiver in order to communicate in a clearer manner.

3. Small Group Communication

This type of communication can take place only when there are more than two people
involved. Here the number of people will be small enough to allow each participant to
interact and converse with the rest. Press conferences, board meetings, and team meetings
are examples of group communication. Unless a specific issue is being discussed, small
group discussions can become chaotic and difficult to interpret by everybody. This lag in
understanding information completely can result in miscommunication.

4. Public Communication
This type of communication takes place when one individual addresses a large gathering
of people. Election campaigns and public speeches are example of this type of
communication. In such cases, there is usually a single sender of information and several
receivers who are being addressed.

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Verbal Communication Styles
Communication in literal terms means, transfer of information from one person to
another.
Verbal communication means, transfer of information through talking. It uses
numbers, words, symbols and sounds to construct a dialog for its listener.
Communication intends to express, impress, warn and emote a certain message.
Various styles are adopted to achieve this purpose, depending on the audience,
circumstance, event and the occasion. The manner in which a certain message is
communicated decides the communication styles. A combination of personality, traits,
vocabulary and gesticulations finally make up a verbal communication style. Let's try and
understand the personality styles which impact ways of communication.
Expressive Style of Communication
An expressive style is often an outcome of an expressive personality. These are
often seen as sociable and amicable people in the crowd. Their imaginative and creative
streak helps them in finding new ways to communicate their ideas to the audience. This
helps them develop an expressive style of communication free of any reservations and
hesitations. The speech of an expressive personality is animated, spontaneous, jovial, and
conversational while communicating both, negative and positive thoughts.

Aggressive Style of Communication

The aggressive style of communication is usually perceived as inconsiderate of

others emotions. This style of communication stems from an aggressive personality. A
person with an aggressive personality is often seen to interrupt others, has poor listening
skills, monopolizes conversations and takes a controlling tone. Aggressive
communicators think of themselves to be above others and thus try to impose themselves
through stating their opinions rather violently. Their derogatory tone of talking, makes
the audience feel humiliated. The speaker is usually expressing authority or passing a
judgment while using this style of speaking. For instance, 'I want an explanation for this
mess', is an aggressive style of speaking.

Passive Style of Communication

The passive style of communication is exactly the opposite of aggressive style of

communication. In a passive way of communication a person finds it difficult to express
feelings and emotions with honesty. The genesis of this style of communication is a
passive personality. A passive personality chooses not to react to situations and thus
refuses any kind of confrontations or explanations. Self-doubt, use of apologetic words
and a timid body language are ways of recognizing a passive personality. Such people
often speak in a manner of implying that others' needs are more important that theirs. In a

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way they assume that others will know what is best for them. Thus they find it difficult to
communicate and end up communicating incomplete messages.

Passive-Aggressive Style of Communication

The passive-aggressive style of communication stems from passive style of

communication. The two are deeply interlinked, often resulting in defeating the purpose
of communication. As passive person fails to communicate with honesty, his expectations
are not met with, which thus results in passive-aggression. An aggressive style of
communication is where the speaker states the objective clearly, although callously. In
this way of communication, the speaker routes the message through indirect ways making
things even more complicated. This makes the other person feel guilty for not
understanding the situation properly. The speaker may also say things behind the person's
back and would refuse to respond in case of a confrontation. The end result of this form
of communication is often a misunderstanding.

Communication Styles As Per Roles

Directors
Directors hold an important role in an kind of a set-up. Thus, by the virtue of their role
they become task-oriented and focused while communicating the audience. These role
players come straight to the point, instead of beating around the bush. They truly believe
that actions speaks louder than words. They are far more result-oriented than anyone else.
The manner in which the message is communicated is crisp, correct and concise.

Relators
The development of interpersonal relationships is extremely important to relators. They
consider the opinions of their audience or team members before communicating anything.
They nurture positive and helpful environment. They try to keep the pressurizing
situations at bay and encourage friendships amongst subordinates. They like to build
spaces which succeed on mutual trust and respect.

Thinkers
The thinkers are also called the analyticals. These people play the role of perfectionists.
They are known to be very specific and accurate in giving instructions. Mistakes are rare
under their supervision and in case of any, they are taken very seriously. They
communicate in a very supportive, patient and helpful way with their audience in order to
explain the task perfectly and achieve the preset goal.

Socializers
The socializers love to interact with people and take on new challenges. They perform the

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best when working in teams, as being with people is an intrinsic part of their nature. They
communicate by initiating dialogs and open discussions. They always look for new ways
of dealing with problems. This makes their communication style seems very easy and
approachable.

Verbal styles of communications largely depends on the nature of the speaker.

The personality type and the nature of the person dictates the style in which the person
will communicate. To many a time, is the one that uses a combination of styles.

Barriers to effective verbal communication

Lacking clarity. Avoid abstract, overly-formal language, colloquialisms, and

jargon, which obscure your message more than they serve to impress people.

Using stereotypes and generalizations. Speakers who make unqualified

generalizations undermine their own clarity and credibility.
Be careful not to get stuck in the habit of using stereotypes, or making generalizations
about complex systems or situations. Another form of generalization is ―polarization‖
or creating extremes. Try to be sensitive to the complexities of situations, rather than
viewing the world in black and white.

Jumping to conclusions. Confusing facts with inferences is a common tendency.

Do not assume you know the reasons behind events, or that certain facts necessarily have
certain implications. Make sure you have all the information you can get, and then speak
clearly about the facts versus the meanings or interpretations you attach to those.

Dysfunctional responses. Ignoring or not responding to a comment or question

quickly undermines effective communication. Likewise, responding with an irrelevant
comment -- one that isn't connected to the topic at hand -- will quash genuine
communication. Interrupting others while they are speaking also creates a poor
environment for communication.

Lacking confidence. Lacking confidence can be a major barrier to effective

communication. Shyness, difficulty being assertive, or low self-worth can hinder your
ability to make your needs and opinions known. Also, a lack of awareness of your own
rights and opportunities in a given situation can prevent you from expressing your needs
openly. See Eison (1990)‘s ―Confidence in the Classroom: Ten Maxims for
New Teachers‖ for a set of maxims to think about when reflecting on your own
confidence as a communicator

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Lec 4 Non verbal communication – definition and meaning – Proxemics,
Chronemics, Movement and body position, Posture, Facial Expression,
Gestures and Eye Contact – importance of non verbal communication

Non-verbal communication
Non-verbal communication occurs without using any oral or written word.Instead
of written or oral words, it relies on various non-verbal cues like physical movements,
tasks, colors, signs, symbols, signals charts etc. to express feelings, attitudes or
information.

Although no word is used in non-verbal communication, it can effectively communicate

many human feelings more accurately than verbal methods of communication.

Eye contact
Eye contact, an important channel of interpersonal communication, helps regulate
the flow of communication. And it signals interest in others. Furthermore, eye contact
with audiences increases the speaker‘s credibility. Teachers who make eye contact open
the flow of communication and convey interest, concern, warmth, and credibility.

Facial expressions

The face is an important communicator. It is commonly said that face is the index
of the mind.It expresses the type of emotions or feelings such as joy, love, interest,
sorrow, anger, annoyance, confusion, enthusiasm, fear, hatred surprise, and uncertainty.
Facial expressions are indicated through the mouth (open, wide or closed), eyelids
(raised or lowered), nose (wrinkled or relaxed), cheeks (drawn up or back) and the
forehead (lowered or raised).Within the facial area, eyes are especially effective for
indicating attention and interest. However, interpretations of facial expressions differ
from culture to culture.

Smiling is a powerful cue that transmits:

Happiness.
Friendliness.
Warmth.
Liking.
Affiliation.

Thus, if you smile frequently you will be perceived as more likable, friendly,
warm and approachable. Smiling is often contagious and students will react favorably
andlearn more.

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Gestures

If you fail to gesture while speaking, you may be perceived as boring, stiff and
un-animated. A lively and animated teaching style captures students attention, makes
thematerial more interesting, facilitates learning and provides a bit of entertainment.
Head nods, a form of gestures, communicate positive reinforcement to students and
indicate that you are listening.
Gestures are movements of the arms, legs, hands, and head.7 Some authors opine
that gesture is the deliberate body movement as because they express specific and
intentional meaning.

For example;
a wave of the hand has a specific meaning-―hello‖ or ―good-bye‖; a forefinger and
a thumb touching to form a circle have the meaning -―ok‖.
Alike facial expressions, interpretations of some gestures also differ across cultures.
For example, in Europe, raising thumb is used to convey that someone has done
something excellent while in Bangladesh the same gesture means something idiotic.

Posture and body orientation

You communicate numerous messages by the way you walk, talk, stand and sit.
Standing erect, but not rigid, and leaning slightly forward communicates to students that
you are approachable, receptive and friendly.
Furthermore,

Interpersonal closeness results when you and your students face each other.
Speaking with your back turned or looking at the floor or ceiling should be avoided; it
communicates disinterest to your class.

Body Language

Body language is another widely recognized form of non-verbal communication.

Body movements can convey meanings and message. Body language may take two forms
of unconscious movements and consciously controlled movements.
For example;

When a person is bored, he may gaze around the room rather than look at the
speaker or he may shift positions frequently.When a person is nervous, he may bite his
nails or mash hair. These are usually made unconsciously. On the other hand, leaning
forward toward the speaker to express interest is the case of conscious body movements.

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Proximity

Cultural norms dictate a comfortable distance for interaction with students.

You should look for signals of discomfort caused by invading students‘ space. Some of
these are:
Rocking
Leg swinging
Tapping
Gaze aversion

Typically, in large college classes space invasion is not a problem. In fact, there is
usually too much distance.To counteract this, move around the classroom to increase
interaction with your students.Increasing proximity enables you to make better eye
contact and increases the opportunities for students to speak.

Chronemics:

The use of time in communication is chronemics, which speaks about the

personality of the sender / receiver like punctuality, the speed of speech, etc

Importance of Nonverbal

Communication Well Expression of the

Speaker’s Attitude

Various non-verbal cues of the speaker like physical movements, facial expression, a way
of expression, etc. play important role in expressing the inner meaning of the messages in
face-to-face conversation and interview.

For example, the facial expression of the speaker indicates his attitude, determination
depth of knowledge etc.

Providing Information Regarding the Sender of The Written Message

The format, neatness, language and the appearance of the envelope used in a written
message send a non-verbal message regarding the writer‘s tests, choice, level of
education etc.

Expressing the Attitude of the Listener and Receiver

Sometimes the appearance of the listeners and receivers conveys their attitudes, feelings,
and thoughts regarding the messages they have read or heard.

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Gaining Knowledge about a Class of People
Clothing, hairstyle, neatness, jewelry, cosmetics, and stature of people convey
impressions regarding their occupation, age, nationality, social or economic level, job
status etc.

For example; students, policemen, nurses etc. can easily be identified through their
dresses.

Gaining Knowledge about the Status of a Person

Non-verbal cues also help to determine the relative status of persons working in an
organization. For example, room size, location, furnishings, decorations, lightings,
etc. indicate the position of a person in the organization.

Communicating Common Message to All People

In some cases, non-verbal cues can effectively express many true messages more
accurately than those of any other method of communication.

For example; use of red, yellow and green lights and use of various signs in controlling
vehicles on the roads.

Communicating with the Handicapped People

Non- verbal cues of communication greatly help in communicating with the handicapped
people.

For example; the language of communication with the deaf depends on the movements of
the hands, fingers, and eyeball.

Conveying Message to the Illiterate People

Communication with illiterate people through written media is impossible. There may
also be some situations that do not allow the use of oral media to communicate with
them.

In such situations, non-verbal methods like pictures, colors, graphs, signs, and symbols
are used as the media of communication.

For example; to indicate danger we use red sign and to mean dangerous we use a skull
placed between two pieces of bone put in a crosswise fashion.

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Quick Expression of Message
Non-verbal cues like sign and symbol can also communicate some messages very quickly
than written or oral media.

For example; when drivers of a running vehicle are to be communicated that the road
ahead is narrow or there is a turn in the road ahead, we generally use signs or symbols
rather than using any written or oral message.

Presenting Information Precisely

Sometimes quantitative information on any issue may require a lengthy written message.
But this quantitative information can be presented easily and precisely through tables,
graphs, charts etc.,

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