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SUMMARY (cont.)

„ If natural frequencies are written as integral multiples of fundamental frequency,

then the frequencies are said to be in harmonics. Thus, the first harmonic is v1 = v1,
(the fundamental frequency is called first harmonics), the second harmonics is
v2 = 2 v1, the third harmonics is v3 = 3 v1, and so on.
„ Loudness of sound is defined as “the degree of sensation of sound produced in the ear
or the perception of sound by the listener”.
„ The intensity of sound is defined as “the sound power transmitted per unit area placed
normal to the propagation of sound wave ”.
I1
„ Sound intensity level, ∆L =10 log10 decibel .
I0
„ A closed organ pipe has only odd harmonics and the corresponding frequency of
the nth harmonic is fn = (2n + 1) f1.
„ In a closed organ pipe the frequencies of harmonics are in the ratio
f1 : f2 : f3 : f4 :... = 1 : 3 : 5 : 7 :...
„ The open organ pipe has all harmonics and frequency of the nth harmonic is fn = n f1.
„ In the open organ pipe the frequencies of harmonics are in the ratio
f1 : f2 : f3 : f4 :... = 1 : 2 : 3 : 4 :...
„ Whenever there is a relative motion between the source of sound and the listener,
the frequency of the sound observed by the listener is different from the frequency
produced by the source. This is known as Doppler effect.

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CONCEPT MAP

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EVALUATION

I. Multiple Choice Questions:

1. A student tunes his guitar by striking 4. Which of the following options is
a 120 Hertz with a tuning fork, and correct?.
simultaneously plays the 4th string A B
on his guitar. By keen observation, he (1) Quality (A) Intensity
hears the amplitude of the combined (2) Pitch (B) Waveform
sound oscillating thrice per second. (3) Loudness (C) Frequency
Which of the following frequencies is
the most likely the frequency of the 4th Options for (1), (2) and (3),
string on his guitar?. respectively are
a) 130 b) 117 a) (B),(C) and (A)
c) 110 d) 120 b) (C), (A) and (B)
2. A transverse wave moves from a c) (A), (B) and (C)
medium A to a medium B. In medium d) (B), (A) and (C)
A, the velocity of the transverse wave is
5. Eqution of travelling wave on a
500 ms-1 and the wavelength is 5 m. The
stretched string of linear density 5
frequency and the wavelength of the
g/m is y = 0.03 sin(450t – 9x), where
wave in medium B when its velocity is
distance and time are measured in
600 ms-1, respectively are
SI units. The tension in the string is
a) 120 Hz and 5 m
a) 5 N
b) 100 Hz and 5 m
b) 12.5 N
c) 120 Hz and 6 m
c) 7.5 N
d) 100 Hz and 6 m
d) 10 N
3. For a particular tube, among six
harmonic frequencies below 1000 Hz, 6. A sound wave whose frequency is
only four harmonic frequencies are 5000 Hz travels in air and then hits
given : 300 Hz, 600 Hz, 750 Hz and 900 the water surface. The ratio of its
Hz. What are the two other frequencies wavelengths in water and air is
missing from this list?. a) 4.30 b) 0.23
a) 100 Hz, 150 Hz
c) 5.30 d) 1.23
b) 150 Hz, 450 Hz
c) 450 Hz, 700 Hz 7. A person standing between two parallel
d) 700 Hz, 800 Hz hills fires a gun and hears the first echo

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after t1 sec and the second echo after 12. A man sitting on a swing which is
t2 sec. The distance between the two moving to an angle of 60° from the
hills is vertical is blowing a whistle which has a
v (t 1 t 2 ) frequency of 2.0 k Hz. The whistle is 2.0
v(t1- t 2 )
a) b) m from the fixed support point of the
2 2(t1 + t 2 )
swing. A sound detector which detects
v(t1 + t 2 )
c) v (t1 + t2 ) d) the whistle sound is kept in front of the
2
swing. The maximum frequency the
8. An air column in a pipe which is closed sound detector detected is
at one end, will be in resonance with
(a) 2.027 kHz (b) 1.974 kHz
the vibrating body of frequency 83Hz.
Then the length of the air column is (c) 9.74 kHz (d) 1.011 kHz

a) 1.5 m (b) 0.5 m 1

13. Let y = at t = 0 s be the amplitude
(c) 1.0 m (d) 2.0 m 1+ x2
9. The displacement y of a wave of the wave propagating in the positive
travelling in the x direction is given by x-direction. At t = 2 s, the amplitude
p of the wave propagating becomes
y = (2 x 10−3 ) sin (300t − 2 x + ) , where
1
4 y= . Assume that the shape
x and y are measured in metres and t in 1 + (x − 2)2
second. The speed of the wave is of the wave does not change during
(a) 150 ms-1 (b) 300 ms-1 propagation. The velocity of the wave is
(c) 450 ms-1 (d) 600 ms-1 (a) 0.5m s-1 (b) 1.0m s-1

10. Consider two uniform wires vibrating (c) 1.5m s-1 (d) 2.0m s-1
simultaneously in their fundamental 14. A uniform rope having mass m hangs
notes. The tensions, densities, lengths vertically from a rigid support. A
and diameter of the two wires are transverse wave pulse is produced at
in the ratio 8 : 1, 1 : 2, x : y and 4 : 1 the lower end. Which of the following
respectively. If the note of the higher plots shows the correct variation of
pitch has a frequency of 360 Hz and the speed v with height h from the lower
number of beats produced per second end?
is 10, then the value of x : y is
v v v
(a) 36 : 35
(b) 35 : 36 h
o o h o
(c) 1 : 1
(a) (b) (c)
(d) 1 : 2
v
11. Which v represents a
of the following v v
wave
(a)o(x - vt)3 h o(b) x(x+vt) h o h o h
1
(c) (a) (b)
(d) sin(x+vt) (c) (d)
(x + vt)

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15. An organ pipe A closed at one end is 13. Sketch the function y = x + a.
allowed to vibrate in its first harmonic Explain your sketch.
and another pipe B open at both ends is 14. Write down the factors affecting
allowed to vibrate in its third harmonic. velocity of sound in gases.
Both A and B are in resonance with a 15. What is meant by an echo?. Explain.
given tuning fork. The ratio of the length
of A and B is
III. Long Answer Questions
8 3
(a) (b) 1. Discuss how ripples are formed in still
3 8
1 1 water.
(c) (d)
6 3 2. Briefly explain the difference between
Answers: travelling waves and standing waves.
1) b   2) d   3) b   4) a 3. Show that the velocity of a travelling
5) b   6) a   7) d   8) c T
wave produced in a string is v =
9) a 10) a 11) d 12) a µ
13) b 14) d 15) c 4. Describe Newton’s formula for velocity
of sound waves in air and also discuss
II. Short Answer Questions
the Laplace’s correction.
1. What is meant by waves?. 5. Write short notes on reflection of sound
2. Write down the types of waves. waves from plane and curved surfaces.
3. What are transverse waves?. Give one 6. Briefly explain the concept of
example. superposition principle.
4. What are longitudinal waves?. Give 7. Explain how the interference of waves
one example. is formed.
5. Define wavelength. 8. Describe the formation of beats.
6. Write down the relation between 9. What are stationary waves?. Explain
frequency, wavelength and velocity of the formation of stationary waves and
a wave. also write down the characteristics of
7. What is meant by interference of stationary waves.
waves?. 10. Discuss the law of transverse vibrations
8. Explain the beat phenomenon. in stretched strings.
9. Define intensity of sound and loudness 11. Explain the concepts of fundamental
of sound. frequency, harmonics and overtones in
10. Explain Doppler Effect. detail.
11. Explain red shift and blue shift in 12. What is a sonometer?. Give its
Doppler Effect. construction and working. Explain
how to determine the frequency of
12. What is meant by end correction in
tuning fork using sonometer.
resonance air column apparatus?

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13. Write short notes on intensity and 2. Consider a mixture of 2 mol of helium
loudness. and 4 mol of oxygen. Compute the
14. Explain how overtones are produced in a speed of sound in this gas mixture at
300 K.  Answer : 400.9 ms-1
(a) Closed organ pipe
3. A ship in a sea sends SONAR waves
(b) Open organ pipe straight down into the seawater from
15. How will you determine the velocity the bottom of the ship. The signal
of sound using resonance air column reflects from the deep bottom bed
apparatus? rock and returns to the ship after
3.5 s. After the ship moves to 100 km
16. What is meant by Doppler effect?.
it sends another signal which returns
Discuss the following cases
back after 2s. Calculate the depth of the
(1) S ource in motion and Observer at
sea in each case and also compute the
rest
difference in height between two cases.
(a) Source moves towards observer  Answer : Δd = 1149.75 m
(b) Source moves away from the 4. A sound wave is transmitted into a
tube as shown in figure. The sound
observer wave splits into two waves at the point
(2) O
 bserver in motion and Source at A which recombine at point B. Let R
rest. be the radius of the semi-circle which
(a) Observer moves towards Source is varied until the first minimum.
Calculate the radius of the semi-circle if
(b) Observer resides away from the
the wavelength of the sound is 50.0 m.
Source  Answer : R = 21.9 m
(3) B
 oth are in motion
(a) Source and Observer approach R

Source
each other A B
Detector

(b) 
Source and Observer resides
5. N tuning forks are arranged in order
from each other of increasing frequency and any two
(c) Source chases Observer successive tuning forks give n beats per
second when sounded together. If the
(d) Observer chases Source
last fork gives double the frequency of
the first (called as octave), Show that
IV. Exercises
the frequency of the first tuning fork is
1.The speed of a wave in a certain f = (N−1)n.
medium is 900 m/s. If 3000 waves 6. Let the source propagate a sound wave
passes over a certain point of the whose intensity at a point (initially)
medium in 2 minutes, then compute be I. Suppose we consider a case when
its wavelength?. Answer : λ = 36 m the amplitude of the sound wave is

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doubled and the frequency is reduced 9. Consider the following function

to one-fourth. Calculate now the new
(a) y = x2 + 2 α t x
intensity of sound at the same point ?.
1
(b) y = (x + vt)2
 Answer: Inew ∝ Iold.
4 which among the above function can be
7. Consider two organ pipes of same characterized as a wave ?.
length in which one organ pipe is closed Answer: (a) function is not describing wave
and another organ pipe is open. If the (b) satisfies wave equation.
fundamental frequency of closed pipe
is 250 Hz. Calculate the fundamental
frequency of the open pipe.
 Answer: 500Hz
8. A police in a siren car moving with
a velocity 20 ms-1 chases a thief who
is moving in a car with a velocity
v0ms-1. The police car sounds at
frequency 300Hz, and both of them
move towards a stationary siren of
frequency 400Hz. Calculate the speed
in which thief is moving. (Assume
the thief does not observe any beat)
 Answer: vthief = 10 m s-1

BOOKS FOR REFERENCE

1. Vibrations and Waves – A. P. French, CBS publisher and Distributors Pvt. Ltd.
2. Concepts of Physics – H. C. Verma, Volume 1 and Volume 2, Bharati Bhawan Publisher
3. Halliday, Resnick and Walker, Fundamentals of Physics, Wiley Publishers, 10th edition
4. Serway and Jewett, Physics for scientist and engineers with modern physics, Brook/Coole
publishers, Eighth edition

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ICT CORNER
Waves

Through this activity you will be able to

learn about the wave motion.

STEPS:
• Use the URL or scan the QR code to open ‘PhET’ simulation on ‘waves on a string’. Click
the play button.
• In the activity window a diagram of string is given. Click the play icon to see the motion
of wave.
• We can see the ‘oscillations’ and ‘pulse’ by selecting on the table given in the left side
window and by changing the ‘amplitude’ and ‘frequency’ is given below.
•B
 y selecting the ‘end types’ on the right side window and repeat the same as before.

Step1 Step2

Step3 Step4

URL:
https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/wave-on-a-string
* Pictures are indicative only.
*If browser requires, allow Flash Player or Java Script to load the page.

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Higher Secondary First Year

PHYSICS

PRACTICAL

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LIST OF PRACTICALS
1. 
Moment of Inertia of solid sphere of known mass using Vernier caliper

2. 
Non-uniform bending – verification of relation between the load and the depression using
pin and microscope

3. 
Spring constant of a spring

4. Acceleration due to gravity using simple pendulum

5. Velocity of sound in air using resonance column

6. Viscosity of a liquid by Stoke’s method

7. Surface tension by capillary rise method

8. Verification of Newton’s law of cooling using calorimeter

9. Study of relation between the frequency and length of a given wire under
constant tension using sonometer

10. Study of relation between length of a given wire and tension for constant frequency
using sonometer

11. Verification of parallelogram law of forces (Demonstration only- not for examination)

12. Determination of density of a material of wire using screw gauge and physical balance
(Demonstration only- Not for examination).

Note: Students should be instructed to perform the experiments given in ICT corner at the end
of each unit of Volume 1. (Self study only- Not for examination)

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1. MOMENT OF INERTIA OF A SOLID SPHERE OF KNOWN MASS

USING VERNIER CALIPER
AIM 
To determine the moment of inertia of a solid sphere of known
mass using Vernier caliper

APPARATUS REQUIRED Vernier caliper, Solid sphere

2
FORMULA Moment of inertia of a solid sphere about its diameter Id = MR2 kgm2
5
Where M → Mass of the sphere ( known value to be given ) in kg
R → Radius of the sphere in metre
DIAGRAM

15 20
0 5 10 15 20 25 0

0 5 10

Vernier Caliper

Main Scale

0 1 0 1 0 1

0 0 0
5 10 5 10 5 10
(a) No error (b) +ve error (c) –ve error
Vernier Scale of +0.03 cm of -0.06 cm

0 1 2 3 4

0 5 10

(d) Vernier reading

A model reading
MSR = 2.2 cm ; VSC = 4 divisions;
Reading = [2.2 cm+(4x0.01cm)] = 2.24 cm

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PROCEDURE
� The Vernier caliper is checked for zero errors and error if found is to be noted.
� The sphere is kept in between the jaws of the Vernier caliper and the main scale reading
(MSR )is noted.
� Vernier scale division which coincides with some main scale division ( VSC ) is noted. Multiply
this VSC by least count (LC) gives Vernier scale reading ( VSR ).
� Add MSR with VSR. This will be the diameter of the sphere.
� Observations are to be recorded for different positions of the sphere and the average value
of the diameter is found. From this value radius of the sphere R is calculated.
� Using the known value of the mass of the sphere M and calculated radius of the sphere R the
moment of inertia of the given sphere about its diameter can be calculated using the given
formula.

LEAST COUNT ( LC )
One main scale division (MSD) = . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cm
Number of Vernier scale divisions = ......

Least Count ( LC ) = 1 Main Scale Division (MSD)
Total Vernier scale divisions
= . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cm

OBSERVATIONS
Zero error =
Zero correction (Z . C) = Zero error × LC
Vernier Diameter of the sphere = 2R
MSR VSR = (VSC × LC) TR = (MSR +VSR)
Sl.No. coincidence correct reading = (TR ± Z.C)
× 10 m
−2
× 10−2m × 10−2m
VSC (div) × 10−2m
1
2
3
4
5
6
 Mean diameter 2R = . . . . . . . . . . . . m
 Radius of the sphere R = . . . . . . . . . . . . m
 R= ........... m

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CALCULATION
Mass of the sphere M = . . . . . . . . . . . . . kg
(Known value is given )
Radius of the sphere R =. . . . . . . . . . . . .metre
Moment of inertia of a solid sphere
2
about its diameter Id = MR2 = . . . . . . . . . . . . . kg m2
5

RESULT
The moment of inertia of the given solid sphere about its diameter using
Vernier caliper Id = ………………….. kg m2

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2. NON – UNIFORM BENDING – VERIFICATION OF RELATION BETWEEN

LOAD AND DEPRESSION USING PIN AND MICROSCOPE
AIM 
To verify the relation between the load and depression using
non-uniform bending of a beam.

APPARATUS REQUIRED A long uniform beam (usually a metre scale), two knife – edges,
mass hanger, slotted masses, pin and vernier microscope.

M
FORMULA = a constant
s
where M → Load applied (mass) (kg)

s → depression produced in the beam for the applied load(m)

DIAGRAM

Pin
Beam (Metre - Scale)

Mass hanger

Slotted mass

Knife edges

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP OF NON - UNIFORM BENDING PIN AND MICROSCOPE

PROCEDURE
� Place the two knife – edges on the table.
� Place the uniform beam (metre scale) on top of the knife edges.
� Suspend the mass hanger at the centre. A pin is attached at the centre of the scale where the
hanger is hung.
� Place a vernier microscope in front of this arrangement
� Adjust the microscope to get a clear view of the pin

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� Make the horizontal cross-wire on the microscope to coincide with the tip of the pin. (Here
mass hanger is the dead load M).
� Note the vertical scale reading of the vernier microscope
� 
Add the slotted masses to the mass hanger one by one in steps of 0.05 kg (50 g) and
corresponding readings are noted down.
� 
Repeat the experiment by removing masses one by one and note down the corresponding
readings.
� 
Subtract the mean reading of each load from dead load reading. This gives the
depressions for the corresponding load M.

OBSERVATIONS
To find M
s
MICROSCOPE READINGS × 10−2 m DEPRESSION M
LOAD INCREASING DECREASING FOR M (kg) s
MEAN
(kg) LOAD LOAD (s) kg m -1
MSR VSR TR MSR VSR TR
M x0
x1 x1 − x0 = _____
M + 0.05
x2 x2 − x0 = _____
M + 0.10
x3 x3 − x0 = _____
M + 0.15
x4 x4 − x0 = _____
M + 0.20
x5 x5 − x0 = _____
M + 0.25
Mean

MODEL GRAPH
Load (M) vs Depression (s)

A graph between M and s can be drawn by taking M along X- axis and s along Y – axis.
This is a straight line.
y
Depression s (m)

= constant
M
S

x
Mass (kg)

Relation between Mass and depression

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CALCULATION

M
(i) =
s
M
(ii) =
s
M
(iii) =
s
M
(iv) =
s
M
(v) =
s

RESULT
� 
The ratio between mass and depression for each load is calculated. This is found to be
constant.

� Thus the relation between load and depression is verified by the method of non-uniform
bending of a beam.

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3. SPRING CONSTANT OF A SPRING

AIM 
To determine the spring constant of a spring by using the method
of vertical oscillations

APPARATUS REQUIRED Spring, rigid support, hook, 50 g mass hanger, 50 g slotted masses,
stop clock, metre scale, pointer

 M − M 
FORMULA Spring constant of the spring k = 4π2  22 1

 T2 − T12 
where M1, M2 → selected loads in kg

T1, T2 → time period corresponding to masses M1 and M2


respectively in second

DIAGRAM
spring

k
scale

mass

PROCEDURE

� 
A spring is firmly suspended vertically from a rigid clamp of a wooden stand at its upper end
with a mass hanger attached to its lower end. A pointer fixed at the lower end of the spring
moves over a vertical scale fixed.

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� 
A suitable load M (eg; 100 g ) is added to the mass hanger and the reading on the scale at
which the pointer comes to rest is noted. This is the equilibrium position.

� 
The mass in the hanger is pulled downward and released so that the spring oscillates
vertically on either side of the equilibrium position.

� 
When the pointer crosses the equilibrium position a stop clock is started and the time taken
for 10 vertical oscillations is noted. Then the period of oscillation T is calculated.

� 
The experiment is repeated by adding masses in steps of 50 g to the mass hanger and period
of oscillation at each time is calculated.

� For the masses M1 and M2 ( with a difference of 50 g ), their corresponding time

M2 - M1
periods are T1 and T2. Then the value is calculated and its average is found.
T22 - T12
� Using the given formula the spring constant of the given spring is calculated.
OBSERVATIONS
Time taken for 10 oscillations (t) Period of M2 - M1
Mass M (s) oscillation T2
Sl. No. T22 - T12
× 10−3 kg t ( s2 )
Trial 1 Trial 2 Mean T = (s) ×10−3 kg s−2
10
1 100
2 150
3 200
4 250
5 300

 Mean = . . . . . . kg s-2

CALCULATION

 M − M 
Spring constant of the spring k = 4π2  22 1

 T2 − T12 

k = . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kg s-2

RESULT

The spring constant of the given spring k is found to be = . . . . . . . . . . . . kg s-2

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4 ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY USING SIMPLE PENDULUM

AIM 
To measure the acceleration due to gravity using a simple
pendulum

APPARATUS REQUIRED Retort stand, pendulum bob, thread, meter scale, stop watch.

 L 
FORMULA Acceleration due to gravity g  4 2  2  (m s-2 )
T 
where T → Time period of simple pendulum (second)

g → Acceleration due to gravity (metre sec-2)



L → Length of the pendulum (metre)



DIAGRAM

º


A C

PROCEDURE
� Attach a small brass bob to the thread.
� Fix this thread on to the stand.
� 
Measure the length of the pendulum from top of the suspension hook to the middle of the
bob of the pendulum. Record the length of the pendulum in the table given below.

� Note down the time (t) taken for 10 oscillations using stop watch.

t
� The period of oscillation T = is calculated.
10
� 
Repeat the experiment for different lengths of the pendulum ‘L’ . Find acceleration due to
gravity g using the given formula.

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OBSERVATIONS To find the acceleration due to gravity ‘g’

Time taken for 10 oscillations t (s)

Period of
Length of the oscillation 4 2 L
pendulum L T2 g
T2
(metre) Trial 1 Trial 2 Average t
T= (s2)
10 m s-2
(s)

Mean g =
MODEL GRAPH
Time T2 (sec2)

∆y

∆x
∆y T2
Slope = =
∆x L

Length ‘ L’ (metres)

y T 2
slope   ; 1/slope = L/T2
x L
RESULT
The acceleration due to gravity ‘g’ determined using simple pendulum is found to be
i) By calculation = . . . . . . . . . m s-2
ii) By graph = . . . . . . . . . m s-2

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5. VELOCITY OF SOUND IN AIR USING RESONANCE COLUMN

AIM 
To determine the velocity of sound in air at room temperature using
the resonance phenomenon.

APPARATUS REQUIRED Resonance tube, three tuning forks of known frequencies, a rubber
hammer, one thermometer, plumb line, set squares, water in a
beaker.

FORMULA V  2v  l2  l1  m s-1

where V → Speed of sound in air (m s-1)

l1 and l2 →The length of the air column for the first and

second resonance respectively (m)

v → Frequency of the tuning fork (Hz)



DIAGRAM

B
water reservoir B
B 0

10
R l1
D
20 D D
l2
30

40

50 P
E
60

70

80

90

100
T

Rubber tube
Iron base

PROCEDURE
� 
Adjust the position of the resonance tube, so that the length of air column inside the tube is
very small.

� 
Take a tuning fork of known frequency and strike it with a rubber hammer. The tuning fork
now produces longitudinal waves with a frequency equal to the natural frequency of the
tuning fork.

� 
Place the vibrating tuning fork horizontally at the open end of the resonance tube. Sound
waves pass down the total tube and reflect back at the water surface.

� Length of the water column in the tube is adjusted either by lowering or raising the reservoir
or the tube, until a maximum sound(resonance) occurs.

� 
Measure the length of air column at this position. This is taken as the first resonating
length, l1

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� 
Then raise the tube approximately about two times the first resonating length. Excite the
tuning fork again and place it on the open end of the tube.

� Adjust the height of the air column until the maximum sound is heard.

� 
Measure the length of air column at this position. This is taken as the second resonating
length l2
� 
We can now calculate the velocity of sound in air at room temperature by using the relation.
V = 2v(l2 − l1)
� 
Repeat the experiment with tuning forks of different frequency and tabulate the
corresponding values of l1 and l2.

� 
The mean of the calculated values will give the velocity of sound in air at room temperature.

OBSERVATIONS
First resonating Second resonating
length l1 length l2 Velocity of
Frequency of
Sl. (× 10 m)
−2
(× 10 m)−2 l2 − l1 sound
tuning fork
No. (×10−2m) V = 2v(l2 − l1)
'v' (Hz) Trial Trial Trial Trial (m s-1)
Mean Mean
1 2 1 2

Mean V =

CALCULATION

Velocity sound in air at room temperature, V = 2v(l2 − l1) = ____________ m s-1

RESULT
Velocity of sound in air at room temperature, is found to be (V) = ____________ m s-1

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6. VISCOSITY OF A LIQUID BY STOKE’S METHOD

AIM To determine the co-efficient of viscosity of the given liquid by
stoke’s method

APPARATUS REQUIRED A long cylindrical glass jar, highly viscous liquid, metre scale,
spherical ball, stop clock, thread.

FORMULA 2 r 2 (δ − σ) g N s m-2
η=
9V
where η - Coefficient of viscosity of liquid (N s m–2)

r → radius of spherical ball ( m )



δ → density of the steel sphere ( kg m–3 )



σ → density of the liquid ( kg m–3 )



g → acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m s–2 )



V → mean terminal velocity ( m s–1 )



DIAGRAM

Spherical Ball

Point A

Given Experimental Viscous

Liquid

Point B

EXPERIMENTAL SET UP OF MEASURING

VISCOSITY BY STOKE’S METHOD

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PROCEDURE

� 
A long cylindrical glass jar with markings is taken.
� 
Fill the glass jar with the given experimental liquid.
� 
Two points A and B are marked on the jar. The mark A is made well below the surface of the
liquid so that when the ball reaches A it would have acquired terminal velocity V.
� The radius of the metal spherical ball is determined using screw gauge.
� The spherical ball is dropped gently into the liquid.
� Start the stop clock when the ball crosses the point A. Stop the clock when the ball
reaches B and note down the time ‘t’.
� Note the distance between A and B and use it to calculate terminal velocity.
� Now repeat the experiment for different distances between A and B. Make sure that the
point A is suitable for the ball to acquire terminal velocity.

OBSERVATIONS
To find Terminal Velocity:

Distance covered by the Terminal Velocity (V)

Time taken (t)
S.No. spherical ball (d)
d
(s) t (m s–1)
(m)

MEAN

CALCULATION
Density of the spherical ball δ = ________ kg m −3

Density of the given liquid σ = ________ kg m −3

2 r 2 g (δ − σ)
Coefficient of viscosity of the liquid η = = ________ N s m–2
9V

RESULT

The coefficient of viscosity of the given liquid by stoke’s method is found to be
η = ________ N s m–2

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7. SURFACE TENSION BY CAPILLARY RISE METHOD

AIM To determine surface tension of a liquid by capillary rise method.

APPARATUS REQUIRED A beaker of Water, capillary tube, vernier microscope, double hole
rubber stopper, a knitting needle, a short rubber tubing and retort
clamp.

hrσg
FORMULA The surface tension of the liquid T = N m-1
2

where T → Surface tension of the liquid (N m–1)

h → height of the liquid in the capillary tube (m)



r → radius of the capillary tube (m)



σ → Density of water (kg m–3)   (σ = 1000 kg m–3)



g → Acceleration due to gravity (g = 9.8 m s–2)



DIAGRAM

7 - SURFACE TENSION BY CAPILLARY RISE METHOD

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

Needle

PROCEDURE
� 
A clean and dry capillary tube is taken and fixed in a stand
� 
A beaker containing water is placed on an adjustable platform and the capillary tube is
dipped inside the beaker so that a little amount of water is raised inside.

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� Fix a needle near the capillary tube so that the needle touches the water surface
� 
A Vernier microscope is focused at the lower meniscus of the water and the corresponding
reading is taken after coinciding it with the horizontal line of the cross wire.
� Tip of the needle is focussed using vernier microscope after coinciding it with horizontal line
of the cross wire
� 
The difference between the two readings of the vertical scale gives the height (h) of the
liquid raised in the capillary tube.
� 
Now to find the radius of the tube, raise the capillary tube and remove the beaker. Carefully
rotate the capillary tube so that the immersed lower end face towards you.
� Focus the capillary tube using Vernier microscope to clearly see the inner walls of the tube.
� 
Let the vertical cross wire coincide with the left side inner walls of the tube. Note down the
reading (L1)
� 
Turn the microscope screws in horizontal direction to view the right side inner wall of the
( L1 − R1 ) .
1
tube. Note the reading (R1). Thus the radius of the tube can be calculated as
2
� 
Finally calculate the surface tension using the given formula.

L1 R1

2r

2r
RADIUS OF THE CAPILLARY TUBE

OBSERVATIONS
To measure height of the liquid (h)
Least count of the microscope = ________ cm

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Microscope reading for the Microscope reading for the

Height of
position of Lower meniscus of position of Lower tip of the
the liquid
liquid needle
Trial No. h
VSC × LC TR (a) VSC × LC TR (b) × 10−2 m
MSR MSR a~b
= VSR × 10−2 m = VSR × 10−2 m

Mean h =

Radius of the capillary tube

Microscope reading for the Microscope reading for the Radius of the
position of inner left wall of the position of inner right wall of the capillary tube
tube L1 tube R1 1
Tube r = (L1~R1)
VSC × LC TR VSC × LC TR 2
MSR MSR × 10−2 m
= VSR × 10−2 m = VSR × 10−2 m

CALCULATION

Mean rise of the liquid in the capillary tube h = _________ × 10−2 m

Diameter of the capillary tube 2r = _________ × 10−2 m
Radius of the capillary tube r = _________ × 10−2 m
Density of the liquid σ = 1000 kg m-3
Acceleration due to gravity g = 9.8 m s-2

hrσg
Surface tension T=
2
=_________ N m–1

RESULT

Surface tension of the given liquid by capillary rise method T =________N m–1

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8. VERIFICATION OF NEWTON’S LAW OF COOLING

USING CALORIMETER
AIM 
To study the relationship between the temperature of a hot
body and time by plotting a cooling curve.

APPARATUS REQUIRED Copper calorimeter with stirrer, one holed rubber cork,
thermometer, stop clock, heater / burner, water, clamp and
stand

NEWTON’S LAW OF COOLING Newton’s law of cooling states that the rate of change of the
temperature of an object is proportional to the difference
between its own temperature and the ambient temperature.
(i.e., the temperature of its surroundings)

dT
∝ (T − T0)
dt

dT
→ Rate of change of temperature (°C) where
dt
T → Temperature of water (°C)


T0 → Room Temperature (°C)



DIAGRAM
100

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP OF NEWTON’S LAW OF COOLING

PROCEDURE

� Note the room temperature as (T0) using the thermometer.

EXCESS TEMPERATURE

� Hot water about 90°C is poured into the calorimeter.

� Close the calorimeter with one holed rubber cork.
� Insert the thermometer into calorimeter through the hole in rubber cork.
� Start the stop clock and observe the time for every one degree fall of temperature from 80°C.

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� Take sufficient amount of reading, say closer to room temperature

� The observations are tabulated
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP OF NEWTON’S LAW OF COOLING
� Draw a graph by taking time along the x axis and excess temperature along y axis.
MODEL GRAPH

EXCESS TEMPERATURE

O TIME

RELATION BETWEEN TIME AND TEMPERATURE

ROOM TEMPERATURE (T0) = _______°C

OBSERVATIONS
Measuring the change in temperature of water with time

Time (s) Temperature of water (T) °C Excess temperature (T – T0) °C

RESULT
The cooling curve is plotted and thus Newton’s law of cooling is verified.

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9. STUDY OF RELATION BETWEEN FREQUENCY AND LENGTH OF A

GIVEN WIRE UNDER CONSTANT TENSION USING SONOMETER
AIM 
To study the relation between frequency and length of a given wire
under constant tension using a sonometer.

APPARATUS REQUIRED Sonometer, six tuning forks of known frequencies, Metre scale,
rubber pad, paper rider, hanger with half – kilogram masses,
wooden bridges

FORMULA 
The frequency n of the fundamental mode of vibration of a string

1 T
is given by n = Hz
2l m
a) For a given m and fixed T.

1
n µ (or) nl = constant
l

n → Frequency of the fundamental mode of vibration of

where 
the string (Hz)

m → Mass per unit length of the string ( kg m–1 )



l → Length of the string between the wedges (m)



T → Tension in the string (including the mass of the


hanger) = Mg ( N )

M → Mass suspended, including the mass of the hanger (Kg)



DIAGRAM

Wedge

Steel wire

Mass hanger

Load

SONOMETER - STUDY OF RELATION BETWEEN FREQUENCY AND LENGTH

OF A GIVEN WIRE UNDER CONSTANT TENSION USING SONOMETER

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PROCEDURE
� 
Set up the sonometer on the table and clean the groove on the pulley to ensure minimum
friction

� 
Stretch the wire by placing suitable mass in the hanger. Keep a small paper rider over the
wire, between the two bridges.

� 
Set the tuning fork into vibrations by striking it against the rubber pad and place it over the
sonometer,by its stem.

� 
Adjust the vibrating length of the wire by sliding the bridge B till the vibrating sound of the
wire is maximum

� 
when the frequency of vibration is in resonance with the frequency of the tuning fork, the
paper rider falls down.

� The length of the wire between the wedges A and B is measured using meter scale. It is
called as resonant length.
� 
Repeat the above procedure for tuning forks of different frequencies by keeping the same
load in the hanger.

OBSERVATIONS

Tension (constant) on the wire (mass suspended from the hanger including its own mass)
T = (mass suspended × 9.8) N

Variation of frequency with length

Resonant
Frequency of the tuning fork ‘n ‘ ( Hz ) length ‘l’ nl
× 10−2 m

n1 =

n2 =

n3 =

n4 =

n5 =

n6 =

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GRAPH:

y y

l–1 (m–1)
l (m)

x x
n ( Hz  n ( Hz 
Graph 1: Relation between frequency and length Graph 2: Relation between frequency and inverse of length

Sonometer - study of relation between

length of the given wire and tension for a
consant frequency

CALCULATION
The product nl for all the tuning forks remain constant (last column in the table)

RESULT

• For a given tension, the resonant length of a given stretched string varies as reciprocal of
1
the frequency (i.e., n µ )
l
• The product nl is a constant and found to be _______ (Hz m)

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10. STUDY OF RELATION BETWEEN LENGTH OF THE GIVEN WIRE AND

TENSION FOR A CONSTANT FREQUENCY USING SONOMETER
AIM 
To study the relationship between the length of a given wire and
tension for constant frequency using a sonometer

APPARATUS REQUIRED Sonometer, tuning fork of known frequency, meter scale, rubber
pad, paper rider, hanger with half – kilogram masses, wooden
bridges.

FORMULA 
The frequency of the fundamental mode of vibration of a string is
given by,

1 T
n= Hz
2l m
If n is a constant, for a given wire (m is constant)

T
is constant.
l

n → Frequency of the fundamental mode of vibration of a

where 
string (Hz)

m → Mass per unit length of string (kg m–1)



T → Tension in the string (including the mass of the


hanger) = Mg (N)

l → Length of the string between the wedges (metre)



M → Mass suspended, including the mass of the hanger (kg)



DIAGRAM

Wedge

Steel wire

Mass hanger

Load

STUDY OF RELATION BETWEEN LENGTH OF THE GIVEN WIRE AND

TENSION FOR A CONSTANT FREQUENCY USING SONOMETER

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