LABORATORY MANUAL

Material Technology
SUBJECT CODE: 3151912

B.E.5th SEMESTER

NAME:

ENROLLMENT NO:

BATCH NO:

YEAR:

Amiraj College of Engineering and Technology,

Nr.Tata Nano Plant, Khoraj, Sanand, Ahmedabad.

1
 Amiraj College of Engineering and Technology,
Nr.Tata Nano Plant, Khoraj, Sanand, Ahmedabad.
CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Mr. / Ms. ______________________________________________

Of class____________________ Enrolment No ___________________________has
Satisfactorily completed the course in ____________________________________as
by the Gujarat Technological University for ____ Year (B.E.) semester___ of
Mechanical Engineering in the Academic year ______.

Date of Submission
Faculty Name and Signature (Subject Teacher) Head of Department
(Mechanical)
 Material Technology
SUBJECT CODE: 3151912

B.E. 5th SEMESTER

Sr. Date Title Page Marks Date of sign

No No assessment

INTRODUCTION AND OVER VIEW OF VARIOUS

1 MANUFACTURING PROCESS.
2 TO STUDY DIFFERENT TYPES OF PATTERNS AND ITS ALLOWANCES.
To study about various types of moulding sand and moulding
3 operations.
4 Design of casting with gatting system, riseR, runner.
STUDY OF WELDING PROCESSES WITH IT’S CLASSIFICATIONS,
WELDING DEFECTS, WELDING ELECTRODES AND ELECTRODE
5 COATING.
6 Performance of Gas welding and Gas cutting.
7 STUDY OF Resistance welding and performance on spot welding.
8 STUDY of Arc Welding. sUCH AS (TIG/MIG/SMAW Welding).
9 To study about NoN conventionalwelding process.
STUDY OF metal working operationS and detail study of hot and
10 cold metal working operation
STUDY OF plastic technology and detail study of plastic part
11 manufacturing process.
12 STUDY OF SURFACE Finishing ProcessES IN DETAIL.
 Date:
PRACTICAL: 01
AIM: INTRODUCTION AND OVER VIEW OF VARIOUS
MANUFACTURING PROCESS.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The main aim behind advances in engineering and technology has been to raise
the standard of living of man and to make his life more comfortable. The major role in
this direction has been played by manufacturing science, Manufacturing is an essential
component of any industrialized economy. The Word Manufacturing engineering or
Production-Engineering can be defined as the study of the various processes required to
produce parts and to assemble them into machines and mechanisms. Production or
Manufacturing is a critical link in the design. Fig. 1.1 shows cycle, which-starts with a
creative idea nd ends with a successful product.

Fig.1.1. Design Cycle

1.2 MANUFACTURING PROCESS
A manufacturing process is the activity (or a combination of activities) of
transforming a given material into a product of different forms and sizes and with or
without changing the physical and mechanical properties of the product material.
Examples of a manufacturing process are casting, welding, bending, forming, rolling and
heat-treatment. A manufacturing process is always accomplished with the help of a
variety of tools, equipment and other devices or mechanical aids and the human effort.

1.3 CLASSIFICATION OF MANUFACTURING

PROCESSES
All the manufacturing processes may be grouped into the following main
categories.

1.3.1 Casting processes. Here, the metal in the molten state is poured into a
mould and allowed to solidify into a shape. The mould may be expendable or permanent.
The examples are Sand casting, Permanent mould casting, Die casting, Precision
investment casting and centrifugal casting etc.

1.3.2 Deformation Processes. In these processes, the material is plastically

deformed (hot or cold) under the action of an external force, to produce the required
shape. No material is removed but is only displaced and deformed to get the final shape.
This category includes metal working/ forming processes such as : forging, rolling,
extrusion and drawing etc and also sheet metal working processes such as deep drawing
and bending etc. The unconventional forming processes such as High Energy Rate
Forming (HERF) and High Velocity Forming (HVF) methods also fall under this
category.

1.3.3 Machining Processes. In machining processes, also known as Metal

cutting or chip forming processes, material is removed from a work piece to get the final
shape of the product. The processes include : turning, milling, drilling, broaching,
shaving, grinding, polishing, lapping, honing, buffing and sawing etc. The modern
unconventional machining processes such as ECM, EDM, USM, AJM and LBM etc. are
also included in this category.

1.3.4 Plastic Materials/Polymers processing methods. Under this

category are included the various methods for processing plastic material/polymers for
example, shape casting, the various molding processes (compression molding, injection
molding, transfer molding etc.) and thermoforming etc.

1.3.5 Power Metallurgy. The more appropriate name should be “Particulate

Processing Methods”. Here the particles of various sizes of metals, ceramics, polymers
and glass etc, are pressed to shape and then sintered to get the final product.

1.3.6 Joining Processes. Here, two or more components are joined together to
produce the required product. The category includes. All the welding processes, brazing,
soldering, diffusion bonding, riveting, bolting, adhesive bonding etc.

1.3.7 Heat Treatment and Surface Treatment Processes. Heat

treatment processes are employed to improve of a work piece. The category includes the
processes. Annealing, Normalizing, Hardening and tempering methods. Surface treatment
processes include electro-plating and painting etc.

1.3.8 Assembly Processes. The assembly process for machines and

mechanisms is the part of the manufacturing process concerned with the consecutive
joining of the finished parts into assembly units and complete machines, of a quality that
meets the manufacturing specifications.

1.4 WELDING PROCESS

1.4.1. Definition. There are many definition of a welding process. But the most
comprehensive definition is below.
Welding is defined as a “a localized coalescence of metals, wherein coalescence
is obtained by heating to suitable temperature, with of without the application of pressure
and with or without the use of filler metal. The filler metal has a melting point
approximately the same as the base metals.”
The welding process is used to metallurgical join together two metal pieces, to
produce essentially a single piece of metal. The process results in what is known as a
‘permanent joint.’ A good welded joint is as strong as the parent metal. The product is
known as ‘Weldment.’

1.4.2. Applications. The welding process finds widespread applications in

almost all branches of industry and construction.
 fabrication and creation of steel structures
 industrial construction and civil engineering
 fabrication industries like small as well as large scale
 aero space industries
 maintanance
1.4.3 Advantages.
 Welding results in a good saving of material and reduced labour content of
production.
 Low manufacturing costs.
 Dependability of the medium, that is, the weld men are safer.
 It gives the designer great latitude in planning and designing.
 Welding is also useful as a method for repairing broken, worn or defective
 metal parts.
 Without welding techniques, the light weight methods of fabrication, so
vital to the automotive and aircraft industries, would be unthinkable.

1.5 ARC-WELDING PROCESSES

Arc-welding includes those welding processes wherein heat required for welding
is derived from an arc powered by electrical energy, may be AC of DC as shown in
figure1.2. Very high temperatures (up to 30,000’C and more) are obtained in the welding
are developed between the tip of electrode and the work piece.

Fig.1.2 Arc Welding set up

In arc-welding, the electrodes used may be consumable type or non-consumable

type.

1.6 GAS WELDING

Gas welding is a method of joining two metal pieces (similar or dissimilar)
together by melting and fusing their edges at the joint. It involves applying intense
concentrated flame on the metal pieces (at the joint) until an area (of both pieces) under
the flame becomes molten and forms a liquid puddle such that the molten puddle of one
metal piece mixes up and run together with the molten puddle of another metal piece. The
welding puddle on cooling and solidification results into a strong joint. The flame for
melting the metal pieces is produced by burning various fuel gases.
Fuel gases use in gas welding include: acetylene, hydrogen, city gas, natural gas
of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). The gases (oxygen and fuel gas) are mixed in proper
proportion in a welding torch which carries two regulators – one for controlling the
quantity of oxygen and the other for controlling the quantity of fuel gas. The mixture of
oxygen and acetylene is most popularly use for gas welding and produces temperature
within range of 3200’C to 3300’C, which makes it possible to melt and weld all common
metals. A filler rod (that also melts during welding) makes the joint stronger on
solidification.

1.6.1 Types of Gas Welding Process

Gas welding includes all those welding processes in which gas flame is used as a
heat source for melting metals. It is further divided into three main types: (a) Air-
acetylene welding, (b) Oxy-acetylene welding and (c) Oxy-hydrogen welding.

1.7 SOLDERING
Soldering is defined as a metal joining process wherein coalescence is produced
by heating the surfaces to be joined to a suitable temperature and melting the filler metal,
which is a fusible alloy called solder (melting point usually less than 427’c), so that it
may be distributed between properly fitted surfaces of the joint through capillary action.
Soldering operation is performed by bringing molten solder in contact with the preheated
surfaces (being joined) and heating the joint area to a good wetting temperature (about 55
to 80’c above the melting point of soldering alloy). The solder is then left to cool and
freeze as quickly as possible to avoid development of internal micro cracks in the joint.
The principle underlying soldering is that when the surfaces to be joined are cleaned off
well from oxides, they can be joined together using molten solder that may adhere easily
to the work piece surfaces due to molecular attraction. The molecules of solder entwine
the parent metal molecules and form a strong bond. The various joints of soldering
shown in figure 1.3.

Fig 1.3 Soldering Joints

1.8 BRAZING
Brazing is a technique of joining two similar of dissimilar metal pieces together
by heating the surfaces and by using a non-ferrous filler metal having its melting point
above 427’C but below the melting points of metals to be brazed. The molten filler metal
is distributed between the joint surfaces by the capillary action, which on cooling results
in a sound joint. The main advantage of brazing process is the joining of dissimilar metals
and thin sections. The process is mostly used for joining pipes and other fittings, carbide
tipping on tool shanks, electrical parts, radiator, repair of cast iron parts and heat
exchangers.
In brazing, bond is produced either by the formation of solid-state solution
(diffusion bonding) of intermetallic compounds of the parent metal (job) and one of the
metals in the filler material (brazing alloy). The strength of the brazed joint is provided
by metallic bonding.
Various brazing methods torch brazing, furnace brazing, dip brazing, induction
brazing, infra-red brazing are in applications.

1.8.1 BRAZING VS WELDING

Following are the differences between brazing and welding.

(i) In brazing, the joint surfaces are not raised to fusion point (or melted) and the
joint is produced by the solidification and adhesion of a thin layer of molten
filler metal spread between the mating surfaces. In welding, the two surfaces
to be joined are always heated to molten state for making a joint.
(ii) The filler metal in brazing spreads between the joint by capillary action. In
welding, the molten filler rod solidifies at the same place where it melts.
(iii)In brazing, there is no penetration of the filler metal into base metal whereas
in welding it is there.

Brazing as a production process has certain limitations in its application. It calls

for a properly machined fitting in making parts to be joined for proper capillary action.
Limitation on the size of components to be brazed is there as in the process outer area of
the joint is to be heated. Large components, therefore, cannot be heated properly to
brazing temperature. Brazed joints develop corrosion is flux is not properly removed.
Brazing needs certain degree of skill and experience on the part of the welder for
handling special brazing jobs.
 Date:
PRACTICAL: 02

AIM: TO STUDY DIFFERENT TYPES OF PATTERNS AND

ITS ALLOWANCES.

2.1 INTRODUCTION
A pattern is an element used for making cavities in the mould, into which molten
metal is poured to produce a casting. It is not an exact replica of the casting desired. It is
not an exact replica of the casting desired. It is slightly larger than the desired casting. as
shown figure 2.1

Fig 2.1 Pattern

2.2 PATTERN MATERIALS

The requirements of pattern are:

 Secure the desired shape and size of the casting.

 Cheap and readily available.
 Light in mass and convenient to handle.
 Have high strength.
 Retains its dimensions and rigidity during the entire service of its life.

Based on the above factors, we can choose pattern material as follows:

 Piece and short run production: Plastic

 Large scale and mass production: Metal
  Batch production: Plastics
2.3 TYPES OF PATTERNS

There are various types of patterns depending upon the complexity of the job, the
number of castings required and the moulding procedure adopted.

2.3.1 Single piece pattern

These are inexpensive and the simplest type of patterns. As the name indicates,
they are made of a single piece as shown in Figure.2.2 this type of pattern is used only in
cases where the job is very simple and does not create any withdrawal problems. It is also
used for applications in very small scale production or in prototype development. This
pattern is expected to be entirely in the drag. One of the surfaces is expected to be flat
which is used as the parting plane. If no such flat surface exists, the moulding may
become complicated with the necessity of a follow board.

(a) Casting (b)Casting

Fig 2.2 Single piece pattern

2.3.2 Split pattern or two piece pattern

This is the most widely used type of pattern for intricate castings. When the
contour of the casting make sits withdrawal from the mould difficult, or when the depth
of the casting is too high, then the pattern is split into two parts so that one part is in the
drag and the other in the cope. The split surface of the pattern is same as the parting plane
of the mould. It is shown in the figure (2.3).

Fig 2.3 Split Pattern

 The two halves of the pattern should be aligned properly by making use of the dowel
pins which are fitted to the cope half. These dowel pins match with the precisely made
holes in the drag half of the pattern and thus align the two halves properly as seen in
Figure.

2.3.3 Gated pattern

This is an improvement over the simple pattern where the gating and runner
system are integral with the pattern. This would eliminate the hand cutting of the runners
and gates and help in improving the productivity of a moulder.

2.3.4 Cope and drag pattern

These are similar to split patterns. In addition to splitting the pattern, the cope and
drag halves of the patterns along with the gating and risering systems are attached
separately to the metal or wooden plates along with the alignment pins (Figure.2.4). They
are called the cope and drag patterns.

Fig 2.4 Cope and drag pattern

The cope and drag moulds may be produced using these patterns separately by two
moulders but they can be assembled to form a complete mould. These types of patterns
are used for castings which are heavy and inconvenient for handling as also for
continuous production.

2.3.5 Match plate pattern

These are extensions of the previous type. Here the cope and drag patterns along
with the gating and the risering are mounted on a single matching metal or wooden plate
on either side as shown in Figure.4. On one side of the match plate the cope flask is
prepared and on the other, the drag flask. After moulding when the match plate is
removed, a complete mould with gating is obtained by joining the cope and the drag
together.
 The complete pattern with match plate is entirely made of metal, usually
aluminum for its light weight and machinability. But when dimensions are critical, the
match plate may be made of steel with necessary case hardening of the critical wear
points. The pattern and gating are either screwed to the match plate in the case of a flat
parting or are made integral in case of an irregular parting plane. This pattern is shown in
figure(2.5)

Fig 2.5 Match Plate Pattern

The casting of a match plate pattern is done usually in plaster moulds, but
sometimes sand moulds are also used when the cope and the drag patterns are similar, the
pattern may be kept on only one side of the plate and is used for making both the drag as
well as the cope.
These are generally used for small castings with higher dimensional accuracy.
The gating system is already made and attached to the match plate. Several patterns can
be fixed to a single match plate, if they are sufficiently small in size. These patterns are
used for machine moulding. They are expensive but since they increase productivity, the
additional cost is justified.

2.3.6 Loose piece pattern

This type of pattern is also used when the contour of the part is such that
withdrawing the pattern from the mould is not possible. Hence during moulding the
obstructing part of the contour is held as a loose piece by a wire after moulding is over,
first the main pattern is removed and then the loose pieces are recovered through the sap
generated by the main pattern (Figure.2.6). Moulding with loose pieces is a highly skilled
job and is generally expensive and therefore, should be avoided where possible.

Fig 2.6 Loose Piece Pattern

2.3.7 Follow board pattern

This type of pattern is adopted for those castings where there are some portions
which are structurally weak and if not supported properly are likely to break under the
force of ramming. Hence the bottom board is modified as a follow board to closely fit the
contour of the weak pattern and thus support it during the ramming of the drag. During
the preparation of the cope, no follow board is necessary because the sand which is
compacted in the drag will support the fragile pattern. An example is shown in
Figure.2.7.

Fig 2.7 Follow Board Pattern

2.3.8 Sweep pattern

It is used to sweep the complete casting by means of a plane sweep. These are
used for generating large shapes which are axis-symmetrical or prismatic in nature such
as bell shaped or cylindrical as shown in Figure.2.8. This greatly reduces the cost of a
three dimensional pattern. This type of pattern is particularly suitable for very large
castings such as the bells for ornamental purposes used which are generally cast in pit
moulds.

Fig 2.8 Sweep Pattern

2.3.9 Skeleton pattern

A skeleton of the pattern made of strips of wood is used for building the final
pattern by packing sand around the skeleton. After packing the sand, the desired form is
obtained with the help of a stickle as shown in Figure.8. The type of skeleton to be made
is dependent upon the geometry of the work piece. This type of pattern is useful generally
for very large castings, required in small quantities where large expense on complete
wooden pattern is not justified. It is shown in figure(2.9)

Fig 2.9 Skeleton Pattern

2.4 pattern allowances
The difference in the dimensions of the casting and the patterns is due to the
various allowances considered while designing a pattern for casting:

2.4.1 Shrinkage allowance

Since metal shrinks on solidification and contracts further on cooling to room
temperature, linear dimensions of the pattern is increased in respect of those of the
finishing casting to be obtained. This is called “shrinkage allowance”. It is given as
mm/m.
Typical values of shrinkage allowance for various metals re given below:

C.I. Malleable iron = 10mm/m

Brass, Cu, Al = 15mm/m
Steel = 20mm/m
Zinc, Lead = 25mm/m

2.4.2 Machining allowance

Machining allowance or finish allowance indicates how much larger the rough
casting should be over the finished casting to allow sufficient material to ensure that
machining will “clean up” the surfaces. The amount of finishing allowance depends upon
the material of the casting, its size, volume of production, method of moulding,
configuration of the casting.

Material Cast Overall length of external surfaces, cm

0 to 30 30 to 60 60 to 105 105 to 150
Al alloys 1.6 3.2 3.0 4.8
Brass, Bronze 1.6 3.2 3.0 4.8
C.I 2.4 3.2 4.8 6.4
C.S 3.2 4.8 6.0 9.6

Table 2.1: Typical Machining Allowance for Sand Casting

2.4.3 Pattern draft or taper

It is also termed as “draw”. It is the taper placed on the pattern surface that are
parallel to the direction in which the pattern is withdrawn from the mould, to allow the
removal of the patter n without damaging mould cavity. The draft depends upon the
method of moulding, the sand mixture used, the design and economic restrictions
imposed on the casting.

2.4.4 Corners and fillets

The intersection of the surfaces in casting must be smooth and forms no sharp
angles. For this, the external and intern corners of patterns are suitably rounded. They are
called round corners and fillets respectively.
2.4.5 Rapping or shake allowance
To take pattern out of the mould cavity it is slightly rapped to detach it from the
mould cavity. Due to this, the cavity in the mould increases slightly so the pattern is made
slightly smaller.

2.4.6 Distortion allowance

This allowance is considered only for casting of irregular shape which are
distorted in the process of cooling because of metal shrinkage.

2.5 PATTERN COLOUR CODE

The patterns are normally painted with contrasting colours such that the mould
maker would be able to understand the functions clearly. The colour code used is

 Red or orange on surfaces not to be finished and left as cast

 Yellow on surfaces to be machined.
 Black on core prints for unmachined openings.
 Yellow stripes on black on core prints for machined openings.
 5 Green on seats of and for loose pieces and loose core prints.
 Diagonal black stripes with clear varnish on to strengthen the weak patterns or to
shorten a casting.

SPECIAL CASTING PROCESS:

These processes are different from sand casting in that the mould, being repeatedly used.
Such moulds are known as dies. They are made of metals. They have helped in increasing
production rate, effecting grater economy, improving the quality of casting, minimizing
the need for further machining and providing better dimensional control. These methods
are known as “Special Casting Process”.
2.6 PERMANENT MOULD CASTING.
This process consists of filling metal mould as in sand casting. Extra pressure is not
employed except that obtained from the head of metal in the mould. Since the pouring in
permanent mould is simply due to gravity, hence it is known as “Gravity Die Casting”
Advantages of Permanent Mould Casting Process:
1. Close dimensional tolerances can be achieved.
2. A minimum thickness of 2.5 mm can be achieved.
3. It is rapid process and less skilled operator can operate.

Disadvantages of Permanent Mould Casting Process:

1. Cost of mould is higher.
2. Gates, Runner and Riser cannot be shifted as and where required.
3. Complicated and intricate shapes cannot be easily cast by this process.

Application of Permanent Mould casting process.

For automobile pistons, Cooking utensils, Connecting rod, Aircraft fitting, Cylinder
block and small gear blank.
2.6. 1 DIE CASTING:
Die Casting is a permanent mould casting technique which involves the preparation of
component by injecting molten at high pressure into metallic die. In die casting machine,
Die consist of two parts. One part is known as stationary die or cover die which is fixed
to the machine. The second part is known as ejector die and is moved out for the
extraction of the casting. The lubricant ,(refractory material ) is n sprayed on die cavity
manually or by the auto lubrication system in order to prevent the die wear and sticking
of casting. The Two halves are closed and clamped. Within a fraction of the second, the
required amount of molten metal is fed into die under pressure so that it fills entire die
including all minute details. Then rapid cooling of metal takes place since die is water
cooled. After the casting solidifies, the die is opened and component is forced out
automatically by ejector pin.
The two main types of Die casting process.
1. Hot Chamber die casting.
2. Cold Chamber die casting

2.6.1.1 Hot Chamber Die Casting Process:

The metal is kept into a heated holding pot. A pot is provided near the top of cylinder to
allow the entry of molten metal. As the plunger ascends, the valve of the cylinder opens
and molten metal enters the cylinder. The stroke length of plunger is adjustable to enable
a specific amount of molten metal to enter the cylinder or goose neck. As the plunger
descends, the valve closes and molten metal is forced through the nozzle into the die. A
nozzle at the end of goose neck is kept in close con tact with the die through a sprue.

a). Hot chamber die casting . b). Cold chamber die casting .

Casting cycle starts with the closing of the die, when plunger is in highest position in
goose neck, thus allowing the molten metal to fill goose neck. When plunger start moving
down, the molten metal in the goose neck is forced to be injected into the die cavity. The
metal is solidified when held at the same pressure.
2.6.1.2 Cold Chamber Die Casting Process:
The hot chamber casting process I employed for low meting temperature metals and their
alloy such as Zinc, Lead and tin. The cold chamber die casting process is used for casting
metal and alloys which require high pressure and high melting temperature such as brass,
aluminum and magnesium. The metal melting unit is not integral part of machine in this
case and metals are melted in self contained pot in auxiliary furnace.
After closing the die with the core in position, molten metal is ladled into the horizontal
chamber through the metal inlet. The plunger is pushed forward hydraulically to force the
molten metal in to the die. After the solidification the die is opened and casting is ejected.
Material used for die in this casting process is high grade resistant alloy steel.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Die casting:

Advantages:
1. Very high rate of production can be achieved.
2. Close dimensional tolerances of the order of ± 0.025 mm can be achieved.
3. Good surface finish can be achieved.

Disadvantages:
1. The machinery and other equipment used are very costly.
2. Die casting generally contains some porosity because of the entrapped air.

Application of Die Casting.

Used for automobiles, carburetor, crank case and similar components of scooter, motor
cycles.
2.7 CENTRIFUGAL CASTING PROCESS:
Centrifugal casting is the process of rotating mould at high speeds as the molten metal is
poured into it due to centrifugal force of rotation towards the periphery or inside surface
of the mould with considerable pressure. Due to the centrifugal force, continuous
pressure will be acting on the metal as it solidifies. The impurities i.e. slag; oxide and
other inclusion being lighter get separated from the metal and segregates towards the
center. The process produces casting with greater accuracy and better physical properties
due to directional solidification compared to sand castings. It is mainly used for
symmetrical shape.
Methods of Centrifugal casting.
1. True Centrifugal Casting.
2. Semi – Centrifugal Casting.
3. Centrifuging casting.

2.7.1 True Centrifugal Casting Process:

In this process mould rotates about its axis, which may be horizontal, Vertical for
inclined at any suitable angle between 70 to 90 degrees, the metal is poured in so that the
internal shapes are formed by centrifugal action. No core is needed for producing
concentric hole. Massive thick metal moulds with a thin refractory coat allows the
solidification of molten metal faster i.e to procees from the wall of the mould towards
insides of the cast pipe.
The mould flask is mounted in between the rollers and rotated slowly. Now the molten
metal, in requisite quantity, is poured into the mould through the movable pouring basin.
The wall thickness of pipe produced is controlled by the amount of metal poured in to the
mould. After pouring is complete, the mould is rotated at its operational speed till it
solidifies to generate the requisite tubing.

Advantages of True Centrifugal Casting Process:

1. Casting produced by this process is sound is sound with dense structure.
2. Need of separate runners and risers are eliminated.
3. Production rate is sufficiently high.
4. No cores are required for making concentric holes.

Limitation of True Centrifugal Casting Process:

1. Equipment is expensive and requires skill labour for its maintenance.
2. Too high speed of mould may result in surface crack due to high stresses set up in
the mould.

2.7.2 Semi Centrifugal Casting Process:

Semi centrifugal casting is used for jobs which are large sized and more complicated than
those possible in true centrifugal casting but are symmetrical shaped. This process is also
known as profiled centrifugal casting . It is not essential that these should have a central
hole, which is to be obtained with the help of a core. The moulds made of sand or metal
are rotated about a vertical axis and molten metal enters the mould through the central
pouring basin and gate. The rotation speeds for this type of centrifugal casting are not
high as in the case of true centrifugal casting. This process produces dense structure at the
outer periphery while the center metal is generally removed.

2.7.3 Centrifuging casting:

In this centrifugal method, several casting cavities are located around the outer portion of
mould and metal is fed to this cavities through radial gates or runners from center gate .
In this process, the mould is designed with part cavities located away from the axis of
rotation so the molten metal poured into mould is distributed to these cavities by
centrifugal force. It is used for non-symmetrical casting having intricate detail and for
precision casting. A number of similar components can be cast simultaneously. It is
possible only in a vertical direction. Bearing caps or small brackets are cast by this
process.

2.8 INVESTMENT CASTING PROCESS.

It is also known as “Lost Wax Process” or “Precision casting process”
Wax pattern used in this process and which is subsequently melted from mould, leaving
all the details of original pattern. It is used for making high accuracy and intricate shape
casting.

Procedure for Investment Casting Process.

1. Die Making: To make a die of suitable material with proper surface finish in
which molten wax is poured or injected under pressure to produce pattern. Die
can be produced by directly machining of steel block. Dowel pins and
corresponding holes are provided on mating surface of two halves of dies to
secure them in proper alignment with each other.
2. Making wax patterns: Dies halves are closed properly by clamping and molten
wax is injected under pressure into the die with the help of wax injection machine.
Wax should have suitable grade, good strength, low shrinkage and ability to retain
good dimensional accuracy.
3. Assembling the Wax Pattern: If each pattern is small in size, several such
pattern can be joines together about a common wax sprue or wax gating so that
can be placed together in mould . This process of welding is done by hot wire
welder. The complete pattern assembly along with gates and riser is then placed in
a metal box called flask.

4. Investment preparation: The investment material can be applied around the wax
pattern to produce the mould with the help of following three methods.
i. Mix or Pour method: It involves the preparation of slurry of finely ground
refractory grains by mixing them with a suitable binder and pouring that
slurry into the flask carrying pattern tree.
 ii. Dip coated method: This method involves providing a thin coat on the
pattern surfaces of refractory slurry of the same type as discussed in first
method above . Another coating of cheaper and coarser investment is
applied after the first thin coating gets dried.
iii. Multiple dip coat method: This method is also called ceramic shell
method. In this process, repeated thin alternate coats of fine slurry,
followed by coarser investment material are provided on pattern tree or
assembly.

5. Removal of wax pattern: the moulds so created are dried in air for 2 to 3 hours
and then baked in oven in inverted position so that wax melts out. When
temperature reaches 100 to 120 degree centigrade, the wax melts out and is
collected through a hole in the borrom plate. After this mould is exposed to a
sintering process.
6. Pouring and Casting: After the removal of wax, the moulds are heated from 600
to 1000º C depending upon the nature of metal to be cast. The moulds are poured
just after their removal from the furnace and both the mould and metal are
allowed to cool down, keeping them out of contact with open air.

Advantages and Limitation of investment Casting.

Advantages:
1. Very close tolerances and better surface finish can be produced.
2. Close control of mechanical characteristics such a grains size, grain
orientation and directional solidification is possible.
3. This process adapted for all metal and alloys.

Limitation:
1. It is best applicable to casting weighing from a few grams to 5 Kg; so the
process has limitation of size and weight of the casting.
2. It is very expensive process due to large manual labour.

2.9 CONTINUOUS CASTING PROCESS:

This process consists of continuously pouring the molten metal into mould which has the
facilities for rapid cooling the metal to the point of solidification and withdrawing it from
the mould. It is largely applicable to brass , bronze, copper and aluminum but its
noteworthy application is in steel making. It is used for production of round ingots, slabs,
square billets and sheet metal.
Continuous casting is normally accomplished by pouring molten metal in the mould,
which is open at both ends. The metal is rapidly chilled by circulating water in the
cooling jacket and solid product is removed from the lower end of the mould.
William’s Continuous casting use for casting of carbon and alloy steel. It employs
brass or copper moulds of thickness which allow s heat flow rate that is sufficient to
protect the mould being damaged by the metal being cast. The molten metal is poured
from crucible or ladle first into heated basin known as “Tun dish ” and then into a
vertical copper mould, which is water cooled and open at both upper and lower ends.
The internal shape of the mould corresponds to that of the cross-section of the casting
required. The steel begins to solidify at the outer regions as it travels down through the
water cooled mould. By the time the metal leaves the lower end of the mould, solid crust
is formed, while interior remains liquid. Water spray accelerates the cooling process in
the cooling chamber. The metal is bent from vertical to horizontal orientation while still
hot and plastic. The castings are cut to length by oxyacetylene torch. These are then
rolled into the plate’s sheet stock or other cross sections as required.
Advantages of continuous casting.
1. Casting surface produce better ingots than other processes.
2. This process is cheaper than other rolling process.
3. Labour cost is less.

Application of continuous casting.

1. For production of bloom, billet and different cross section and sheets.
2. For casting of copper, brass, Zinc aluminum and its alloy.
2.10 SHELL MOULDIND PROCESS:
This process consists of preparing a mould which has two or thin shell like parts
consisting of thermosetting resin bonded sand. It is made up of a mixture of dried silica
sand snd phenol resin, formed into thin, half mould shells which are clamped together for
pouring. The sand free from clay, is first mixed with urea or phenol formaldehyde resin.
This process consists of five steps.
1. A metal pattern heated to about 240 ºC is clamped over a box containing sand
mixure discussed above (a)
2. The box and pattern ate inverted for a short time. When the mixture comes in
contact with hot pattern, t causes build up of a coherent sand shell next to the
pattern due to an initial set.(b)

3. The box and pattern are brought to its original position. The unaffected sand falls
into box whereas the shell of resin bond end sand is retained on the pattern
 surface. The shell, still on the pattern is placed in the oven and cured for 1 to 3
minutes. (c )
4. The assembly is removed from the oven and the shell is stripped from the pattern
by the ejector pin. Usually, a silicon parting agent may be sprayed on the pattern
to obtain clean stripping. (d)
5. The shell halves are assembled with clamps and supported in a flask with backing
sand . The shell mould is now ready for pouring process.

Advantages of Shell Moulding Process:

1. High dimensional accuracy and good surface finish is obtained.
2. Cleaning and machining costs are reduced due to good dimensional accuracy.
3. Dimensional tolerance of ±0.2 mm can be obtained.

Limitation of Shell Moulding Process:

1. The cost of the equipment including metal pattern is high.
2. Binders used in this process are more expensive than other binders.

2.11 CASTING DEFECTS AND THEIR REMEDIES:

1. Mismatch or mould shift:
It is a shift or misalignment between two mating surfaces or the top and bottom parts of
the casting at the mould joint. Shift may occur at the parting surface between two parts of
the mould which is called mould shift or at the core prints, thus providing a gap between
the core and core seat known as core shift.
Due to filling up of gap or clearance left between the mating surfaces by molten metal,
thin projections of metal to main casting are produced which are known as fins. This
defect is the result of worn or loose dowel in pattern made in halves, improper alignment
of mould boxes due to worn – out.
Remedies: This defect can be prevented by ensuring proper alignment of pattern and
moulding box.
2. Blow holes:
Blow holes are smooth, round holes appearing in the form of cluster of large number of
small holes occurring below the surface of the casting and not visible from outside. When
they are visible on upper surface of the casting, they are known as open blows.
Blow holes are produced in the casting due to production of too much steam and low
permeability of moulding sand and gases are generated when there is too much moisture
in moulding sand, cores not sufficiently baked. This would happen when sand is rammed
too hard, permeability is insufficient and venting is insufficient.
Remedies: To prevent blow holes, the moisture content in the moulding sand should be
properly controlled, sand of appropriate grain size should be used, and ramming should
not to be hard.
3. Warpage:
Warpage is an undesirable deformation or misalignment in the casting which may during
or after solidification. Large and thin sections are particularly prone to warpage. The
deformation takes place due to internal stress developed and different rates of
solidification in different section. Warpage in the casting occur due to ( a ) Faulty casting
Design, ( b ) Absennce of directional solidification.
Remedies: to produce large areas with corrugated wavy construction or sufficient rib to
improve cooling rates and make them equal in all area.

4. Pin holes:
These are some very small holes revealed on surface of casing. Pin holes are caused due
to:
a) Sand with high moisture content.
b) Absorption of hydrogen or carbon monoxide gas in the metal or alloy and
alloy not being properly degassed.

Remedies: This defect can be reduced or eliminated by reducing the moisture content of
moulding sand and increasing its permeability by employing good melting and fluxing
practices.
5. Fin:
A thin unintended projection as a part of casting is known as fin .Fins are usually occur at
the parting line or core sections. Fins are caused due to:
a) Loose plates and improper clamping of a flasks.
b) Over flexible bottom boards.

Remedies: Correct assembly of the moulds and cores used for casting.
6. Drop :
Drop is caused by dropping of the upper surface of mould cavity in the molten metal.
This caused by:
a) Low green strength of the moulding sand.
b) Low mould hardness.

c) Insufficient reinforcement of sand projections in the cope.

Remedies: By elimination of above factors.
7. Swell:
A swell is an enlargement of the mould cavity (and hence that of casting) due to molten
metal pressure, resulting in localized enlargement of casting. It is caused due to:
a) Insufficient or soft ramming.

b) Low mould strength and mould not being adequately supported.

Remedies: Sand should be rammed evenly and properly.
 8. Metal penetration:
This defect occurs as a rough and uneven external surface of the casting. It is caused
when the molten metal enters into the spaces between the sand grains. This metal
penetration takes place due to low strength, large size of moulding sand , its high
permeability and soft ramming
Remedies: Use of fine grain and with low permeability and appropriate ramming.
9. Shot metal:
This defect appears in the form of small metal shots embedded in the casting and
revealed on the fractured surface of the casting. It so happens, if the molten metal is at a
relatively lower temperature and during pouring into the mould, it splashes. The small
particles separated from the main stream during the pouring thrown ahead and solidify
quickly to form shots. If these shots do not fuse with the rest of the molten metal in the
mould, it gives rise to this defect.
Remedies: By proper control over pouring temperature, sulphur content of metal, gating
system and moisture content of moulding sand.
10. Fusion:
Sand may fuse and stick to the casting surface with the result this defect appears as a
rough surface over the casting. It occurs when molten metal enters the mould cavity and
comes in contact with sand, the sand melts and gets fused to the casting surface due to
excessive heat of molten metal.
Causes: lack of refractoriness of sand, too high temperature of molten metal, faulting
gating and poor facing sand.
Remedies: Use of sand with high refractoriness, improvement in gating system and
adequate control over pouring temperature of molten metal.

11. Hot tears:

Internal and external cracks having ragged edges on the surface of casting are known as
hot tears. If metals having low strength immediately after solidification develop high
stresses during solidification, the metal fails with resulting hot tears.
Causes:
 Excessive mould hardness

 too much shrinkage of molten metal

 low ability of molten metal.

12. Porosity:
A large number of holes in a casting are termed as porosity. This is caused by the gases
absorbed or dissolved in the metal during melting and pouring. The gases commonly
absorbed are nitrogen, hydrogen and oxygen.
Causes:
  Excessive pouring temperature.

 Slow rate of solidification.

 high moisture content of mould.

Remedies:
 Maintenance of proper melting temperature.

 Permeability of the mould should be improved.

13. Misrun and Cold shuts.

When the molten metal fails to fill the entire mould cavity before the metal starts
solidifying, resulting in an incomplete casting, the defect is known as misrun.
Two streams of molten metal approach each other in the mould cavity from opposite
directions but fail to fuse together properly, with the result of discontinuity between
them, it is called a cold shut.
Causes:
 Improper gating system.

 Too thin casting sections.

Remedies:
 Providing appropriate pouring temperature to ensure proper fluidity.
 Date:
PRACTICAL: 03

AIM: TO STUDY ABOUT VARIOUS TYPES OF

MOULDING SAND AND MOULDING
OPERATIONS.

3.1. DEFINITION
The process creating the cavity or making of mould is known as moulding.

3.2. MOULDING MATERIALS

Various types of materials are used in the foundries for the manufacture of casting
moulds and cores. These materials are divided in to two groups: basic and auxiliary.
Basic moldings materials include : Silica sands, which forms the various base and the
various binders. The at is auxiliary group includes various additives which impart desired
properties to the moulding and core sands.
The essential constituents of moulding sand are:
 It is cheap, plentiful and easily available.
 It is characterized by a high softening temperature and thermal stability, which is
highly refractory.
 Easily moulded, reusable and capable of giving good details.Silica sand forms the
bulk of moulding sand.
Binder may be present in natural sand or added to silica sand separately. In
combination with water, it is the bonding agent in green sand. Although moist particles
do adhere to one another slightly, but coating with moist clay, the strength of the mixed
sand is increased three folds. Clay imparts cohesiveness and plasticity to the moulding
sand in the moist state and increases its strength with sufficient plasticity, the sand is said
to be “tempered”.
Additives impart to the moulding sand special properties (strength, thermal
stability, permeability, refractoriness, thermal expansion etc.)

3.2.1. Sand according to the amount of clayey matter they contain, the moulding sands
are classified as:
 Silica sand: Up to 20% clay.
 Lean or weak sand: 2 to 10% clay
 Moderately strong sand: 10 to 20% clay
 Strong sand: Up to 30% clay
  Extra strong sand: Up to 50% clay.
There are three types of sand used for making moulds: natural, synthetic and chemically
coated.

3.2.1.1. Natural sand: A natural sand is the on which is available from natural
deposits. Only assistive and water need to be added to it to make it satisfactory for
moulding. The clay content of most natural sands is slightly higher than the desired so
that new sand can be continuously added to the used sand to replenish that which is lost.

3.2.1.2. Synthetic sand: A synthetic sand is prepared by mixing a relatively clay

free and having a specified type of clay binder as well as water and other additives. All
are mixed in the foundry. This sand has the advantage that sand grains of specified
composition and properties can be prepared on the basis of the metal being cast.

3.2.1.3. Chemically coated sand: clean silica grains are sometimes coated with a
non thermosetting hydrocarbon resin, which acts as a binder. An additional binder in the
form of clay can also be used. The advantage of this sand is that the carbon in the resin
which is an excellent refractory surrounds the sand grains and does not allow the molten
metal to reach the sand grains. This produces casting with the clean surface as the sand
does not get fused in them. The moisture content in the sand is kept to above 3%.
Moulding sand exhibits maximum strength at a moisture content of 4% for lean sands and
of 6 to 7% for loam sands.
Typical green moulding sand for gray iron moulding are given below:
Silica sand = 68 to 86%
Clay = 10 to 20%
Water = 3 to 6%
Additives = 1 to 6%

3.2.2. Binders: Binders used in a foundry are : Inorganic and organic binders.
Organic binders used for core making and will be discussed later.
Clay binders are the main inorganic binders. Clays are formed by weathering and
decomposition of rocks. the common type of clay used in the moulding sand are fireclay,
kaolinite, illite, and bentonite clays are most popular, because they have high thermo
chemical stability.

3.2.2.1. Fire clay. Fire clay is refractory clay usually found in the coal measures.

3.2.2.2. Kaolinite. Its general composition is al2o 3 . 2sio2. 2H2o. It is one of the
decomposition
products of slow weathering of graphite and basalt. It is main constituent of china fire
clay. Its melting point is 1750 to 17870c

3.2.2.3. Illite. This clay has approximate composition. K2O.Al2o3.Sio2.H2O. it is

formed from the weathering of mica rocks. Its particle size is about the same as the
kaolinite clay and has similar moulding properties.

3.2.2.4. Bentonite. Its general composition is MgO.Al2O3.Sio2.H2O. it is formed

by weathering of volcanic or igneous rocks. It is a creamy white powder. Its melting
point is 1250- 1300o c
The basic constituent which gives refractoriness to a clay is alumina. Of all clays
bentonite is the most commonly used clay. It needs smaller amount of water to obtain a
given degree of plasticity. This will result in less stream generation when the molten
metal is poured into the mould, permitting a lower permeability in the moulding sand.

3.2.3. Other binders can be: Portland cement and sodium silicate. The
percentage of binder in the moulding sand is of great importance. The bond must be
strong enough to with stand the pressure of and erosion by the melt, yet it must be
sufficiently weakened by the heat of metal to allow shrinkage of the casting and finally
removal of the sand without damage to the solid casting. However, bond must not destroy
the permeability of the sand so that gases present in the melt or produced by the heat of
the melt in the binder itself can escape.

3.2.3 Organic binders: The binders are most frequently used in core making.
Cereal binders are obtained from wheat, corn or rye; resins; drying oils, for example,
linseed oil, fish oil, soybeans oil, and some mineral oils, pitch and molasses.

3.2.3 Additives. Additives are the materials added in small quantities to the
moulding sand in order to enhance its exiting properties and to impart to it special
properties. These additives may be necessary to give a good surface finish to the casting
or to eliminate casting defects that’s arise from either the expansion of the moulding sand
as it is heated or the contraction of the casting as it cools in the mould. There may be
some overlapping between an additive and a binder because many people include organic
binders also in the category of additives.
Metal penetration or burning on is penetration of metal between sand grains and
also strong adhesion of the fused or sintered sand to the metal of the casting surface. The
burnt on sand involves difficulty in cleaning operations and is responsible for rapid wear
of cutting tools used to machine the castings. Some common additives used to prevent the
above mentioned defects and to improve the quality of the casting are discussed below:
 3.2.3.1. Sea Coal. Sea coal or coal dust is finely ground soft coal (pulverized
coal). It is added to moulding sand used to make ferrous castings. It tends to obtain
smoother and cleaner surfaces of castings and also reduces the adherence of sand
particles to the casting. It also increases the strength of the moulding sand. It is added up
to 8%. Also, when molten metal fills the mould, coal dust burns and gives off volatile
substances containing the gases CO and CO2 which from a gas spacing between the
mould walls and metal. This “gas jacket” not only prevents interaction between the metal
of the casting and the sand and thus prevents the metal penetration into the sand, but also
makes the mould more collapsible when the metal shrinks. Other carbon rich materials
which are sometimes substituted for sea coal are: finely group coke, pitch and Asphalt
(2%), graphite (0.2to2%).

3.2.3.2. Cereals. Foundry cereal is finely ground corn flour or corn starch. It
(0.25-2%) increases the green and dry strengths of the moulding sand. Since the cereal is
organic, it is “burned out” when hot metal comes in contact with it. This gives rise to
space for accommodating the expansion of silica sand at the surfaces of mould cavity,
without buckling these. Because of their low density, about 1%is generally sufficient.
Saw Dust. It increases the gas permeability and deformability of moulds and cores, it
must be dry. Instead of saw dust, one can use peat that contains about 70-73% volatile
substance, not over 5 or 6% ash and up to 25-30% moisture.

3.2.3.3. Wood Flour. It is ground wood particles or other cellulose materials such
as grain hulls. They serve the same purpose as cereals except that they do not increase
green strength as much. When required, about 1% is added.

3.2.3.4. Silica Flour. It is very fine ground silica. It is generally mixed with about
twice as much conventional moulding sand to make” facing sand” and is used to surround
the pattern. It thus improves the surface finish of the casting, and because of its purity, it
increases the hot strength of the mould face. It also resists metal penetration and
minimizes sand expansion defects.
Some other common additives are:

3.2.3.4.1. Fuel Oil. It improves the mould ability of sand.

3.2.3.4.2. Iron Oxide. It develops hot strength.

3.2.3.4.3. Dextrin. It increases air setting strength, toughness and collapsibility

and prevents sand from drying rapidly. During pouring of molten metal, it gasifies, thus
producing extra space between the grains without any grain distortion.
 3.2.3.4.4. Molasses. It is the by product of sugar industry. It enhances the bench
life of sand and imparts high dry strength and collapsibility to moulds and cores. Due to
high temperature in the mould; it develops CO2 which sets up a hardening action of the
mould.

3.2.4. Facing Materials. These materials when added to the moulding sand tend
to obtain smoother and cleaner surfaces of castings, help easy peeling of sand from the
casting surface during shake out and prevent metal penetration. Sea coal, pitch (distilled
from soft coals), asphalt, graphite and silica flour discussed above, act as facing
materials.

3.2.5. Cushion Materials. These materials when added to the moulding sand
burn and from gases when the molten metal is poured into the mould cavity. This gives
rise to space for accommodating the expansion of the sand at the mould cavity surface.
Wood flour, cereals, cereal hulls and cellulose etc. discussed above are called as ‘Cushion
materials’.

3.3. OTHER TYPES OF MOULDING SANDS

3.3.1. Facing sand. This sand is used directly next to the surface of the pattern
and comes into contact with the molten metal when the mould is poured. As a result, it is
subjected to the severest conditions and must possess, therefore, high strength and
refractoriness. This sand also provides a smoother casting surface and should be of fine
texture. It is made of silica sand and clay, and some additives without the addition of used
sand. The layer of facing sand in a mould usually ranges from 25-50mm.

3.3.2. Backing Sand. This is the sand which is used to back up the facing sand
and to fill the whole volume of the flask. Old, repeatedly used moulding sand is mainly
employed for this purpose.

3.3.3. System Sand. In mechanized foundries, where machine moulding is

employed a so called “system sand” is used to fill the whole flask. Since the whole mould
is made up of this system sand, the strength, the permeability and refractoriness of the
sand must be higher than that of backing sand.

3.3.4. Parting sand. This sand is used to prevent adhering of two halves of mould
surfaces in each moulding box when they are separated. Thus, to ensure good parting, the
mould surface(at contact of cope and Drag)should be treated with parting sand or some
other parting material. It is also sprinkled or applied on the pattern surface (before the
moulding sand is put over it)to avoid its sticking and permit its easy Withdrawal from the
mould. The parting sand is fine dry sand. There is other parting material also used in
foundry.
3.3.5. Dry parting materials. These are applied by dusting. These include :
charcoal, ground bone and limestone, lycopodium(a yellow vegetable matter), tripolite(a
silicate rock), ground nut shells, Talc(Magnesium silicate,3MgO,4SiO2.H2O)and
Calcium phosphate.

3.3.6. Wet parting materials. These are not used with wooden patterns, but are
used mostly in machine moulding when metal patterns are used. They are wax based
preparation, petroleum jelly mixed with oil, paraffin and stearic acid.

3.3.7. Mould Surface Coating. Mould surfaces are coated (after the pattern is
drawn out) with certain materials possessing high refractoriness. It eliminates the
possibility of burn-on and enables casting with smooth surface to be obtained. However,
the permeability of the mould gets reduced. Therefore, the Coating should not contain gas
forming materials. Mould surface coating which are also known as facings, dressings,
washes, blackings or whitening, may be applied dry(by dusting) or wet in the form of thin
cream. The various mould surface coating materials include: Coal dust, pitch, graphite,
china clay, Zircon flour or French chalk (Calcium oxide).

3.3.8. Moulding Sand for Non-ferrous Casting. The melting point of non-
ferrous metal is much lower than that of ferrous metals. Therefore, the moulding sands
for non-ferrous casting may be less refractory and permeable. Also, a smooth surface is
desirable on non-ferrous casting. Due to all this, the moulding sands for non-ferrous
casting contain a considerable amount of clay and fine grained.

3.4. PROPERTIES OF THE MOULDING SAND

3.4.1. Permeability. Permeability or porosity of the moulding sand is the

measure of its ability to permit air to flow throws it.

3.4.1.1. Strength or Cohesiveness. It is defined as the property of holding

together of sand grains.

3.4.1.2. Refractoriness. It is the ability of the moulding sand mixture to

withstand the heat of melt without showing any signs of softening or fusion.

3.4.1.3. Plasticity or Flow ability. It is the measure of the moulding sand to flow
around and over a pattern during ramming and to uniformly fill the flask.
 3.4.1.4. Collapsibility. This is the ability of the moulding sand to decrease in
volume to some extent under the compressive forces developed by the shrinkage of metal
during freezing and subsequent cooling.

3.4.1.5. Adhesiveness. This is the property of sand mixture to adhere to another

body.
3.4.1.6. Co-efficient of Expansion. The sand should have low co-efficient of
expansion.

3.5 OTHER REFRACTORY MATERIALS

In addition to silica sand, some other refractory materials which are used for
special purposes are :
 Zircon : Zr Si O4
 Chromites : Fe Cr2 O4
 Olivine : ((Mg Fe)2 Si O4)

3.6. CARBON- DI- OXIDE MOULD

The process of co2 molding is basically a hardening process for molds and cores.
The molds are prepared from clean and dry silica sand with 3 to 5% by weight of sodium
silicate liquid base binder and moisture up to 3%. Wood flour, coal dust, pitch or graphite
is added to mold sand mixture to increase collapsibility. The sand mixture is later packed
around the pattern and gassing of co 2 is done for 15 to 30 seconds before removing the
pattern from the sand. The co2 reacts with sodium silicate, precipitating SiO2, witch with
water forms a silica jel, which is cement like material and binds the sand grains together
giving strength and hardness to the mold.
Na2SiO3 + CO2 + H2O → Na2CO3 + SiO2 + H2O
The co2 hardened cores are also made in a similar way. The co 2 hardened molds
are used for casting both ferrous and nonferrous metals and preferred for casting thin
sections such as sharp corners and cooling fins on a heat exchanger. Co2 hardened molds
and cores can be stored for a longer period.

3.7. SHELL MOLDS

These molds are prepared by pouring a mixture of sand and thermosetting resin
over the heated surface of a metallic pattern, which results into the formation of a thin
and rigid layer or shell of uniform thickness around the pattern, which, when separated
from the pattern surface, forms one part of the shell mold and two such parts are joined
together to form the complete shell mold.
The process of making shell mold, a brass or aluminum pattern is clamped on a
steel plate which also carries projections to produce runners, risers, etc. in the mold cast
on this plate. The assembly of pattern is heated to 1750C to 3700C and later sprayed with
a silicon release agent to help easy removal of mold shell from the pattern. A molding
mixture comprising fine silica sand and 3 to 10 % synthetic resin is prepared and dumped
over the hot pattern and plate assembly held in a box and is allowed to remain in contact
with hot pattern assembly for about 30 seconds. This results in the softening of resin and
formation of a shell or coating of uniform thickness around the pattern assembly. Latter
the assembly of pattern with the formed shell is cured by heating to a temperature.
Example of shell mold cast products include: cylinder heads, connecting rods, gear
housings and other mechanical parts.

3.8. MOULDING PROCESS

 Date:
PRACTICAL:04

AIM: DESIGN OF CASTING WITH GATTING SYSTEM,

RISER, RUNNER.

4.1 CASTING
The casting is the solidified piece of metal, which is taken out of the mould is
called “casting”
OR
An object at or near finished shape obtain by solidification of a
substance in a mould is called “casting”

4.2 FUNDAMENTAL OF METAL CASTING

(1)Melting the material
(2)Allowing the molten metal to cool and solidify in the mould

“A plane where the castings are made is called “foundry”. The casting process is also
called as “founding”. The world founding is derived from Latin word Funder means
“Melting and pouring”

Advantages
 Part of intricate shapes can be produced.
 Good mechanical and service properties.
 Mechanical and automobile casting process help decrease the cast of casting

Applications
 There is hardly any machine or equipment which does not have one or
 more cast component
 Automobile engine blocks.
 Cylinder block of automobile,
 Airplane engine.
 Piston or piston ring
The mass of casting may be as great as 70% to 80% of the products mass

4.3 TYPES OF CASTING PROCESS

4.3.1 Die Casting
In the die casting process the, mould used for a casting is permanent
called a die casting. it is shown in figure 4.1. It is thus quite different from sand casting
where the mould is expandable and must be broken in order to obtain the casting. If the
molten metal is forced into a metallic die under external pressure, the process is known as
“pressure die casting” or “simply die casting”

Product application of Die-casting

(1). house sold equipment
(2). business equipment
(3). hardware
(4). industrial equipment
(5). music & communication

Fig.4.1 Die Casting

A precision casting techniques, die casting uses a permanent die or mould, into
which molten metal is directly discharge.

Types of die-casting
(1). Hot chamber machine
(2). cold chamber machine

4.3.2 Sand Casting

- Sand casting is the most common technique used around the world.
- A sand is used as refractory material in sand moulding system.
- Sand casting process is a binder maintains the shape of the mould while pouring
molten metal.
 - There is a wide range of binder system that are used in san casting. as shown in
figure 4.2.

Fig 4.2 Sand Casting

4.3.3 Investment casting

-Investment casting produces very high surface quality and dimensional accuracy.
-Investment casting is commonly used for precision equipment such as surgical
equipment, for complex geometries and for precious metals.
-This process is commonly used by artisans to produce highly detailed artwork.
The first step is to produce a pattern or replica of the finished mould. Wax is most
commonly used to form the pattern, although plastic is also used.

4.4 DESIGN OF GATTING SYSTEM

The molten metal from the ladle is not introduced directly into the mould cavity
be it will strike the bottom of the mould cavity with a great velocity. As shown in figure
4.3.

Fundamental of gatting system

Fig 4.3 Gatting System

The main component of gatting system

 Pouring basin
 sprue
 sprue base
 runner
 choke
 skim bob
 gates and
 riser

The liquid metal that runs through the various channels in the mould obeys the
Bernoulli’s theorem
p
h   v 2  consant
w

Where h= potential head,m

p= pressure, a
m
v= liquid velocity,
s
N
w= specific weight of liquid,
m3
g= gravitational constant
And the liquid flow rate.

Q  AV
 Pouring Time

T
t  k (1.41  ) w
14.59
fluidityofironininch
Where K=
40
T= average section thickness,mm
w= mass of casting

 Chock Area

W
A
dtc 2 gh
Where A= chock area, mm 2
w= casting mass,kg
t= pouring time’s
kg
d= mass density,
mm3
 mm
g= acceleration due to gravity,
s2
h= effective metal head,mm
c= efficiency factor

 Sprue
ht
At  Ac
h
Where H= Actual sprue height
ht = H+h
 Other gatting element

(1).Pouring basin
As per experience shows that the radius of pouring basin is 25mm
Pouring basin depth = 2.5 * sprue entrances dia.
(2). Sprue base ball
1 D
Area  1 A  w   (  In two runner system)
2 2
Well dia.= 2.5 * width of the runner
 Ingrate Design

Q2 v2
Height h  1.6 3 
gb 2 2 g
Where Q= metal flow rate
b= gate width,mm
mm
v= metal velocity in runner,
s2
mm
g= acceleration due to gravity,
s2
 Rise ring design
(1).clans method
2
v
ts  k  
 sa 
ts = solidification time,s
v= volume of the casting
s A = surface area
k= mould constant
Freezing ratio
s Acasting / Vcasting
X 
S Ariser / Vriser
 a
X c
y b
y= riser volume
a,b,c= constant whose values are as per
Material use
(2). Modulus method
 D3
Volume=
4
D= dia. of the riser
2
D
Surface area=   D2
4
mod ulusofthecube
Ranginess factor R=
mod ulusofcasting
 Date:
PRACTICAL NO: 05

AIM :STUDY OF WELDING PROCESSES WITH

IT’S CLASSIFICATIONS, WELDING DEFECTS,
WELDING ELECTRODES AND ELECTRODE
COATING.

5.1 WELDING DEFINITION

5.1.1 As per American welding society (AWS)
Welding is defined as “a localized coalescence of metals or non-metals produced
either by heating the material to suitable temperature, with or without the application of
pressure or by the application of pressure alone and with or without the use of filler
material.”
The filler metal has a melting point approximately the same as the base mates.

5.1.2 As per Indian standard (IS 812-1957)

Define weld as “a union between two pieces of a metal at faces rendered plastic or
liquid by heat or by pressure or both filler metal may be used to effect the union”

5.2 CLASSIFICATION OF WELDING PROCESSES

The classificated depending upon the nature of heat source and its movement
resulting in spot, seam or zonal welds; or on the extent of heat generation viz., low heat
and high heat.

1.Cast-weld processes
 Thermit welding
 Electoslag welding

2. Arc , Beam, and Flame welding processes

A.) Seam welds
 Carbon Arc
 Submerged Arc
 Shielded metal Arc
 Fus Arc
 Gas tungsten Arc
 Gas metal Arc
 Plasma Arc
 Plasma –MIG
  Electrogas welding
 Electron beam welding
 Laser welding
 Oxy-acetylene welding

B.) Spot welds

 GTAW
 GMAW
 Stud welding

2. Resistance welding processes

A.) Spot welds
 Spot welding
 Projection welding
B.) Seam welds
 Seam welding
 Electric resistance welding
 H.F. Resistance welding
 H.F. Induction welding
C.) Zonal welds
 Resistance Butt welding
 Flash Butt welding
 Percussion welding

3. Solid-state welding processes

A.) High heat input processes
 Friction welding
 Forge welding
 Diffusion bonding
B.) Low heat input processes
 Ultrasonic welding
 Explosion welding
 Cold pressure welding
 Thermo-compression bonding

5.3 TYPES OF WELDED JOINTS

Welded joints are primarily of five kinds.

5.3.1 Lap or fillet joint

Lap joint is obtained by overlapping the plates and welding their edges. The fillet
joints may be single transverse fillet, double transverse fillet or parallel fillet joints.
 Fig 5.1 : Lap or fillet joint:

5.3.2Butt joints:
formed by placing the plates edge to edge and welding them. Grooves are
sometimes cut (For thick plates) on the edges before welding. According to the shape of
the grooves, the butt joints may be of different types, e.g.,

Fig 5.2 : Butt joints

 Square butt joint

 Single V-butt joint, double V-butt joint
 Single U-butt joint, double U-butt joint
 Single J-butt joint, double J-butt joint
 Single bevel-butt joint, double bevel butt joint

5.3.3 Corner joint

The flush corner joint is designed primarily for welding sheet metal that is 12
gauge or thinner. It is restricted to lighter materials.

5.3.3.1 The half-open corner joint is used for welding materials heavier than 12 gauge.
Pene- tration is better than in the flush corner joint, but its use is only
recommended for moderate loads.

5.3.3.2 The full-open corner joint produces a strong joint, especially when welded
on both sides. It is useful for welding plates of all thicknesses.

Fig5.3: corner joint

5.3.4 Tee joints:

 The square tee joint requires a fillet weld that can be made on one or both sides. It can
be used for light or fairly thick materials. For maximum strength, considerable weld
metal should be placed on each side of the vertical plate.

5.3.5 Edge joints:

The flanged edge joint is suit- able for plate 1/4 inch or less in thickness and can
only sustain light loads. Edge preparation for this joint may be done.

Fig 5.5: edge joint

5.4 WELDING POSITIONS

1. Flat Position - usually groove welds, fillet welds only if welded like a “V”
2. Horizontal - Fillet welds, welds on walls (travel is from side to side).
3. Vertical - welds on walls (travel is either up or down).
4. Overhead - weld that needs to be done upside down.

Fig 5.6: Welding position

5.5 WELDING DEFECTS

5.5.1 Definition
A discontinuity is an objective lack of material, an interruption in the physical
consistence of a part. Examples are cracks, seams, laps, porosity or inclusions. It may or
may not be considered a defect depending if it its presence endangers or not the integrity,
the usefulness and the serviceability of the structure.

Fig 5.7: welding defect

By knowing what is likely to produce Welding-defects one should learn how to

avoid them. It is essential to distinguish discontinuities from harmful defects. Production
without defects saves work time, materials, repair costs, decrease in productivity.

5.5.2 Common welds defects :

1. Lack of fusion
2. Lack of penetration or excess penetration
3. Porosity
4. Inclusions
5. Cracking
6. Undercut
7. Lamellar tearing

1. Lack of fusion :
Lack of fusion is the poor adhesion of the weld bead to the base metal; incomplete
penetration is a weld bead that does not start at the root of the weld groove. These types
of defects occur when the welding procedures are not adhered to; possible causes include
the current setting, arc length, electrode angle, and electrode manipulation. To achieve a
good quality join it is essential that the fusion zone extends the full thickness of the sheets
being joined. Thin sheet material can be joined with a single pass and a clean square edge
will be a satisfactory basis for a join.

2. Porosity
This occurs when gases are trapped in the solidifying weld metal. These may arise
from damp consumables or metal or, from dirt, particularly oil or grease, on the metal in
the vicinity of the weld. This can be avoided by ensuring all consumables are stored in
dry conditions and work is carefully cleaned and degreased prior to welding.

3. Inclusions
These can occur when several runs are made along a V join when joining thick
plate using flux cored or flux coated rods and the slag covering a run is not totally
removed after every run before the following run.

4. Cracking
This can occur due just to thermal shrinkage or due to a combination of strain
accompanying phase change and thermal shrinkage. In the case of welded stiff frames, a
combination of poor design and inappropriate procedure may result in high residual
stresses and cracking.
Welding Cracks are of the following type:

 Micro Cracks: They are very small and are revealed only under a microscope.
 Macro cracks: These cracks can be seen by the eye or bye use of a low power
magnifier.
 Fissures: These are wide cracks which emerge to the surface of metal.
Crack Location

 In the weld metal zone.

 In the base metal zone.
 Sometimes, the cracks originate in one zone and then spread to other zones.

5. Undercut
Undercutting is when the weld reduces the cross-sectional thickness of the base
metal, which reduces the strength of the weld and work pieces. One reason for this type
of defect is excessive current, causing the edges of the joint to melt and drain into the
weld; this leaves a drain-like impression along the length of the weld. A third reason is
using an incorrect filler metal, because it will create greater temperature gradients
between the center of the weld and the edges. Other causes include too small of an
electrode angle, a dampened electrode, excessive arc length, and slow speed.

Fig 5.8: Undercut

6. Lamellar tearing
This is mainly a problem with low quality steels. It occurs in plate that has a low
ductility in the through thickness direction, which is caused by non metallic inclusions,
such as sulphides and oxides that have been elongated during the rolling process. These
inclusions mean that the plate can not tolerate the contraction stresses in the short
transverse direction. Lamellar tearing can occur in both fillet and butt welds, but the most
vulnerable joints are 'T' and corner joints, where the fusion boundary is parallel to the
rolling plane.

5.6 INSPECTION AND TESTING OF WELDING

5.6.1 Visual Inspection
Prior to any welding, the materials should be visually inspected to see that they
are clean, aligned correctly, machine settings, filler selection checked, etc.As a first stage
of inspection of all completed welds, visual inspected under good lighting should be
carried out. A magnifying glass and straight edge may be used as a part of this process.
Undercutting can be detected with the naked eye and (provided there is access to the
reverse side) excess penetration can often be visually detected.

5.6.2. X - Ray Inspection

Sub-surface cracks and inclusions can be detected 'X' ray examination. This is
expensive, but for safety critical joints - eg in submarines and nuclear power plants -
100% 'X' ray examination of welded joints will normally be carried out.

Fig 5.9 : x- ray testing

5.6.3. Ultrasonic Inspection

Surface and sub-surface defects can also be detected by ultrasonic inspection.
This involves directing a high frequency sound beam through the base metal and weld on
a predictable path. When the beam strikes a discontinuity some of it is reflected beck.
This reflected beam is received and amplified and processed and from the time delay.
 Fig 5.10: Ultrasonic Inspection

Porosity, however, in the form of numerous gas bubbles causes a lot of low amplitude
reflections which are difficult to separate from the background noise. Results from any
ultrasonic inspection require skilled interpretation.

5.6.4. Radiographic Testing (RT)

This method of weld testing makes use of X-rays, produced by an X-ray tube, or
gamma rays, produced by a radioactive isotope. The basic principle of radiographic
inspection of welds is the same as that for medical radiography. Penetrating radiation is
passed through a solid object. The amount of energy absorbed by the object depends on
its thickness and density. Energy not absorbed by the object will cause exposure of the
radiographic film. These areas will be dark when the film is developed. Areas of the film
exposed to less energy remain lighter. Inclusions of low density, such as slag, will appear
as dark areas on the film while inclusions of high density, such as tungsten, will appear as
light areas. All discontinuities are detected by viewing shape and variation in density of
the processed film.

Fig 5.15 : Radiographic Testing

This is a slow and expensive method of nondestructive testing; it is a positive

method for detecting porosity, inclusions, cracks, and voids in the interior of welds.
There are obvious safety considerations when conducting radiographic testing. X-ray and
gamma radiation is invisible to the naked eye and can have serious heath and safety
implications. Only suitably trained and qualified personnel should practice this type of
testing.

5.7 Electrodes
Electodes used for arc welding are of two types
1. Non consunable
2. Consumable

5.7.1 Non Consumable electrodes

These electrode are made of carbon,Graphite or Tungsten.Carbon and Graphite
electrode are used for D.C. welding only.tungsten electrode are used for D.C. as well as
A.C. welding. When non consumable electrodes are used, the filler material is added
separately. Since the electrode is virtually not consumed,the arc length remains constant,
so that it is stable and easy to maintain.

5.7.2 Consumable electrodes

Consumable electrode provides the also filler material also.these may be made of
various metals, but should have the same composition as the material to be welded.
The consumable electrode are of three kind
1. Bare electrodes
2. Fluxed or lightly coated electodes
3. Coated or exurted/ shielded electrodes
5.7.2.1 Bare electrodes
Bare electrodes may be used to weld wrought iron or mild steel. They must be
used only with straight polarity. Bare electrodes in the form of sticks or rod are used for
hand arc welding.
5.7.2.2 Lightly coated electrodes
Lightly coated electodes have a coating layer several tenths of a millimeter
thick,the weight of coating is from 1 to 5 per cent of the electrode weight.these electodes
are used in welding only noncriticle structure.these weld have poor mechanical
efficiency.
5.7.2.3 Coated electrodes
Coated electrodes are covered with a relatively high quality covering applied in a
layer of 1 to 3 mm. The weight of such a coating is from 15 to 30 % of the electrode. The
greatest amount of welding is done with coated electrodes.
The sticks are available in the size of 3.2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9 and 12 mm diameter and
lenths of 350 or 450 mm.
5.7.3 Function of coatings
 Improves arc stability by providing certain chemicals which have this ability, by
ionizing the path of arc.
 Provides a protective slag over hot metal
 Reduces flux,which helps to remove oxides and other impurities from the molten
weld metal.
 Acts as deoxidizer.
 Adds alloying elements.
 Increase deposition efficiency.
 Slows down the cooling rate of weld to prevent hardening.
 Coating are normally insulation of electricity and so permit the use of electrodes
in narrow grooves
 Date:
PRACTICAL NO: 06

AIM: PERFORMANCE OF GAS WELDING AND GAS

CUTTING.

6.1 GAS WELDING

6.1.1 Definition

Metal joining process in which the ends of pieces to be joined are heated at their
interface by producing coalescence with one or more gas flames (such as oxygen and
acetylene), with or without the use of a filler metal.
6.1.2 Types of Gas Welding
Gas welding involves the use of a gas-fed flame torch to heat the metal work
piece and the filler material to create a weld. The gas is generally a mixture of a fuel gas
and oxygen to create a clean, hot flame. Many different gases can be used as fuel for gas
welding, and electricity is not needed to power the welding system, resulting in a flexible
and portable fabrication method. All gas welding techniques require proper safety
equipment for the welder and storage of the welding gases.

6.1.2.1 Oxy-Acetylene Welding

Oxy-acetylene welding uses a mixture of acetylene gas and oxygen gas to feed the
welding torch. Oxy-acetylene welding is the most commonly used gas welding technique.
This gas mixture also provides the highest flame temperature of available fuel gases,
however acetylene is generally the most expensive of all fuel gases. Acetylene is an
unstable gas and requires specific handling and storage procedures.

6.1.2.2 Oxy-Gasoline Welding

Pressurized gasoline is used as a welding fuel where fabrication costs are an issue,
particularly in locations where acetylene canisters are not available. Gasoline torches can
be more effective than acetylene for torch-cutting thick steel plates. The gasoline can be
hand-pumped from a pressure cylinder, a common practice by jewelry makers in
impoverished areas.

6.1.2.3 MAPP Gas Welding

Methyl acetylene-propadiene-petroleum (MAPP) is a gas mixture that is much more
inert than other gas mixtures, making it safer for hobbyists and recreational welders to
use and store. MAPP can also be used at very high pressures, allowing it to be used in
high-volume cutting operations.
 1. Butane/Propane Welding
Butane and propane are similar gases that can
be used alone as fuel gases or mixed together.
Butane and propane have a lower flame
temperature than acetylene, but are less
expensive and easier to transport. Propane
torches are more frequently used for soldering,
bending and heating. Propane requires a
different type of torch tip to be used than an
injector tip because it is a heavier gas.
2. Hydrogen Welding
Hydrogen can be used at higher pressures than
other fuel gases, making it especially useful for
underwater welding processes. Some hydrogen
welding equipment works off electrolysis by
splitting water into hydrogen and
oxygen to be used in the welding process. Fig. 6.1 Modern setup
This type of electrolysis is often used for small torches, such as those used in jewelry
making processes.

6.1.3 GAS Welding Equipments

Figure 5.2 Gas Welding Equipment

The basic equipments used to carry out gas welding are:
1. Oxygen gas cylinder.
2. Acetylene gas cylinder.
3. Oxygen pressure regulator.
4. Acetylene pressure regulator.
5. Oxygen gas hose (Blue).
6. Acetylene gas hose (Red).
7. Welding torch or blow-pipe with a set of nozzles and gas lighter.
8. Trolleys for the transportation of oxygen and acetylene cylinders.
9. A set of keys and spanners.
10. Filler rods and fluxes.

6.1.4 Advantages of Gas Welding:

1. It is probably the most versatile process. It can be applied to a wide variety of
manufacturing and maintenance situations.
2. Welder has considerable control over the temperature of the metal in the weld
zone. When the rate of heat input from the flame is properly coordinated with the
speed of welding, the size, viscosity and surface tension of the weld puddle can
be controlled, permitting the pressure of the flame to be used to aid in positioning.
3. The equipment is versatile, low cost, self sufficient and usually portable. Besides
gas welding, the equipment can be used for preheating, post heating, braze
welding, torch brazing and it is readily converted to oxygen cutting.
4. The cost and maintenance of the welding equipment is low when compared to that
of some other welding processes

6.1.5 Disadvantages of Gas Welding

1. Heavy sections cannot be joined economically.
2. Flame temperature is less than the temperature of the arc.
3. Fluxes used in certain welding and brazing operations produce fumes that are
Irritatingt o the eyes, nose, throat and lungs.
4. Refractory metals (e.g., tungsten, molybdenum, tantalum, etc.) and reactive metals
(e.g., titanium and zirconium) cannot be gas welded.
5. Gas flame takes a long time to heat up the metal than an arc.
6. Prolonged heating of the joint in gas welding results in a larger heat affected area.
7. More safety problems are associated with the handling and storing of gases.

6.1.6 TYPES OF FLAMES

There are three types of Flames

1. Neutral Flame
Addition of little more oxygen give a bright whitish cone surrounded by
the transparent blue envelope is called Neutral flame (It has a balance of fuel gas
and oxygen).Most commonly used flame because it has temperature about 32000c
Used for welding steels, aluminum, copper and cast iron.

Fig.5.3 : Neutral flame

2.Oxidizing Flame
If more oxygen is added, the cone becomes darker and more pointed,
while the envelope becomes shorter and more fierce is called Oxidizing flame. It
has the highest temperature about 34000c. Used for welding brass and brazing
operation

Fig.5.4 Oxidizing Flame

3. Carburizing flame
Oxygen is turned on, flame immediately changes into a long white inner
Area (Feather) surrounded by a transparent blue envelope is called Carburizing
Flame (30000c). This flames are used for hardening the surfaces.

Fig. 6.6 Carburizing Flame

6.1.7 Advantages of gas welding
1. Equipment has versatile
2. Same equipment can be used for oxy acetylene cutting and brazing by varying the
torch size
3. Heat can controlled easily

6.1.8 Disadvantages
1. Slower process
2. Risk is involved in handling gas cylinders

6.2 GAS CUTTING

1. Ferrous metal is heated in to red hot condition and a jet of pure oxygen is
projected onto the surface, which rapidly oxidizes
2. Oxides having lower melting point than the metal, melt and are blown away by
the force of the jet, to make a cut
3. Fast and efficient method of cutting steel to a high degree of accuracy
4. Torch is different from welding
5. Cutting torch has preheat orifice and one central orifice for oxygen jet
6. PIERCING and GOUGING are two important operations
7. Piercing, used to cut a hole at the centre of the plate or away from the edge of the
plate
8. Gouging, to cut a groove into the steel surface

Figure6.7: Automatic Gas Cutting

Figure6.8: Manual Gas Cutting
 Date:
PRACTICAL NO 07

AIM: STUDY OF RESISTANCE WELDING AND

PERFORMANCE ON SPOT WELDING.

7.1 RESISTANCE WELDING

7.1.1 DEFINTION
Resistance welding is a group of welding processes where in coalescence is
produced by the heat obtained from resistance of the work to the flow of electric current
in a circuit of which the work is a part and by the applications pressure No filler metal is
needed.

7.1.2 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIS RESISTANCE WELDING

Fig: 7.1-Principal of resistance welding

The two factors or variables mainly responsible for resistance.

1. The generation of heat at the place where two pieces are to be joined.
2. The application of pressure at where a weld joint is to be formed.

7.1.2.1 Heat, H
-The heat, H for electrical resistance welding is generated by passing a large electrical
current ( of the order of 3000 to 100,000 Amps with a voltage between 1 and 25 volts)
through two pieces of metal that are touching each other.
H=I2 RT
Where H is the heat generated indicated in joules,
I is the current in root-mean-square amperes,
R is the resistance in ohms,.
 T is the time (from fraction of a second Tc a few seconds) of current flow through
the pieces to be welded.

7.1.2.2 Current, I
- With other parameters kept constant, the temperature in resistance welding is
regulated by controlling the magnitude and timing of the the welding current
-Enough welding current is required to heat the metal pieces being welded to their plastic
state
-The current is obtained from a step-down transformer. The magnitude of current may be
controlled through taps on the primary of the transformer [Fig.5.1] or by an
autotransformer. That varies of the primary voltage supplied to the main transformer.
-Low welding current does not provide proper fusion whereas if welding current is too
high, the entire thickness of the work metal between the electrodes is heated to the plastic
state by the time the weld zone reaches that fusion temperature, and the electrodes embed
themselves deeply into the metal.
-As the current / current density* is increased, the weld time can be decreased sufficiently
to produce a weld without overheating the electrode contact surfaces.
-As the welding current increases, the nugget diameter, breaking load of welded joint and
the electrode indentation into the work pieces, all, increase.
-In resistance welding, three types of current supply systems generally are used
(i) AC systems.
(ii) DC systems.
(iii) Stored-energy current systems.
By far the majority of resistance welding machines operate on single-phase
alternating current of the power lion frequency, usually 50 cycles / second. A single
phase transformer converts the power line voltage to a low voltage and provides the high
currents needed for welding.
High frequency resistance welding is used for applications of continuous seam or
butt seam welding. The welding current frequencies are of the order of 450,000
cycles per second.
In DC systems, energy is delivered directly from the power line and rectifier to direct
current on the secondary side of the welding transformer.
Stored energy systems are ; storage batteries, electromagnetic type, the homo
polar generator and capacitor type. Capacitor stored-energy type involves charging a
group of capacitors from a high-voltage rectifier unit and subsequent discharge of the
energy from the capacitors through a welding transformer.

7.1.2.3 RESISTANCE, R
 Fig: 7.2. Resistance welding

The total resistance of the system between the electrodes consists of

(i) The resistance of the work piece R1
(ii) The contact resistance between the electrodes and the work, R2, and
(iii) the resistance between faying surfaces of the two metal pieces to be welded together,
R3.
-In order to obtain a sound weld and to avoid overheating of the welding electrode as,
R1, and R2 should be kept as low as possible with respect to resistance R3.
*R1, the resistance of the work piece, depends upon the nature of the material and its
thickness. It cannot be changed otherwise. If the work piece material has low electrical
resistance, such as aluminum, it requires very high currents in order to produce the
required welding temperature and hence proper weld.
*R2, the contact resistance between the electrode and the work piece can be minimized
by
(i) Keeping the electrode tip and the work piece surface properly cleaned.
(ii) Using the welding electrodes of highly conductive materials such as Cu- Cd or
Cu-Cr alloys.
(iii) Controlling the shape and size of the electrodes.
(iv) Using the proper pressure between the electrodes and the work pieces.
*R3, the resistance between the contacting surfaces of the two work pieces, varies
with the quality of the surfaces. Surfaces that have not been cleaned and possess seal,
bright or other contaminants on them offer more resistance to the flow of welding
current.
Smooth work piece surfaces and high electrode pressures reduce resistance R3.
Overheating of the welding electrodes is avoided by circulating either water or a
refrigerant through them
The main aim is to obtain a sound weld without overheating either the electrodes or
the work-pieces.

7.1.2.4 TIME, T
Four definite segments or periods of timing are set up on a resistance spot welding
machine during one welding cycle.
1. Squeeze time. 2. Weld time.
3. Hold time. 4. Off time.
1. Squeeze time
It is the time between the initial application of the electrode pressure on the work
and the initial application of current to make the weld. During this period the upper
electrode comes in contact with the work piece and develops full electrode force. At the
end of the squeeze time, the welding current is applied.
2. Weld time.
During this period the welding current flows through the circuit, i.e., it enters
from one electrode, passes through the work pieces and goes out from the second
electrode.

3. Hold time.
It is the time during which force acts at the point of welding after the last impulse
of welding current ceases. The electrode pressure is maintained until the metal has
somewhat cooled.
4. Off time.
It is the interval from the end of the hold time to the beginning of the squeeze
time for the next (resistance) welding cycle.
In automatic machines all these segments of times of times are controlled
automatically whereas in manually operated machines, only the weld time is controlled
automatically and the remaining time periods are adjusted by the operator himself.
Weld time can be controlled automatically by using a suitable (electronic) timer. Weld
times range from one-half cycle of 50 cycle frequency for thinnest sheets to as long as
several seconds for thicker plates, depending somewhat upon the metal are being welded.
Pressure or Electrode force
Pressure exerted on the work pieces by the welding electrodes does the following;
(i) It brings the various interfaces into intimate contact and thus affects the
contact resistance between the two work pieces.
(ii) It ensures the completion of the electrical circuit between the electrodes
and through the work.
(iii) It permits the weld to be made at lower temperatures.
pressure on the work piece is exerted by the electrodes extending form the arms of
the welding machine.
Besides this, the other functions performed by electrodes ere;
(i) They carry the current which passes through and generates heat at the place
where the two work pieces are in pressed contact.
(ii) Depending upon the area of the electrodes face or tip, they determine the current
density in the weld zone.*
(iii) They dissipate the heat from the weld zone and thus prevent surface fusion of the
work.
7.1.3 VARIABLES IN RESISTANCE WELDING

Fig:7.3 Variables in Resistance Welding

Variables commonly encountered and considered carefully by but the design and
welding engineers are;
1. Current. 2. Electrode pressure.
3. Welding time. 4. Human element.
5. Welding machine characteristics. 6. Type and condition of machines.
7. Conditions of electrodes and arms.
8. Condition of the material and surfaces of material.
9. Throat depth.

7.1.4 ADAVANTAGES OF RISISTANCE WELDING

 Fast rate of production.
 No filler rod is needed.
 Semi-automatic equipments.
 Less -skilled workers can do the job.
 Both similar and dissimilar metal can be welded.
 High reliability and reproducibility are obtained.
 More general elimination of warping or distortion of parts.

7.1.5 DISADVANTAGES OF RESISTANCE WELDING

 The initial cost of equipments is high.
 Skilled person are needed for the maintenance of equipments and its controls.
 In some material, special surface preparation is required.
 Bigger job thicknesses can not be welded.

7.2 SPOT WELDING

7.2.1 Introduction and Use
 Spot welding came into use in the period 1900-1905.
  It is now the most widely used of resistance welding processes.
 Spot welding is employed for joining sheet to sheet, sheets to rolled sections
or extrusions, wire to wire, etc.
 Spot welding is used for joining relatively light gauge parts (up to about 3 mm
thick) superimposed on one another (as a lap joint).

7.2.2 DEFINITION
Spot welding is a resistance welding process in which overlapping sheets are
joined by local fusion at one or more spots by the heat generated by resistance to the
flow of electric current through work pieces that are held together under force by two
electrodes, one above and the other below the two overlapping sheets (fig.5.1).

7.2.3 PROCEDURE

Figure 7.4 Stages in making a spot welding

The steps involved in making a spot weld are listed below and shown but before spot
welding one must make sure that
(i) The job is clean, i.e. free form grease, dirt, paint, scale, oxide etc.
(ii) Electrode tip surface is clean, since it has to conduct the current into the
work with as little loss as possible. Very fine emery cloth may be used for
routine cleaning.
(iii) Water is running through the electrodes in order to
(a) Avoid them form getting overheated and thus damaged,
(b) Cool the weld.
(iv) Proper welding current has been set on the current selector switch.
(v) Proper time has been set on the weld-timer.
Step 1. Electrodes are brought together against the overlapping work pieces and pressure
applied so that the surfaces of the two work pieces under the electrodes come in physical
contact after breaking any unwanted film existing on the work pieces.
Step 2. Welding current is switched on for a definite period of time. The current may be
of the order of 3000 to 100,000 A for a fraction of second to a few seconds depending
upon the nature of material and its thickness.
As the current passes through one electrode and the work pieces to the other electrode, a
small area where the work pieces are in contact is heated. The temperature of this weld
zone is approximately 815°C to 930°C.To achieve a satisfctory spot weld, the nugget of
coalesced metal should from with no melting of the material between the faying surfaces.

Fig 7.5 Spot welding process-details

Step 3. At this stage, the welding current is cut off. Extra electrode force is then applied
or the original force is prolonged. This electrode force or pressure forges the weld and
holds it together while the metal cools down and gains strength.
Step 4. The electrode pressure is released to remove the spot welded work pieces.

7.2.4 SPOT WELDING METHODS

Different spot welding methods are:
(i) Direct
(ii) Indirect (or series)
(iii) Push-pull

Fig 7.6 Spot welding methods

(i) Direct welds.

It is a welding method in which one or more electrodes oppose each other,
contacting both sides of the work and with the current passing form the electrodes on one
side directly through the work into the electrodes on the other side and back to the
welding transformer.
(ii) Series welds.
It is a welding method in which two or more spots are produced simultaneously
with only one common but indirect current path.
In series welding, a portion of the secondary current by-passes (shunts) any weld nugget
being formed. This shunt current passes through one of the panels being welded.
(iii) Push-pull welds
- A push-pull system employs transformers with an electrically reversed polarity
arrangement wherein two transformers complement each other to form circulating
welding current circuit.
- Opposing electrodes are connected to different transformers and are of opposite
polarity.
- Two spot welds may be obtained simultaneously.
7.2.5 SPOT WELDING EQUIPMENT INTRODUCTION
Spot welding machines may by classified as follows on the basis of mechanical
Construction;
1. Rocker-arm Machines
2. Press-type machines,
3. Portable machines or Guns, and
4. Multiple-electrodes machines.
A standard spot welding machine possesses the following:
Basic Elements;
1. The frame, which is the main body the machine and houses the transformer and tap
switch.
2. A nipper arm which is movable and a fixed lower arm.
3. Welding electrodes.
4. The electrical circuit consisting of a step down transformer which reduces the
voltage and proportionally increases the current.
5. The different controls that adjust the magnitudes of current, length of welding time,
the contact period and the flow of cooling water.

7.2.6 SPOT WELDING ELECTRODES

7.2.6.1 Functions
 To conduct the welding current to the work pieces.
 To transmit to the work pieces in the weld area the amount of force
needed to produce a satisfactory weld.
 To dissipate the heat form the weld zone and thus prevent surface fusion
of the work.
7.2.6.2 Requirements of spot Welding Electrodes
A spot welding electrode must
o Be a good conductor of electricity
o Be a good conductor of heat
o Have good mechanical strength and hardness at high temperatures.
o Have a minimum tendency to combine with the metal being welded.

7.2.7 APPLICATIONS OF SPOT WELDING

 Spot welding of two 12.5 mm thick steel plates has been done
satisfactorily as a replacement for riveting.
 Many assemblies of two or more sheet metal stampings that do not require
gas tight or liquid tight joints can be more economically joined by spot
 welding than by mechanical methods.
 Attachment of braces, brackets, pads or clips to formed sheet-metal parts
such as cases, covers, bases or trays is another application of spot welding.
 Spot welding finds application in automobile and aircraft industries.
 Date:

PRACTICAL NO: 08

AIM: STUDY OF ARC WELDING. SUCH AS

(TIG/MIG/SMAW WELDING).

8.1. TUNGSTEN INERT GAS ARC WELDING OR (TIG

WELDING)
8.1.2 Introduction

Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) or Gas Tungsten Arc (GTA) welding is the arc
welding process in which arc is generated between non consumable tungsten electrode
and work piece. The tungsten electrode and the weld pool are shielded by an inert gas
normally argon and helium.

Fig 8.1 Principle of TIG Welding.

8.1.3 Principal of operation

The tungsten arc process is being employed widely for the precision joining of
critical components which require controlled heat input. The small intense heat source
provided by the tungsten arc is ideally suited to the controlled melting of the material.
Since the electrode is not consumed during the process, as with the MIG or MMA
welding processes, welding without filler material can be done without the need for
continual compromise between the heat input from the arc and the melting of the filler
metal. As the filler metal, when required, can be added directly to the weld pool from a
separate wire feed system or manually, all aspects of the process can be precisely and
independently controlled i.e. the degree of melting of the parent metal is determined by
the welding current with respect to the welding speed, whilst the degree of weld bead
reinforcement is determined by the rate at which the filler wire is added to the weld pool.
In TIG torch the electrode is extended beyond the shielding gas nozzle. The arc is ignited
by high voltage, high frequency (HF) pulses, or by touching the electrode to the work
piece and withdrawing to initiate the arc at a preset level of current.
Selection of electrode composition and size is not completely independent and
must be considered in relation to the operating mode and the current level. Electrodes for
DC welding are pure tungsten or tungsten with 1 or 2% thoria, the thoria being added to
improve electron emission which facilitates easy arc ignition. In AC welding, where the
electrode must operate at a higher temperature, a pure tungsten or tungsten-zirconia
electrode is preferred as the rate of tungsten loss is somewhat lesser than with thoriated
electrodes and the zirconia aids retention of the balled' tip.
Table gives chemical composition of tungsten electrodes as per American
Welding Society (AWS) classification.

AWS Tungsten, min. Thoria, percent Zirconia, Total other

percent percent elements, max.
Classification percent
EWP 99.5 - - 0.5
EWTh-1 98.5 0.8 to 1.2 - 0.5
EWTh-2 97.5 1.7 to 2.2 - 0.5
EWZr 99.2 - 0.15 to 0.40 0.5

Table 8.1: Chemical Composition of TIG Electrodes.

Tungsten electrodes are commonly available from 0.5 mm to 6.4 mm diameter and
150 - 200 mm length. The current carrying capacity of each size of electrode depends on
whether it is connected to negative or positive terminal of DC power source. Table 8.2
gives typical current ranges for TIG electrodes when electrode is connected to negative
terminal (DCEN) or to positive terminal (DCEP).

DCEN DCEP
Electrode
Pure and
Thoriated Pure and Thoriated Tungsten
Dia. (mm)
Tungsten
0.5 5-20 -
1.0 15-80 -
1.6 70-150 10-20
2.4 150-250 15-30
3.2 250-400 25-40
4.0 400-500 40-55
4.8 500-750 55-80

Table 8.2 Typical Current Ranges for TIG Electrodes

 The power source required to maintain the TIG arc has a drooping or constant
current characteristic which provides an essentially constant current output when the arc
length is varied over several millimeters. Hence, the natural variations in the arc length
which occur in manual welding have little effect on welding current. The capacity to limit
the current to the set value is equally crucial when the electrode is short circuited to the
work piece, otherwise excessively high current shall flow, damaging the electrode. Open
circuit voltage of power source ranges from 60 to 80 V.
Pure argon can be used for welding of structural steels, low alloyed steels,
stainless steels, aluminum, copper, titanium and magnesium. Argon hydrogen mixture is
used for welding of some grades of stainless steels and nickel alloys. Pure helium may be
used for aluminum and copper. Helium argon mixtures may be used for low
alloy steels, aluminum and copper.
TIG welding can be used in all positions. It is normally used for root pass(es)
during welding of thick pipes but is widely being used for welding of thin walled pipes
and tubes. This process can be easily mechanised i.e. movement of torch and feeding of
filler wire, so it can be used for precision welding in nuclear, aircraft, chemical,
petroleum, automobile and space craft industries. Aircraft frames and its skin, rocket
body and engine casing are few examples where TIG welding is very popular.

8.1.4 Advantages of Tungsten Inert Gas Arc Welding (TIG/GTAW):

 Weld composition is close to that of the parent metal;
 High quality weld structure
 Slag removal is not required (no slag);
 Thermal distortions of work pieces are minimal due to concentration of heat in
small zone.

8.1.5 Disadvantages of Tungsten Inert Gas Arc Welding (TIG/

GTAW):
 Low welding rate;
 Relatively expensive;
 Requires high level of operator’s skill.

8.1.6 Applications
 Welding aluminum, magnesium, copper, nickel and their alloys, carbon, alloy or
Stainless steel, high temperature and hard surfacing alloys like zirconium,
Titanium etc.
 Welding sheets metal and thinner sections.
 Precision welding in atomic energy, aircraft, chemical and instrument industries.
 Rocket motor chamber fabrications in launch vehicles.
8.2. GAS METAL ARC WELDING OR MIG WELDING

8.2.1 Introduction
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) is frequently referred to as MIG
welding. MIG welding is a commonly used high deposition rate welding process. Wire
is continuously fed from a spool. MIG welding is therefore referred to as a
semiautomatic welding process.

Fig 8.2: MIG Welding

8.2.2 Principal of operation
The basic technique for GMAW is quite simple, since the electrode is fed
automatically through the torch. By contrast, in gas tungsten arc welding, the welder must
handle a welding torch in one hand and a separate filler wire in the other, and in shielded
metal arc welding, the operator must frequently chip off slag and change welding
electrodes. GMAW requires only that the operator guide the welding gun with proper
position and orientation along the area being welded. Keeping a consistent contact tip-to-
work distance (the stick out distance) is important, because a long stick out distance can
cause the electrode to overheat and will also waste shielding gas. Stick out distance varies
for different GMAW weld processes and applications. For short-circuit transfer, the stick
out is generally 1/4 inch to 1/2 inch, for spray transfer the stick out is generally 1/2 inch.
The position of the end of the contact tip to the gas nozzle is related to the stick out
distance and also varies with transfer type and application.
MIG is used to weld many materials, and different gases are used to form
the arc depending on the materials to be welded together. An argon CO2 blend is
normally used to weld mild steel, aluminum, titanium, and alloy metals. Helium is used
to weld mild steel and titanium in high speed process and also copper and stainless steel.
Carbon dioxide is most often used to weld carbon and low alloy steels. Magnesium and
cast iron are other metals commonly welded used the MIG process.
 Fig 8.3 MIG Welding Setup
8.2.3 Advantages of Metal Inert Gas welding (MIG/GMAW)
 All position capability
 Higher deposition rates than SMAW
 less operator skill required
 Long welds can be made without starts and stops
 provides a uniform weld bead,
 produces a slag-free weld bead
 No flux is used.
8.2.4 Disadvantages of Metal Inert Gas welding (MIG/GMAW)

 Weld metal cooling rates are higher than with the processes that deposited slag
Over the weld metal.
 Welding equipment is more complex, more costly and less portable.
 Since air drafts may disperse the shielded gas; MIG welding may not work well
in out door welding applications.

8.2.5 Applications
 The process can be used for the welding of carbon, silicon , and low alloys
Steels, stainless steels, aluminum ,magnesium, copper, nickel, and their alloys,
Titanium etc.
  for welding tool steels and dies.
 for the manufacture of refrigerator parts.
 MIG welding has been used successfully in industries like aircraft,
 Automobiles , pressure vessels , and ship building.

8.3. Shielded metal arc welding OR (SMAW)

8.3.1 Introduction
Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), also known as manual metal arc
(MMA) welding or informally as stick welding, is a manual welding process that uses a
consumable electrode coated in flux to lay the weld. An electric current, in the form of
either alternating current or direct current from a welding power supply, is used to form
an electric arc between the electrode and the metals to be joined. As the weld is laid, the
flux coating of the electrode disintegrates, giving off vapors that serve as a shielding
gas and providing a layer of slag, both of which protect the weld area from atmospheric
contamination.
8.3.2 Principal of operation

Fig 8.4: SMAW Welding Operation

To strike the electric arc, the electrode is brought into contact with the work
piece by a very light touch with the electrode to the base metal then is pulled back
slightly. This initiates the arc and thus the melting of the work piece and the consumable
electrode, and causes droplets of the electrode to be passed from the electrode to the weld
pool. As the electrode melts, the flux covering disintegrates, giving off shielding gases
that protect the weld area from oxygen and other atmospheric gases. In addition, the flux
provides molten slag which covers the filler metal as it travels from the electrode to the
weld pool. Once part of the weld pool, the slag floats to the surface and protects the weld
from contamination as it solidifies. Once hardened, it must be chipped away to reveal the
finished weld. As welding progresses and the electrode melts, the welder must
periodically stop welding to remove the remaining electrode stub and insert a new
electrode into the electrode holder. In general, the operator factor, or the percentage of
operator's time spent laying weld, is approximately 25%.

8.3.4 Equipment

Fig.8.5 SMAW Welding Equipment

8.3.6 Experimental Set Up

Shielded metal arc welding equipment typically consists of a constant
current welding power supply and an electrode, with an electrode holder,
a ground clamp, and welding cables (also known as welding leads) connecting the two.

8.3.6.1 Power supply

Power source requirement may be DC or AC. Normally electrode is connected

to positive terminal of DC power source. Sometime depending on the nature of flux AC
can be used with single electrode wire or with multiple electrodes where one electrode
may be connected to DC and other to AC if independent power sources are to be used.
The power supply used in SMAW has constant current output, ensuring
that the current (and thus the heat) remains relatively constant, even if the arc distance
and voltage change. This is important because most applications of SMAW are manual,
requiring that an operator hold the torch. Maintaining a suitably steady arc distance is
difficult if a constant voltage power source is used instead, since it can cause dramatic
heat variations and make welding more difficult.
8.3.6.2 Electrode

Fig 8.6 Various welding electrodes and an electrode holder

The choice of electrode for SMAW depends on a number of factors,
including the weld material, welding position and the desired weld properties. The
electrode is coated in a metal mixture called flux, which gives off gases as it decomposes
to prevent weld contamination, introduces deoxidizers to purify the weld, causes weld-
protecting slag to form, improves the arc stability, and provides alloying elements to
improve the weld quality
Electrodes coatings can consist of a number of different compounds,
including retile, calcium fluoride, cellulose, and iron powder. Rutile electrodes, coated
with 25%–45% TiO2, are characterized by ease of use and good appearance of the
resulting weld. However, they create welds with high hydrogen content,
encouraging embitterment and cracking. Electrodes containing calcium fluoride (CaF2),
sometimes known as basic or low-hydrogen electrodes, are hygroscopic and must be
stored in dry conditions. Finally, iron powder is a common coating additive, as it
improves the productivity of the electrode, sometimes as much as doubling the yield

8.3.7 Advantages of Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW):

 Simple, portable and inexpensive equipment;
 Wide variety of metals, welding positions and electrodes are applicable;
 Suitable for outdoor applications.

8.3.8 Disadvantages of Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW):

 the process is discontinuous due to limited length of the electrodes;
 Weld may contain slag inclusions;
 Fumes make difficult the process control.

8.3.9 Applications
 Shielded metal arc welding is used both as a fabrication process and for
maintenance and repair jobs.
 The process finds application in: Air receiver, tank, boiler and pressure vessel
fabrications, ship building, Pipes and Penstock joining, Building and bridge
construction, Automotive and aircraft industries etc.
 Date:

PRACTICAL NO: 09

AIM: TO STUDY ABOUT NON

CONVENTIONALWELDING PROCESS.

9.1 FORGE WELDING

Forge welding is an old technique that involves connecting pieces of metal using
heat and force. The metal is generally heated with fire and the force is typically applied
by hammering, but there are other methods. Forge welding is considered a core
technique. It is still taught and used, but it is commonly replaced with more modern
welding techniques. Forge welding is generally not considered difficult but can be
dangerous. Some methods are complex and may require good concentration, memory,
and safety skills. It is also beneficial to know the characteristics of the metal that is being
welded and the heat source that is being used

9.1.1 Applications of Forge Welding

If made correctly, a forge welded joint has every quality of the original metal and
is as good in strength as an arc or oxy acetylene welded joint.
Forge welding finds use in blacksmith shops, rail road shops and repair shops of
general character. It is also used for making pipes from plates by rolling the plate to
cylindrical form and making the longitudinal junction by forge welding. Strip/plate is
pulled through dies to form a rolled cylinder, the long edges being butted together in the
dies at the high temperature required to form a forge weld.

9.2 FRICTION WELDING

Friction welding (FW) is a class of solid-state welding processes that generates
heat through mechanical friction between a moving work piece and a stationary
component, with the addition of a lateral force called "upset" to plastically displace and
fuse the materials. Technically, because no melt occurs, friction welding is not actually a
welding process in the traditional sense, but a forging technique. However, due to the
similarities between these techniques and traditional welding, the term has become
common. Friction welding is used with metals and thermoplastics in a wide variety of
aviation and automotive applications.

9.2.1 Benefits

The combination of fast joining times of the order of a few seconds, and the direct
heat input at the weld interface, gives rise to relatively small heat affected zones. Friction
welding techniques are generally melt-free, which offers the advantage of avoiding grain
growth in engineered materials such as high-strength heat-treated steels. Another
advantage is that the motion tends to "clean" the surface between the materials being
welded, which means they can be joined without as much prior preparation. During the
welding process, depending on the method being used, small pieces of the "plastic" metal
will be forced out of the working mass in rippled sheets of metal known as "flash". It is
believed that the flash carries away debris and dirt. Another advantage of friction welding
is that it allows dissimilar materials to be joined. This is particularly useful in the
aerospace field, where it is used to join lightweight aluminum stock to high-strength
steels. Friction welding provides a "full strength" bond with no additional weight.
Another common use for these sorts of bi-metal joins is in the nuclear industry, where
copper-steel joints are common in the reactor cooling systems. Friction welding is also
used with thermoplastics, which act in a fashion analogous to metals under heat and
pressure. The heats and pressures used on these materials are much lower than on metals,
but the technique can be used to join metals to plastics with the metal interface being
machined.

9.3 ELECTRON BEAM WELDING

Electron Beam Welding (EBW) is a fusion joining process that produces a weld
by impinging a beam of high energy electrons to heat the weld joint. Electrons are
elementary atomic particles characterized by a negative charge and an extremely small
mass. Raising electrons to a high energy state by accelerating them to roughly 30 to 70
percent of the speed of light provides the energy to heat the weld.

An EBW gun functions similarly to a TV picture tube. The major difference is

that a TV picture tube continuously scans the surface of a luminescent screen using a low
intensity electron beam to produce a picture. An EBW gun uses a high intensity electron
beam to target a weld joint. The electron beam is always generated in a high vacuum.
Although, high vacuum welding will provide maximum purity and high depth to width
ratio welds.

Fig 9.1 EBW

9.3.1 EBW Benefits

 Single pass welding of thick joints

 Hermetic seals of components retaining a vacuum
 Low distortion
 Low contamination in vacuum
 Weld zone is narrow
 Heat affected zone is narrow
 Dissimilar metal welds of some metals
 Uses no filler metal

9.3.2 EBW Limitations

 High equipment cost

 Work chamber size constraints
 Time delay when welding in vacuum
 High weld preparation costs
 X-rays produced during welding
 Rapid solidification rates can cause cracking in some materials

9.3.3 EBW Problems and Discontinuities

 Undercutting
 Porosity
 Cracking
 Under fill
 Lack of fusion
 Shrinkage voids
 Missed joints

9.4 LASER BEAM WELDING (LBW)

Laser Beam Welding (LBW) is a modern welding process; it is a high energy
beam process that continues to expand into modern industries and new applications
because of its many advantages like deep weld penetration and minimizing heat inputs.
The turn by the manufacturers to automate the welding processes has also caused to the
expansion in using high technology like the use of laser and computers to improve the
product quality through more accurate control of welding processes. The focal spot is
targeted on the work piece surface which will be welded. At the surface the large
concentration of light energy is converted into thermal energy. The surface of the
workpiece starts melting and progresses through it by surface conductance. For welding,
the beam energy is maintained below the vaporization temperature of the work piece
material, because hole drilling or cutting vaporization is required.
Because the penetration of the workpiece depends on conducted heat, the thickness of the
materials to be welded is generally less than 0.80 inches if the ideal metallurgical and
physical characteristics of laser welding must be realized.

Fig 9 .2 LBW Machine

Concentrated energy produces melting and coalescence before a heat affected

zone is developed and when the materials to be welded are thick and have high thermal
conductivity like for example aluminum the advantage of having a minimal heat affected
zone can be seriously affected. This combination results in photon oscillation within the
cavity specific output beam energy patterns, these patterns are called Transverse Energy
Modes (TEMs). The function of all laser beam welding processes whether they be gas
(carbon dioxide, helium, neo, etc.) or other lasing sources is based on the principles of the
excitation of atoms using intense light, electricity, chemicals, etc.. and the spontaneous
and stimulated release of photons. The role of focusing lenses in this process is really
important because it concentrates the beam energy into a focal spot as small as 0.005 in
diameters or even less.

9.4.1 Industrial Applications

 Aerospace.
 Defense/military.
 Electronics.
 Research & development.
 Medical.
 Petrochemical refining.
 Communications & energy.
9.4.2 Advantages

 Deep and narrow welds can be done.

 Absence of distortion in welds created.
 Minimal heat affected zones in welds created.
 Excellent metallurgical quality will be established in welds.
 Ability to weld smaller, thinner components.
 Increased travel speeds.

9.5 DIFFUSION WELDING (DFW)

Diffusion welding (DFW) is a solid state welding process by which two dissimilar
metals can be bonded together. Diffusion involves the migration of atoms across the
joint, due to concentration gradients. The two materials are pressed together at an
elevated temperature usually between 50 and 70% of the melting point. The pressure is
used to relieve the void that may occur due to the different surface topographies.

Fig 9.3 DFW Machine

DFW is usually used on sheet metal structures. Typical materials that are welded
include titanium, beryllium, and zirconium. It is usually used on low volume workpieces
mainly for aerospace, nuclear, and electronics industries. The equipment cost is
considerably high and is figured by the area that is being diffusion-bonded. In many
military aircraft diffusion bonding will help to allow for the conservation of expensive
strategic materials and the reduction of manufacturing costs. Some aircraft have over 100
diffusion-bonded parts, including; fuselages, outboard and inboard actuator fittings,
landing gear trunnions, and nacelle frames.

9.6 THERMIT WELDING

Thermit welding is an exothermic welding process that uses thermit to melt metal,
which is poured between two workpieces to form a welded joint. It was developed by
Hans Goldschmidt around 1895.

9.6.1 Overview

Commonly the reacting composition is 5 parts iron oxide red (rust) powder and 3
parts aluminium powder by weight, ignited at high temperatures. A strongly exothermic
(heat-generating) reaction occurs that produces through reduction and oxidation a white
hot mass of molten iron and a slag of refractory aluminium oxide. The molten iron is the
actual welding material; the aluminium oxide is much less dense than the liquid iron and
so floats to the top of the reaction, so the set-up for welding must take into account that
the actual welding material is on the bottom and covered by floating slag. Thermit
welding is widely used to weld railroad rails. The weld quality of chemically pure
Thermit is low due to the low heat penetration into the joining metals and the very low
carbon and alloy content in the nearly pure molten iron. To obtain high-quality railroad
welds, the ends of the rails being Thermit welded are usually preheated with a torch to
induce a good fusion with the working pieces of metal. Because the thermit reaction
yields relatively pure iron, not the much stronger steel, some small pellets or rods of
high-carbon alloying metal are included in the thermit mix; these alloying materials melt
from the heat of the thermit reaction and mix into the weld metal.

Fig 9.4 Thermit welding Process Sketch

Thermit welding (TW) (sometimes called thermit welding) is a process which joins
metals by heating them with super heated liquid metal from a chemical reaction between
a metal oxide and aluminum or other reducing agent, with or without the application of
pressure. Filler metal is obtained from the liquid metal.
The heat for welding is obtained from an exothermic reaction or chemical change
between iron oxide and aluminum. This reaction is shown by the following formula:

8A1 + 3fe304 = 9FE + 4A1203 + Heat

The temperature resulting from this reaction is approximately 4500°F (2482°C).

9.6.2 THERMIT WELDING EQUIPMENT (TW)

General. Thermit material is a mechanical mixture of metallic aluminum and

processed iron oxide. Molten steel is produced by the Thermit reaction in a magnesite-
lined crucible. At the bottom of the crucible, a magnesite stone is burned, into which a
magnesite stone thimble is fitted. This thimble provides a passage through which the
molten steel is discharged into the mold. The hole through the thimble is plugged with a
tapping pin, which is covered with a fire-resistant washer and refractory sand. The
crucible is charged by placing the correct quantity of thoroughly mixed Thermit material
in it. In preparing the joint for Thermit welding, the parts to be welded must be cleaned,
alined, and held firmly in place. If necessary, metal is removed from the joint to permit a
free flow of the Thermit metal into the joint. A wax pattern is then made around the joint
in the size and shape of the intended weld. A mold made of refractory sand is built
around the wax pattern and joint to hold the molten metal after it is poured. The sand
mold is then heated to melt out the wax and dry the mold. The mold should be properly
vented to permit the escape of gases and to allow the proper distribution of the Thermit
metal at the joint. A Thermit welding crucible and mold is shown in figure .

Fig 9.6 Thermit Welding Equipment

9.6.3 THERMIT WELDING USE (TW)
Thermit Welding has been successfully used for many years in the Railroad
industry to weld rails together. Equipment similar to the above sketches is set up at the
welding joint. After the process has been completed and the weld has cooled enough, the
thermit fixture is removed. The slag is chipped off and the excess weld is ground off to
conform with the shape of the rails.

9.7 ELECTRO SLAG WELDING

Electro slag welding is a very efficient, single pass process carried out in the
vertical or near vertical position and used for joining steel plates/sections in thicknesses
of 25mm and above. It was developed by the Paton Institute in the Ukraine in the early
1950s and superseded the very high current submerged arc process for making
longitudinal welds in thick-walled pressure vessels. Filler wire, which is also the current
carrier, is then fed into this cavity, initially striking an arc through a small amount of flux.
Additional flux is added which melts forming a flux bath which rises and extinguishes the
arc. The added wire then melts into this bath sinking to the bottom before solidifying to
form the weld. For thick sections, additional wires may be added and an even distribution
of weld metal is achieved by oscillating the wires across the joint. As welding progresses,
both the wire feed mechanism and the copper shoes are moved progressively upwards
until the top of the weld is reached. See Fig 9.7

Fig 9.7 Electro Slag Welding

The consumable guide variant of the process uses a much simpler set-up and
equipment arrangement which does not require the wire feed mechanism to climb. In this
case, the wire is delivered to the weld pool down a consumable, thick-walled tube which
extends from the top of the joint to the weld pool. Support for the molten bath is provided
by two pairs of copper shoes which are moved upwards, leapfrogging each other as
welding progresses. The tubular guides can be further supplemented by additional
consumable plates attached to the tube. Generally, as the thickness of plate increases, the
number of wires/guides increases, approximately in the ratio of one wire per 50mm of
thickness.

9.7.1 Benefits

The principal benefits of the process are:

 speed of joint completion; typically 1 hour per metre of seam, irrespective of

thickness
 lack of angular distortion
 lateral angular distortion limited to 3mm per metre of weld
 high quality welds produced
 simple joint preparation, i.e. flame-cut square edge
 Date:

PRACTICAL NO: 10

AIM: STUDY OF METAL WORKING OPERATIONS AND

DETAIL STUDY OF HOT AND COLD METAL
WORKING OPERATION

10.1 INTRODUCTION
Metal working processes are processes used to produce wrought products. These
product include angles, channels, I-beams, round, square and hexagonal, bar stock, sheet
metal, forging, tubes, pipe and extrusion sections. they are produced by squeezing or
application of pressure in the hot or cold state. Mechanical working of a metal is
essentially a plastic deformation process done to change dimensions, shape, properties or
surface condition by applying mechanical pressure.

10.2 ELASTIC AND PLASTIC DEFORMATION

When a sufficient load is applied to a metal or other structural material, it will cause
the material to change shape. This change in shape is called deformation. When the stress
is sufficient to permanently deform the metal, it is called plastic deformation. Plastic
deformation involves the breaking of a limited number of atomic bonds by the movement
of dislocations. A slip band appears as a single line under the microscope, but it is in fact
made up of closely spaced parallel slip planes.

10.3 TENSILE PROPERTIES

Tensile properties indicate how the material will react to forces being applied in
tension. A tensile test is a fundamental mechanical test where a carefully prepared
specimen is loaded in a very controlled manner while measuring the applied load and the
elongation of the specimen over some distance. Tensile tests are used to determine the
modulus of elasticity, elastic limit, elongation, proportional limit, and reduction in area,
tensile strength, yield point, yield strength and other tensile properties

10.4 HOT WORKING

A process is defined as hot working if it takes place when the workpiece is above
the recrystallization temperature.
10.4.1 Hot Working Advantages

 Hardness and ductility of metal is not changed.

 Porosity is eliminated.
 Structure is improved by reforming smaller crystals.
 Large shape changes are possible without ruptures.
 Smaller, faster acting machines.
 Impurities are broken up and distributed throughout material.
 Surfaces need not be clean and scale free.

10.4.2 Hot Working Advantages

 Oxide scale produced on surface.

 Close dimensional tolerances are difficult.
 Carbon lost from surface layer (creating a weak surface)

10.5 COLD WORKING

Cold working takes place below the recrystallization temperature, and therefore is
fundamentally different at the atomic level with effects up to the macroscopic level.

10.5.1 Advantages of Cold Working

 No heating required.
 Close dimensional tolerances possible.
 Surface finishes are better.
 Strength, hardness, and directional properties are improved.

10.5.2 Disadvantages of Cold Working

 Produces stresses that sometimes have to be removed by heat treating.

 Higher forces and heavier equipment needed.
 Metal must be clean and scale free.

10.6 EXTRUSION
10.6.1 Introduction

 Extrusion is a process used to create objects of a fixed cross-sectional profile. A

material is pushed or drawn through a die of the desired cross-section.
 The two main advantages of this process over other manufacturing processes are
its ability to create very complex cross-sections and work materials that are
brittle, because the material only encounters compressive and shear stresses.
  It also forms finished parts with an excellent surface finish.
 Hollow cavities within extruded material cannot be produced using a simple flat
extrusion die, because there would be no way to support the center barrier of the
die. Instead, the die assumes the shape of a block with depth, beginning first with
a shape profile that supports the center section.
 The process begins by heating the stock material. It is then loaded into the
container in the press. A dummy block is placed behind it where the ram then
presses on the material to push it out of the die. Afterward the extrusion is
stretched in order to straighten it.
 The extrusion ratio is defined as the starting cross-sectional area divided by the
cross-sectional area of the final extrusion.
 One of the main advantages of the extrusion process is that this ratio can be very
large while still producing quality parts.

Fig 10.1 Extrusion of a round blank through a die.

10.6.2 Hot extrusion

 Hot extrusion is a hot working process, which means it is done above the
material's recrystallization temperature to keep the material from work hardening
and to make it easier to push the material through the die.
 Most hot extrusions are done on horizontal hydraulic presses that range from 230
to 11,000 metric tons . Pressures range from 30 to 700 MPa
 oil or graphite is used for lower temperature extrusions, or glass powder for
higher temperature extrusions.
 The biggest disadvantage of this process is its cost for machinery and its upkeep.
10.6.3 Direct extrusion

 Direct extrusion, also known as forward extrusion, is the most common extrusion
process.
 It works by placing the billet in a heavy walled container.

Fig 10.2 Direct extrusion

 The billet is pushed through the die by a ram or screw. There is a reusable dummy
block between the ram and the billet to keep them separated.

10.6.4 Indirect extrusion

In indirect extrusion, also known as backwards extrusion, the billet and container move
together while the die is stationary. The die
is held in place by a "stem" which has to
be longer than the container length. The
maximum length of the extrusion is
ultimately dictated by the column strength
of the stem.

Fig 10.3: Indirect Extrusion

10.6.5 Cold extrusion

 Cold extrusion is done at room temperature or near room temperature.

 The advantages of this over hot extrusion are the lack of oxidation, higher
strength due to cold working, closer tolerances, good surface finish, and fast
extrusion speeds if the material is subject to hot shortness.

10.6.6 Hydrostatic extrusion

 In the hydrostatic extrusion process the billet is completely surrounded by a

pressurized liquid, except where the billet contacts the die.
 Fig 10.4: Hydrostatic extrusion

 This process can be done hot, warm, or cold, however the temperature is limited by the
stability of the fluid used.
 The process must be carried out in a sealed cylinder to contain the hydrostatic medium.

10.6.7 Warm extrusion

 Warm extrusion is done above room temperature, but below the recrystallization
temperature of the material the temperatures ranges from 424 to 975 °C.
 It is usually used to achieve the proper balance of required forces, ductility and final
extrusion properties.

10.6.8 Extrusion defects

 Surface cracking - When the surface of an extrusion splits. This is often caused by the
extrusion temperature, friction, or speed being too high. It can also happen at lower
temperatures if the extruded product temporarily sticks to the die.
 Internal cracking - When the center of the extrusion develops cracks or voids. These
cracks are attributed to a state of hydrostatic tensile stress at the centerline in the
deformation zone in the die.
 Surface lines - When there are lines visible on the surface of the extruded profile.
This depends heavily on the quality of the die production and how well the die is
maintained, as some residues of the material extruded can stick to the die surface
and produce the embossed lines.

10.7 FORGING
10.7.1 INTRODUCTION

In modern times, industrial forging is done either with presses or with hammers
powered by compressed air, electricity, hydraulics or steam. These hammers may
have reciprocating weights in the thousands of pounds. Smaller power hammers,
500 lb (230 kg) or less reciprocating weight, and hydraulic presses are common in art
smithies as well. Some steam hammers remain in use, but they became obsolete with
the availability of the other, more convenient, power sources.
10.7.2 Processes
There are many different kinds of forging processes available, however they can
be grouped into three main classes:

 Drawn out: length increases, cross-section decreases

 Upset: Length decreases, cross-section increases
 Squeezed in closed compression dies: produces multidirectional flow

10.7.3 Common forging processes include:

Drop forging

i. Open die drop forging

ii. Close die drop forging

Press forging

i. Automatic hot forging

ii. Upsetting.

10.7.4 Drop forging

There are two types of drop forging:

i. Open-die drop forging

ii. Closed-die drop forging.

 As the names imply, the difference is in the shape of the die,

 Open die drop forging does not fully enclosing the workpiece,
 Close die drop forging does fully enclosing the workpiece,
 The similarity between the two is that a hammer is raised up and then dropped
onto the workpiece to deform it according to the shape of the die.

10.7.4.1 Open die drop forging

 Open-die forging is also known as smith forging. In open-die forging, a hammer

strikes and deforms the workpiece, which is placed on a stationary anvil
 Fig 10.5 Open die forging

 The operator needs to orient and position the workpiece to get the desired shape.
The dies are usually flat in shape, but some have a specially shaped surface for
specialized operations. For example, a die may have a round, concave, or convex
surface or be a tool to form holes or be a cut-off tool.

10.7.4.2 Closed die drop forging

Closed-die forging is also called Impression-die forging. In impression-die work

metal is placed in a die resembling a mold, which is attached to the anvil. Usually the
hammer die is shaped as well. The hammer is then dropped on the work piece,
causing the metal to flow and fill the die cavities. The hammer is generally in contact
with the work piece on the scale of milliseconds.

Fig 10.6 Close dies drop forging

10.7.5 Press forging

 Press forging works slowly by applying continuous pressure or force.

 which differs from the near-instantaneous impact of drop-hammer forging. The
amount of time the dies are in contact with the workpiece is measured in seconds
The press forging operation can be done either cold or hot.
10.7.6 Upset forging

 Upset forging increases the diameter of the workpiece by compressing its length.
Based on number of pieces produced this is the most widely used forging process.

Figure 10.7 Upset forging

 A few examples of common parts produced using the upset forging process are
engine valves, couplings, bolts, screws, and other fasteners.
 Upset forging is usually done in special high speed machines called crank presses,
but upsetting can also be done in a vertical crank press or a hydraulic press. .
 The initial workpiece is usually wire or rod, but some machines can accept bars
up to 25 cm in diameter and a capacity of over 1000 tons.

10.8 ROLLING
10.8.1 Introduction

Rolling is classified according to the temperature of the metal rolled. If the

temperature of the metal is above its recrystallization temperature, then the process is
termed as hot rolling. If the temperature of the metal is below its recrystallization
temperature, the process is termed as cold rolling. In terms of usage, hot rolling
processes more tonnage than any other manufacturing process and cold rolling processes
the most tonnage out of all cold working processes.

10.8.2 Type of Rolling Processes

 Flat Rolling
 Foil Rolling
 Ring rolling
 Roll Bending
 Roll Forming
 Controlled Rolling

Fig. 10.8 Rolling

10.8.2.1 Flat rolling

Flat rolling is the most basic form of rolling with the starting and ending material
having a rectangular cross-section

10.8.2.1 Foil rolling

Foil rolling is a specialized type of flat rolling, specifically used to produce foil,
which is sheet metal with a thickness less than 200 µm (0.0079 in).
10.8.2.2 Ring rolling

Ring rolling is a specialized type of hot rolling that increases the diameter of a
ring.

10.8.2.3 Roll bending

Roll bending produces a cylindrical shaped product from plate or steel metal.

10.8.2.4 Hot rolling

Hot rolling is a metalworking process that occurs above the recrystallization

temperature of the material. Hot rolling is used mainly to produce sheet metal or simple
cross sections, such as rail tracks.

10.8.2.5 Cold rolling

Cold rolling occurs with the metal below its recrystallization Temperature.
 Date:

PRACTICAL NO: 11

AIM: STUDY OF PLASTIC TECHNOLOGY AND DETAIL

STUDY OF PLASTIC PART MANUFACTURING
PROCESS.

11.1 INTRODUCTION

Plastic belongs to the family of organic materials. Organic materials are those
materials which derived directly from carbon. They consist of carbon chemically
combined with hydrogen, oxygen and other non-metallic substances, and their structures,
in most cases, are fairly complex. The large and diverse organic group includes the
natural materials: wood, coal, petroleum, natural rubber, animal fibers and food, which
have biological origins. Synthetics include the large group of solvents, adhesives,
synthetic fibers, rubbers, plastics, explosives, lubricants, yes, soaps and cutting oils etc.
which have no biological origins. Of them, plastic and synthetic rubbers are termed as
“polymers”.

11.2 POLYMERS
The term “polymer” is derived from the two Greek words: poly, meaning “many”,
and meros meaning “parts” or “units”. Thus polymers are composed of a large number of
repeating units (small molecules) called monomers. A polymer is, therefore, made up of
thousands of monomers joined together to form a large molecules of colloidal dimension,
called macromolecules. The unique characteristic of a polymer is that each molecule is
either a long chain or network of repeating units all covalently bonded together. Polymer
molecular materials and are generally non-crystalline solids at ordinary temperature, but
pass through a viscous stage in course of their formation when, shaping is readily carried
out.
The most common polymers are those made from compounds of carbon, but
polymers can also be made from inorganic chemicals such as silicates and silicones. The
naturally occurring polymer include: protein, cellulose, resins, starch, shellac and lignin.
They are commonly found in leather, fur, wool, cotton, silk, rubber, rope, wood, and
many others. There are also synthetic polymers such as polyethylene, polystyrene, nylon,
Terylene,etc..

11.3 POLYMERIZATION
The process of linking together of monomers, that is, of obtaining macromolecules is
called “polymerization”. It can be achieved by one of the two processing techniques:
i. Addition polymerization:
ii. Condense polymerization;
11.4 PROPERTIES OF PLASTIC
Their great variety of physico- chemical and mechanical properties, and ease with
they can be made into various articles have found plastic their wide application in the
engineering and other industries.

 Their comparatively low density (1 to 2 g/cm3). Substantial mechanical

strength, higher strength – to-weight ratio and high anti friction properties
have enabled plastic to be efficiently used as substitute for metals, for
example, non ferrous metals and alloys- bronze, lead, tin, Babbitt etc., for
making bearing.
 With certain special properties (silent operation, corrosion resistance etc.,),
plastic can sometime replace ferrous metals.
 From the production point of view, their main advantage is their relative low
melting point and their ability to flow into a mould.
 Simple processing to obtain machine parts. Generally there is only one
production operation required to convert the chemically manufactured plastic
into a finished article.
 In mass production, plastic substitute for ferrous metals allow the production
cost to be required by factor of 1.5 to 3.5 and for non- ferrous metals by a
factor 5 to 20.
 Good damping capacity and good surface finish of the product.
 the high heat and electric insulation of plastics permits them to be applied in
the radio and electrical engineering industries as dielectrics and as substitute
for porcelain, ebonite, shellac, mica, natural rubber, etc..

11.5 PLASTICS
Polymer can be divided into three broad divisions: plastics, fibers, and elastomers.
Synthetic resins are usually referred to as plastics. Plastic derive their name from the fact
that in a certain phase of their manufacture, they are present in a plastic stage (that is,
acquire plasticity), which makes it possible to impart any desire shape to the product.
Plastics fall into a category known chemically as high polymers.
Thus, “plastics” is a term applied to compositions consisting of a mixture of high
molecular compounds (synthetic polymers) and fillers, plasticizers, stains and pigments,
lubricating and other substances. Some of the plastic can contain nothing but resin (for
instance, polyethylene, polystyrene).

11.6 TYPES OF PLASTICS

Plastics are classified on the broad basis of whether heat causes them to set
(thermosetting) or causes them to soften and melt (thermoplastic).

11.6.1 THERMOSETTING PLASTICS

This plastic undergoes a number of chemical changes on heating and cure to infusible
and practically insoluble articles. The chemical change is not reversible thermosetting
plastics do not soften on reheating and can not be reworked. They rather become harder
due to completion of any left-over polymerization reaction. Eventually, at high
temperatures, the useful properties of the plastic get destroyed. This is called degradation.
The commonest thermosetting plastics are: alkyds, epoxides, polyesters, phenolics and
urea.

11.6.2 THERMOPLASTIC PLASTICS

These plastic soften under heat, harden on cooling, and can be resoften under
heat. Thus, they retain their fusibility, solubility, and capability of being repeatedly
shape. The mechanical properties of these plastics are rather sensitive to temperature and
to sunlight and exposure to temperature may cause thermal degradation. Common
thermoplastic plastics are: acrylics, poly tetra fluoro ethylene (PTFE), polyvinyl chlorides
(PVC), nylons, polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene etc,
.
11.6.3 PLASTICS MOLDING PROCESSES
There are various methods of producing components from the plastics materials
which are supplied in the granular, power and other forms.
Various plastics molding processes discussed in this chapter are:
1. Compression molding.
2. Transfer molding.
3. Injection molding.
4. Blow molding.
5. Extrusion molding.
6. Slush moulding.
7. Calendaring.

11.6.3.1 Compression moulding

In compression molding, a material normally in power or perform shape , is
loaded directly into the hot die cavity, pressure from 150 to 700 kg/cm2 is applied ,
held for a curing period and then the finished part is ejected. Press stays closed while the
heat cures hardens and sets the plastic part. The time for curing depends upon the design,
small thin-wall pieces require as little as 20 seconds. The curing temperature is to the
order of 200 C. Compression molding is largely utilized for molding thermosetting
materials.
A measured amount of power plastics is placed in the power female cavity
continuously heated by steams or electricity. The movable bolster is raised so that the
female mold portion contacts the male die which also is heated. The combined effect of
temperature and pressure causes the plastic to flow into the mold cavity
 .
Fig.11.1 compression moulding

11.6.3.2 Transfer molding

Transfer molding was developed largely to avoid the disadvantages found which
compression molding.
 Transfer molding can make intricate or quite accurate parts than possible with
compression molding.
 Transfer molding permits the use of intricate inserts and slender cores not
practicable with compression molding method.
 Transfer molding produces components of better quality and at economical
rates.

Fig.11.2 Transfer molding

The plastic in the power or pellet form is placed in the transfer chamber.
Under heat and pressure of approximately 1000 kg/cm2, it is transferred or
injected into the closed mold cavity. The curing time required after transfer is just one-
third of the compression molding curing time. Another method known as jet molding
brings the transfer method closer or injection molding as used for thermoplastics. The
plastic materials is forced by ram or screw through a heated jet where it become soft
before entering the closed die. Good flowing materials with a long flow period are
desirable.

11.6.3.3. Blow molding

Blow molding has been used for making plastic bottles, toys, doll bodies and
many other items. The blow molding commences with the extrusion of the tubular pieces
of plastic, known as parison, which is transferred to the two piece mold.

Fig.11.3 Blow molding

11.6.3.4 Injection moulding

An important industrial method of producing articles of thermoplastics is
injection moulding. The moulding material is loaded into a hopper from which it is
transferred to a heating section by a feeding device, where the temperature is raised to
150 c to 370 c. and pressure is built up. The material melts and is forced by an
injection ram at high pressure through a nozzle and sprue into a closed mould which
forms the parts. The mould is in at least two sections, so that it may be spilt in order
to eject the finished component. For the process to be competitive the mould must be
fairly cool and consequently the mold must be cooled by circulating water. Injection
moulding machines have a high production capacity: some can produce from 12 to 16
thousand parts per shift. This method is suitable for making parts within complex
threads and intricate shapes, thin-walled parts etc.

Fig.11.4 Injection moulding

The limitation of the process is:- Equipment of cylinder and die should be
non-corrosive. Also, reliable temperature controls are essential. Injection moulding
machines range in size from an injection capacity of 12,000 mm3 to 2,200,000 mm3.
The locking forces are applied to be the mould usually by hydraulic means, and may
vary from 0.1 MN to 8.0 MN or even more. The injection pressure may range from
100 MPa to 150 MPa.

11.6.3.5 EXTRUTION PROCESS :-

The extrusion process, in many cases produces material in an intermediate
form for subsequent reprocessing to its final component form. The process is the
same as for metals, that is, the expulsion of material through a die of the required
cross-section. Simplicity in operation and a controlled pressure which can be virtually
high as required. If the polymer can be plasticized by pressure, then the ram extruder
is advantageous in view of its simplicity. But for plastics which require heat, the
separate pre-processing mat be regarding as a draw back. Another major
drawback of this type of machine is the reciprocating action of ram which is time
wasting since the ram must be withdrawn after its power stroke and a new dolly of
material inserted in the container. Also, with many materials, the die office must be
cleaned between each working stroke.

Nowadays, the ram machine is mainly used for “wet extrusion” that is for
extruding plastics which have been softened by the addition of solvents. Solvent has
to be removed.
 Fig.11.5 Extrusion Process
For extrusion of plastics, single-screw machine has completely replaced the ram type
machine. There are two basic types of screw extruders: the melt extruder and the
plasticizing extruder. In the formal, the material is delivered to the extruder already
melted and thus the function of the extruder is merely to push the material to the die and
through the orifice. In the plasticizing extruder the material is in the form of granules or
particles and so the extrude has to compress and work it until it melts before delivering it,
under pressure, to the die orifice.
11.6.3.6 Slush moulding
Slush moulding is an excellent method for producing open-end objects. It is an inverse
process of dipping, in which the inside of the mould is coated whereas the outside is
coated in this case. This process is followed for the production of a wide variety of
articles this paper will focus the use of TPU’S in slush moulding. For making skins for
automotive inside parts such as instruments panels,consoles,glove door boxes, door
panels,etc
The main components of the process are:
 The mould
 The powder box
 The movement: rotation, vibration change of position
It is a process that also involves the application of plastisol to a mould, but in this case
the piece is gelated in hot bath, temperature around 200-230 oC. The time spent inside
the hot bath depends on the required thickness. The remaining non-gelated plastisol is
extracted, and gelation of PVC in the mould is completed. The piece is finally demolded.
Applications for this process include automotive pieces and PVC masks.
Fig.11.6 slush moulding
 Date :
PRACTICAL NO:12

AIM: STUDY OF SURFACE FINISHING PROCESSES IN

DETAIL.

12.1 INTRODUCTION
As the name of this group of abrasive operations suggests, their objective is to
achieve superior surface finish up to mirror-like finishing and very close dimensional
precision. The finishing operations are assigned as the last operations in the single part
production cycle usually after the conventional or abrasive machining operations, but
also after net shape processes such as powder metallurgy, cold flashless forging, etc.

Fig 12.1 Different type of surface finishing method

The finishing processes discussed in this section include:

 Honing.
 Lapping.
 Super finishing.
 Polishing.

 Buffing.
The typical surface finishes for these operations are presented in the figure. Also
presented for comparison are surface roughness values for fine grit size grinding.
 Figure 12.2 Surface roughness diagrams
Honing is an abrasive machining process that produces a precision surface on a
metal workpiece by scrubbing an abrasive stone against it along a controlled path.
Honing is primarily used to improve the geometric form of a surface, but may also
improve the surface texture. Typical applications are the finishing of cylinders for
internal combustion engines, air bearing spindles and gears. Types of hone are many and
various but all consist of one or more abrasive stones that are held under pressure against
the surface they are working on. In everyday use, honing steel is used to hone knives,
especially kitchen knives, and is a fine process, there contrasted with more abrasive
sharpening. Honing is a finishing process performed by a honing tool, which contains a
set of three to a dozen and more bonded abrasive sticks. The sticks are equally spaced
about the periphery of the honing tool. They are held against the work surface with
controlled light pressure, usually exercised by small springs. The honing tool is given a
complex rotational and oscillatory axial motion, which combine to produce a
crosshatched lay pattern of very low surface roughness:

Fig 12.3 Honning Process

 In addition to the surface finish of about 0.1 μm, honing produces a characteristic
crosshatched surface that tends to retain lubrication during operation of the component,
thus contributing to its function and service life. A cutting fluid must be used in honing to
cool and lubricate the tool and to help remove the chips.

12.1.1 Honing stones (Honing tools)

Honing uses a special tool, called a honing stone or a hone, to achieve a precision
surface. The hone is a composed of abrasive grains that are bound together with an
adhesive. Generally, honing grains are irregularly shaped and about 10 to 50 micrometers
in diameter (300 to 1,500 mesh grit). Smaller grain sizes produce a smoother surface on
the workpiece. A honing stone is similar to a grinding wheel in many ways, but honing
stones are usually more friable so that they conform to the shape of the workpiece as they
wear in. To counteract their friability, honing stones may be treated with wax or sulfur to
improve life; wax is usually preferred for environmental reasons. Any abrasive material
may be used to create a honing stone, but the most commonly used are corundum, silicon
carbide, cubic boron nitride, or diamond. The choice of abrasive material is usually
driven by the characteristics of the workpiece material. In most cases, corundum or
silicon carbide are acceptable, but extremely hard workpiece materials must be honed
using super abrasives. The hone is usually turned in the bore while being moved in and
out. Special cutting fluids are used to give a smooth cutting action and to remove the
material that has been abraded. Machines can be portable, simple manual machines, or
fully automatic with gauging depending on the application.

Fig 12.4 Honning Tools

12.1.2 Performance advantages of honed surfaces

Since honing is a relatively expensive manufacturing process, it can only be
economically justified for applications that require very good form accuracy. The
improved shape after honing may result in a quieter running or higher precision
component.
12.1.3 Application
 Bores of internal

 Combustion engines
  Bearings

 Hydraulic cylinders

 And gun barrels

12.2 LAPPING
Lapping is a machining operation, in which two surfaces are rubbed together with
an abrasive between them, by hand movement or by way of a machine. This can take two
forms. The first type of lapping (traditionally called grinding), typically involves rubbing
a brittle material such as glass against a surface such as iron or glass itself (also known as
the "lap" or grinding tool) with an abrasive such as aluminum oxide, jeweler’s rouge,
optician's rouge, emery, silicon carbide, diamond, etc., in between them. This produces
microscopic conchoidal fractures as the abrasive rolls about between the two surfaces and
removes material from both. The other form of lapping involves a softer material such as
pitch or a ceramic for the lap, which is "charged" with the abrasive. The lap is then used
to cut a harder material—the workpiece. The abrasive embeds within the softer material
which holds it and permits it to score across and cut the harder material. Taken to the
finer limit, this will produce a polished surface such as with a polishing cloth on an
automobile, or a polishing cloth or polishing pitch upon glass or steel.

12.2.1 Lapping Operation

Fig 12.5 Small lapping machine

Fig 12.6 Small lapping plate made of cast iron

 By way of example, a piece of lead may be used as the lap, charged with emery,
and used to cut a piece of hardened steel. The small plate shown in the first picture is that
of a hand lapping plate. The lap or lapping plate in this machine is 30 centimeters (12 in)
in diameter. For a commercial machine, that is about the smallest size available. At the
other end of the size spectrum, machines with 8-to-10-foot-diameter (2.4 to 3.0 m) plates
are not uncommon, and systems with tables 30 feet (9.1 m) in diameter have been
constructed. Referring to the second picture again, the lap is the large circular disk on the
top of the machine. On top of the lap are two rings. The weights can also be seen in the
picture along with two fiber spacer disks that are just used to even the load.
Due to the dimensions of such small samples, traditional loads and weights are
too heavy as they would destroy delicate materials. The jig sits in a cradle on top of the
lapping plate and the dial on the front of the jig indicates the amount of material removed
from the specimen. In lapping, instead of a bonded abrasive tool, oil-based fluid
suspension of very small free abrasive grains (aluminum oxide and silicon carbide, with
typical grit sizes between 300 and 600) called a lapping compound is applied between the
work piece and the lapping tool.

Fig 12.7 Lapping Process

The lapping tool is called a lap, which is made of soft materials like copper, lead
or wood. The lap has the reverse of the desired shape of the work part. Lapping is
sometimes performed by hand, but lapping machines accomplish the process with
greater consistency and efficiency.
12.2.1 Applications
 Optical lenses

 Metallic bearing surfaces

 Gages

12.2.2 Disadvantages of lapping

 Lapping is still somewhat of an art. It requires experience and skill.

 Trial and error still may be needed to get the optimum results.
12.3 SUPER FINISHING
Super finishing is a finishing operation similar to honing, but it involves the use
of a single abrasive stick. Super finishing, also known as micromachining and short-
stroke honing, is a metalworking process that improves surface finish and workpiece
geometry. This is achieved by removing just the thin amorphous surface layer left by the
last process with an abrasive stone; this layer is usually about 1 μm in magnitude. Super
finishing, unlike polishing which produces a mirror finish, creates a cross-hatch pattern
on the workpiece. the super finishing process was developed by the Chrysler Corporation
in 1934.
12.3.1 Process of Super Finishing
After a metal piece is ground to an initial finish, it is super finished with a finer
grit solid abrasive. The abrasive is oscillated or rotated while the work piece is rotated in
the opposite direction; these motions are what cause the cross-hatching. The geometry of
the abrasive depends on the geometry of the work piece surface; a stone (rectangular
shape) is for cylindrical surfaces and cups and wheels are used for flat and spherical
surfaces The first phase is when the abrasive first contacts the work piece surface the dull
grains of the abrasive fracture and fall away, which produces a sharp new cutting surface.
In the second phase the abrasive "self dresses", where a most of the stock is removed.
The pressure applied to the abrasive is very light, usually between 0.02 to 0.07 MPa (3 to
10 psi), but can be as high as 2.06 MPa (299 psi). When a stone is used it is oscillated at
200 to 1000 cycles with an amplitude of 1 to 5 mm (0.039 to 0.20 in).Super finishing can
give a surface finish of 0.01 μm.
The reciprocating motion of the stick is performed at higher frequency and smaller
amplitudes. Also, the grit size and pressures applied on the abrasive stick are smaller. A
cutting fluid is used to cool the work surface and wash away chips.

Fig 12.8 Principle of Super Finishing

In super finishing, the cutting action terminates by itself when a lubricant film is built
up between the tool and work surface. Thus, super finishing is capable only of improving
the surface finish but not dimensional accuracy.
The result of these operating conditions is mirror like finishes with surface roughness
values around 0.01 μm.
12.3.4 Types of Super Finishing Process
There are three types super finishing: Through-feed, plunge, and wheels.
12.3.4.1 Through-feed
This type of super finishing is used for cylindrical workpieces. The workpiece is
rotated between two drive rollers, which also move the machine as well. Four to eight
progressively finer abrasive stones are used to super finish the workpiece. The stones
contact the workpiece at a 90° angle and are oscillated axially. Examples of parts that
would be produced by process include tapered rolls, piston pins, shock absorber rods,
shafts, and needles.
12.3.4.2 Plunge
This type is used to finish irregularly shaped surfaces. The workpiece is rotated
while the abrasive plunges onto the desired surface.
12.3.4.3 Wheels
Abrasive cups or wheels are used to super finish flat and spherical surfaces. The
wheel and workpiece are rotated in opposite directions, which creates the cross-hatching.
If the two are parallel then the result if a flat finish, but if the wheel is tilted slightly a
convex or concave surfaces will form.

12.3.5 Advantages & disadvantages

Advantages of super finishing include: increasing part life, decreasing wear,
closer tolerances, and higher load bearing surfaces, better sealing capabilities, and
elimination of a break in period.
The main disadvantage is that super finishing requires grinding or a hard turning
operation beforehand, which increases cost. Super finishing has a lower cutting efficiency
because of smaller chips and lower material removal rate. Super finishing stones are
softer and wear more quickly, however they do not need to be dressed.

12.3.6 Applications

 Finish flat

 External cylindrical surfaces.

12.4 Polishing and buffing

Polishing is a finishing operation to improve the surface finish by means of a
polishing wheel made of fabrics or leather and rotating at high speed. The abrasive grains
are glued to the outside periphery of the polishing wheel. Polishing operations are often
accomplished manually.
 Fig 12.9 Buffing Process

 Buffing is a finishing operation similar to polishing, in which abrasive grains are

not glued to the wheel but are contained in a buffing compound that is pressed
into the outside surface of the buffing wheel while it rotates. As in polishing, the
abrasive particles must be periodically replenished. As in polishing, buffing is
usually done manually, although machines have been designed to perform the
process automatically.