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© Joy Goodwin

‘How to be Top’
English Work Book
CHAPTER 11

Correct use of language.

 Parts of speech
 The verb
 Subjunctive mood
 Tenses
 Transitive and intransitive verbs
 Negative form of the verb
 Active and passive voice
 Sentences – simple, complex, compound, loose,
periodic, mixed
 Deep and surface structure
 Word order
 Degrees of comparison - adjectives and adverbs
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Parts of Speech
All words can be divided into classes called Parts of Speech. viz: (namely – videlicet)
noun
pronoun
adjective
verb
adverb
preposition
conjunction
interjection
articles

Nouns:
* Common [describes many things of the same kind]– table, town, foot

* Proper [an individual object as distinct from all others] John, Headmaster, Cape
Town.

* Abstract [a quality of state, thought, action, emotion] joy, beauty, goodness

* Collective [a group considered as a whole] crowd, pod, flock

* Noun agent [person who performs an action] writer, poet, painter

* Nouns can be made into compound nouns . scare-crow, merry-go-round, i-pod

Functions of nouns:
 subject of the verb. [The hens ate the corn.]
 direct object of a verb. [The ball broke the window.]
 indirect object of a verb. [We gave the beggar some money.]
 complement of an incomplete verb (the verb ‘to be’) That man is a miner.
 governed by a preposition. [I went into the garden.]
 the name of a person or place. [Come here, Michael.]
 in apposition to another noun or pronoun. [The wicket-keeper, Miller, played
well.]

Exercise 1 Identify the type of noun in bold in each of the following sentences and
state its function.

1. Caesar was an outstanding military commander.

2. We went to school.
3. Mr Birchell, the cricket coach, has turned the boys into top-notch players.
4. He gave his girlfriend roses for her birthday.
5. The pack of dogs barked loudly.
6. Hiking in the mountains is pure bliss.
7. Mom made a cake for my birthday party.
8. The view from the top is fantastic!
9. We are citizens of Cape Town.
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10. The men, all motor-cyclists, meet here every Saturday morning. [20]

PRONOUNS [replace nouns]

Personal [take the place of a name of a person or thing] - in brackets is the object form.
I (me), he (him), she (her), it, we (us), you, they (them). e.g. They have
invited us to a party. The cat is a Persian. It is beautiful.

Possessive [show possession] mine, his, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs. [his and its are
also possessive adjectives. Possessive pronouns are not followed by nouns.]
e.g. This book is mine. That one is yours.
F
Reflexive [reflect back to the subject] myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself,
ourselves yourselves, themselves. e.g. They have injured themselves.
NEVER use a myself instead of me or I. He gave me NOT He gave myself.
John and I will organize everything. NOT John and myself….

Emphatic They are identical to the reflexive in form but emphasize the noun
they are used with. e.g. I, myself, will be supervising operations. The
general, himself, has issued this instruction.

Demonstrative These point out a specific person or thing. this, that, these, those.
e.g. These are well done but I prefer those.

Interrogative ask a question. who, whom, what, which. e.g. Who did this? By whom
was this done? Whose is this? What happened? Which did you choose? If
they are followed by nouns, what, which and whose are called interrogative
adjectives.

Indefinite refer to no particular thing or person. Some, many, one, anyone,

somebody, everybody. e.g. Many stayed to the end but some left early.

Relative are used as conjunctions to join one clause to another. Who, whom,
which, that. e.g. Here is the man. You admire the man. Becomes: Here is
the man whom you admire. Who and whom MUST be used to refer to
people. e.g. The man who wrote this book… NOT The man that wrote
this book…

Exercise 2 Identify the type of the pronoun in bold.

1. My father is taking James and me to town.
2. Has he hurt himself?
3. That is very sharp.
4. People who travel regularly have no fear of flying.
5. I, myself, do not know the answer.
6. One always senses danger in this place.
7. What is the reason for this commotion?
8. It is mine, not his.
9. This is a book that I should very much like to read.
10. He is a person for whom we feel sorry. [10]
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Exercise 3 Choose the correct word in brackets or supply a suitable pronoun.

1. Keith and (me/I/myself) were chosen.
2. Have you hurt (you/yourself)?
3. Between you and (me/I, myself), he is not to be trusted.
4. They spoke to (she/her/herself) and (I/me/myself).
5. She is one of the girls (that/who/whom/which) I like.
6. Everybody has now finished (his/their) paper.
7. I spoke to your sister (whose/whom/who/that) promised to give you a
message.
8. He is a writer (who’s/whose) books are worth reading.
9. …… of them do you prefer?
10. Jacques Kallis, ……., will visit the school tomorrow.
11. She … told us the secret.
12. Yuri, you … said that it was so!
13. The garden is beautiful but the house … is in poor repair.
14. Although we … escaped unhurt, the others were badly injured.
15. Of course we’ve been invited – Mr Wells … ‘phoned me. [15]

Exercise 4 Join these sentences by using who, whom, whose, that, which
NB Do not end your sentence with a preposition. e.g. This is the house.
You were looking for it. = This is the house for which you were looking.

1. There was a curious noise. It sounded like the clank of metal.

2. He moved with agility. I did not think him capable of it.
3. We spoke to George Barnard. You know him.
4. Did you see that beautiful girl? She was selling tickets.
5. Lawrence is a politician. His abilities are highly rated.
6. They found some planks. They made a raft from them.
7. I remember the time. I came across an elephant in my path.
8. The directions are on the bottle. They tell you what to do.
9. I felt sorry for the child. He could hardly walk.
10. There is the boat. I was telling you about it. [10]

ADJECTIVES describe a noun or pronoun.

* Common/adjectives of quality e.g. slippery, dangerous roads.

* Adjectives of quantity
a) Numerical describe a definite number. two, fifth, single e.g. He eats
two eggs for breakfast.
b) Indefinite describe a vague number. some, any, few, much, many, most
e.g. Many members voted for change but few members realized what
it involved.

* Demonstrative These are the same as the demonstrative pronouns – this, that,
these, those but are used with nouns. e.g. This pistol is cleaner than that rifle.

* Possessive my, his, her, its, our, your, their They are used with nouns. e.g.
They put their bags away.
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* Interrogative which, what e.g. Which train did you catch?

* Proper naming adjective – has a capital letter [a Wynberg boy]

* Intensive very He is the very person I want to see.

* Identifying same The same story.

* Adjectives may be compound e.g. happy-go-lucky fellow, a devil-may-care

attitude

Exercise 5 Name the type of adjective in bold.

1. On which airline will you be travelling?
2. I told that man, behind the counter.
3. He saw snow for the first time last year.
4. He asked if any person present knew the way home.
5. You are the very person I wish to see.
6. He writes thrilling stories.
7. I have seen the same movie.
8. O’Henry is an American writer of short stories.
9. What name was on that piece of paper?
10. He sold his idea for a fortune.
11. Most birds fly well.
12. Oh, lucky you!
13. Constant dripping wears away stone.
14. His only companion was a piglet.
15. Smoked snoek is tasty. [15]

THE VERB Refer to chapter 4 in Grade 8 notes

KINDS

Finite A sentence MUST contain a finite verb.

He plays several instruments.

He is a versatile musician.
We ran home.
The birds are singing.
They will arrive tomorrow.
He has driven all night.

A finite verb can be a single word or it can comprise an auxiliary(auxiliaries) and a

present or past participle.

Non-finite
* Present participle [ends in –ing] e.g. running, jumping, smoking
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* Past participle [past tense form of the verb – usually preceded by an
auxiliary]
e.g. have written, will have completed, had swum, has gone etc.
* auxiliary [all forms of the verb ‘to be’] is, was, were, had, has, shall,
will, would , have had etc.
* infinitive [‘to’ + verb] to run, to laugh, to cheat, to swerve etc.

The present participle can function as a noun. In this case it is called a verbal noun or
gerund.
e.g. Swimming is good exercise. I enjoy running. Smoking is bad for your health.
The present participle can also function as an adjective. (a verbal adjective) e.g.
The walking man is limping. I bought a talking doll.

Exercise 6 Identify the kind of verb in bold in the sentences below.

1. You will find the article in yesterday’s Cape Times.
2. I bought two cricket balls yesterday.
3. We had already met him.
4. This tart is delicious.
5. I want to show you something.
6. He was driving too fast when he crashed.
7. They were with us last week.
8. She writes as often as she can.
9. We were hoping you would join us.
10. He charged down the centre of the hockey field.
11. Lost in the wood, the children cried out.
12. Losing the toss, we were soon in trouble.
13. We did not want to lose.
14. When I go, she goes too.
15. I have often swum nude. [15]

Dangling/hanging/unrelated participles.
A present participle must refer to the subject of the main clause or else the subject of
the participle must be indicated.

e.g. Climbing down the rocks, the loose gravel made me lose my footing.
[Was the gravel climbing down the rocks? No!]
=While I was climbing down the rocks, the loose gravel made me lose my footing.

Exercise 7 Remove the ambiguity in the following sentences:

1. Swinging in the trees I saw the monkeys through my binoculars.
2. Running down the road the bus stopped and waited for him.
3. Flying overhead I saw a bird.
4. They were pleased to find a small café coming down the mountain.
5. The girl saw a crocodile going to fetch water from the river. [5]

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD expresses a doubt, a wish, a supposition, a condition and must

use the subjunctive verb were…would

1. If I were you… – NOT if I was you…

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2. If he were here… – NOT If he was here…
3. Should he arrive he would….
4. I wish I were a rich man. NOT …was a rich man.

TENSE
Present Present continuous (auxiliary + pres.
part.)
I walk. I am walking.

Past Past continuous (auxiliary + pres. part.)

I walked. I was walking.

Perfect (have/has + past participle) Perfect continuous (aux + been + pres.

part.)
I have walked. I have been walking.

Pluperfect (past past) must have had Pluperfect continuous (had been + pres.
part)
I had walked. I had been walking.

Future (shall/will) Future continuous (shall/will be + pres.

part)
I shall walk I shall be walking.

Exercise 8 Write these sentences in the tense given in brackets.

1. He receives many warnings. (future)
2. He swam yesterday. (pluperfect)
3. I ride often. (perfect)
4. He eats a lot. (past continuous)
5. He drives badly. (pluperfect continuous)
6. He rings the bell. (perfect passive)
7. She sings sweetly. (pluperfect)
8. They go to the beach. (perfect)
9. We will get good marks. (perfect)
10. She sews the tear invisibly. (pluperfect) [10]

TRANSITIVE (v.t) AND INTRANSITIVE (v.i.) VERBS

Transitive verbs take a direct object. e.g. The test pilot flew the new aeroplane. v.t.
Intransitive verbs do NOT take a direct object. e.g. The bird flew across the lawn. v.i.

Visit and greet are transitive verbs. You CANNOT say: Stand up to greet. Or please
come to visit.
Stand up to greet the teacher. Please come to visit us.
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Exercise 9 Are the verbs in these sentences transitive or intransitive?
1. He always jumps traffic lights.
2. Jack jumps over the candle stick
3. He lay down after supper.
4. She asked me to lay the table for dinner.
5. This hen lays an egg every day.
6. John ran home.
7. James fell down the stairs.
8. Jenny kicked the bucket.
9. Gillian hooted her horn.
10. Jane blew hard. [10]

Negative form of the verb

Exercise 10 Turn the following sentences into the negative:

1. This is supposed to be a good school.

2. You were told to hand in your work yesterday.
3. Sally handed in her work last week.
4. James has already finished his homework.
5. Guy’s work had been completed, so he could go to the theatre.
6. Pamela is in love with Patrick.
7. The task will have been completed by the time you arrive.
8. Patricia has been going out with Henry for the past week.
9. You would have got into a dangerous situation if you had consulted Joe.
10. Have you ever been overseas? [10]

VOICE Active / Passive

Active: [The subject does the action] John threw the ball.
Passive. [The subject has the action done to it.] The ball was thrown by John.

NOTE The passive voice is often used deliberately when the person involved is
unknown or wishes to remain anonymous.
e.g. a) It has been said that ‘virtue is its own reward’. (This is much better than saying
something like: A wise man once said…)
b) Dad, the window has been broken.

Exercise 11 Are the following sentences in the active or passive voice?

1. He hailed a taxi.
2. If you agree, you will never regret it.
3. We were not warned of the danger.
4. He accepted it joyfully.
5. He was asked to resign by the committee.
6. The washing must be brought in before it rains.
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7. They were faced with a ghastly sight.
8. You must report this matter.
9. The leaves were blown all over the lawn.
10. I am pleased with this performance. [10]

Exercise 12 Change the active sentences into the passive and the passive
sentences into the active.

1. No one has seen him since.

2. We satisfied our hunger at the café.
3. The scout watched the enemy closely.
4. Weariness compelled us to find a resting place.
5. The fire-brigade was called by my father.
6. David told Tom what had happened.
7. They were still discussing it as they left.
8. Who broke the chair?
9. The mechanic has just repaired the refrigerator.
10. Our meal was completed in silence. [10]

Adverbs modify or describe a verb more fully.

Kinds

Time: Will they do it now, tomorrow or never?

Place: He struck here, there and everywhere.
Manner: The thieves worked swiftly and silently.
Interrogative: How and when did he escape?
Degree: This does not modify a verb but an adjective or another adverb.
e.g. She is very beautiful.
Frequency: He comes often but she seldom comes.

Exercise 13 Write down the adverb in each sentence and say what kind it is.

1. John rode his bike well.

2. Mary put up her hand immediately.
3. The shy boy often stayed at home.
4. Do not be too pleased with yourself, smarty pants!
5. Sit here with me.
6. The noisy children played outside.
7. Start working now.
8. I am pleased with your work today.
9. Why are you not working?
10. The stain is hardly noticeable. [10]

Comparison of adverbs add more and most.

Positive comparative superlative

carefully more carefully most carefully
happily more happily most happily
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proudly more proudly most proudly
loudly more loudly most loudly
calmly more calmly most calmly

Comparison of adjectives (see chapter 2 of grade 8 notes)

Positive comparative superlative
careful more careful most careful
happy happier happiest
proud prouder proudest
loud louder loudest
calm calmer calmest

Exercise 14 Choose the correct word in brackets.

1. You are (better/gooder) than I am at swimming but I run (faster/more quickly)

than you do.
2. The day is (calmer/more calm) than it was yesterday because the wind is blowing
(gentler/more gently).
3. She speaks (softer/more softly) when she is shy. She is the (shyer/shyest) of the
two girls.
4. The rain is pelting down (heavy/heavily/more heavily) than it did yesterday.
5. She sat (prouder/proudly/most proudly) with her grandson.
6. She spoke (wiser/more wisely/most wisely) than he did.
7. The boy is (older/more old) than his brother. [10]

PREPOSITIONS govern a noun or pronoun. E.g. He sat on the chair.

Note! It is always followed by a noun or pronoun.
He went outside the house. outside is a preposition.
He went outside. outside is an adverb.

NOTE The noun following the preposition is always in the accusative case (object
form) e.g. Between you and me NOT: Between you and I.

Here are most of them in a rhyme which my std 6 (grade 8) teacher taught me:

at, in, into,

by, with, from,
on, for, to, up,
over, above,
under, amid,
before, through,
out, beneath. Also against, between, during, across, alongside, past, outside,
around etc.

Prepositions establish relationships in place.

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The little group walked across the bridge.
The little group walked under the bridge.
The little group walked to the bridge.
The little group walked alongside the bridge.
The little group walked past the bridge.
The bird flew over the bridge.
We met at the bridge.

Remember: Different from not different than as the Americans say.

Exercise 15. Fill in the missing prepositions:

1. absolve … blame.
2. accessible … everyone
3. bathed … light.
4. boast … his deeds.
5. capable … better things.
6. dabble … politics.
7. eager … a fight.
8. familiar … someone.
9. heedless … danger.
10. opportunity … doing it.
11. popular … his men.
12. prejudiced … him.
13. agree … a proposal.
14. troubled … mind.
15. confide … no-one. [15]

Exercise 16 Fill in the missing prepositions:

1. The mother is blind…her son’s faults.

2. The father does not know what his son does … his back
3. I want to exchange these trousers … a bigger pair.
4. He always does things … the eleventh hour.
5. My parents approve … my plans to go into business on my own.
6. The tears ran … her cheeks.
7. She hit him … the face.
8. The farmer has a big stretch of land …. sunflowers.
9. Please stay … earshot so that I can call you when I need you.
10. Have you enlisted …the army? [10]

Conjunctions join words or sentences. Common ones are: and, but, or, that, as,
though, because, when, although etc. He said that he would play although he was ill.

Interjections are words or sounds expressing emotion. e.g. Ah! Oh! Bah! Hey!

Articles
Definite the
Indefinite a, an a book – an apple
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SENTENCES

A sentence must have at least one finite verb. It must also have a subject. It usually has
an object and may have an indirect object a word that may be preceded by to.

John stroked the cat.

stroked = verb/doing word.

Who stroked? Answer = John. John is thus the subject.
Stroked what? Answer = the cat. the cat is thus the direct object.

John gave me a kitten.

gave = verb
who/what gave? John = subject
gave what? a kitten = object
gave whom/what? me = indirect object

The boy on the island gave his dog to a friend. indirect object
The boy on the island gave a bone to his dog. Indirect object

Exercise 17 Write down the subject, verb, direct object and indirect object in each
of these sentences:

1. He asked me three questions about my homework.

2. He told his father the whole story.
3. Helen gave her mother a present of perfume.
4. The postman handed Ralph a registered letter.
5. The incident gave Peter a shock.
6. The paint gives the room some colour.
7. Please give your father this message.
8. Bring me your book.
9. I give my plants water in the evenings.
10. The traffic cop gave me a speeding ticket.
11. When you get home, please post me the book.
12. Thandi promised her sister a make-up set for Christmas.
13. Ravi sends you his love.
14. The old woman handed Dimitra a slim candle.
15. A strange man offered us sweets.
16. When she went to Italy, Pia left me her kitten.
17. Marco gave his coach a gift.
18. If you love me, say so.
19. The boy on the island gave his dog away.
20. The boy on the island gave his dog a bone. [20]
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a clause is a group of words containing one finite verb e.g. because I love you.
a phrase is a group of words having no finite verb e.g.
To do a thing well requires patience. Noun phrase subject of requires.
He taught me to love the countryside. Noun phrase object of taught.
The storm having stopped, we set sail. Adv phrase of time modifying verb set.

Simple has only one finite verb (one main clause) e.g. The boy swam well.
a) statements It is very hot today. You did not tell me about it.
b) questions Where are you going? The man told you that?
c) desires/commands Please give him my love. Do not drive fast.
d) exclamations What a fine sight it is!

Compound Two or more simple sentences (or main clauses) are joined by
co-ordinating conjunctions (and, but, still, yet). e.g. I spoke to him and
then I left.
He drives a car but I ride a bicycle.

Complex One main clause and any number of subordinate clauses. The
subordinate clauses tell us more about the main clause and cannot stand on
their own. They are introduced by subordinating conjunctions. e.g. John
went home (main clause) because (conjunction) he was sick.(subordinate
clause)
Rose, who (conjunction) was greedy, (subordinate clause) ate five cakes.
(main clause)

Note; The book in the cupboard is old .= simple sentence. in the cupboard = a phrase
The book, which is in the cupboard, is old. = complex sentence, which is in the
cupboard = subordinate clause.

Exercise 18 Say whether the following are phrases, simple, complex, compound or
complex compound sentences.

1. John rode his bike home but Jenny walked.

2. We had a good time at the party.
3. Swimming fast in the pool.
4. She was bleeding because she had fallen down.
5. He is sick.
6. The dog bit him and he cried.
7. I will see you tomorrow when we are at school.
8. The man in the moon is not real.
9. I like to eat chocolate.
10. After the bell had rung he was still on his way to school.
11. Having broken the window, he paid for it.
12. Paul said that he had never heard Peter singing and hoped he never would.
13. The boys have been taught well yet they have failed their exam.
14. That raucous voice is most disturbing.
15. Staggering home, bleeding.
16. Because he told me that I was stupid, I cried.
17. To everyone’s surprise, the project failed dismally.
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18. He went home after going to the shop.
19. Throughout our lives we meet people who have a very positive influence on us.
20. I scored my first goal in the first five minutes and I scored my second just before
the final whistle.
[20]

Exercise 19 Write down only the main clause in each of these sentences.

1. When we were in nursery school we learnt about Goldilocks.

2. We listened, as we were told to do.
3. Although we tried hard, it was difficult to be good.
4. The amphetamine-based drug has baffled experts, who don’t know why it
harms some users and leaves others relatively unscathed.
5. After working out the odds on winning the lottery, the scientist switched off
his computer for the last time.
6. Having stolen the old lady’s bag, the man was arrested, because he stumbled
when he ran off.
7. The ring, because it is valuable, is kept in a safe.
8. I know that, having worked hard all year, all of you will do well.
9. On Saturday, the lady, who had stolen food from the shop, was tried in court,
which was full of spectators when the proceedings began.
10. The boat, which had fifty passengers on board who were all American
tourists, left from Cape Town harbour at 9 ‘o clock on Wednesday night. [10]

Exercise 20 Turn the following sentences into simple sentences:

1. Because he did not study, he did not pass.

2. He went home after he had gone to the shop.
3. The boy who scored the try is my hero.
4. I was surprised when the project failed.
5. Do not repeat the rumour that I have resigned.
6. They were all absent but I was not.
7. We shall go to town when the sun rises tomorrow.
8. John ate the cookies but did not own up to his mother.
9. That you are ill upsets me.
10. He taught me that I should love the countryside. [10]

Exercise 21 Make a complex sentence out of each of the following:

1. We looked down at the valley. It lay far below us.

2. The girl is my sister. You have just spoken to her.
3. The man is very shrewd. I bought my car from him.
4. This is the town. I lived here as a child.
5. Dave often visits us. His parents are abroad.
6. Here is the book. Henry Kissinger wrote it.
7. He is going to win. It is a fact.
8. He hurt his ankle. He was playing soccer.
9. We were on our way to town. We came upon an accident.
10. He is practising hard. He wants to break the record. [10]
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Exercise 22

State whether the following are simple, complex or compound and give
a reason.

1. I decided to drive to the coast on country roads although I was in a hurry because
I wanted to avoid the traffic.
2. Darkness fell but we were still far from home.
3. We met an old friend of yours at yesterday’s match.
4. I threw the jug at him and he ducked.
5. When he left I was annoyed. [10]

Exercise 23 Which conjunction should be used to complete these sentences?

1. You will have to work very carefully … you will break that vase.
2. … you work very carefully, you will break that vase.
3. … we had taken precautions, the disease spread rapidly.
4. It was very dark … we recognized the man when he entered the room.
5. Children understand better … you think.
6. …. he phones me, I have to spend half an hour talking to him.
7. My dog follows … I go.
8. The fugitive disguised himself … he be recognized by the police.
9. The mother sat with the little boy … he fell asleep.
10. I did not have the capital … I could not buy the business. [10]

LOOSE AND PERIODIC SENTENCES

Loose The main statement in a sentence appears first and is followed

by qualifying phrases and clauses.
e.g. Dinner began after grace had been said by the Doctor.
Nothing could be done until the ambulance arrived.

Periodic The main statement appears last. [the full stop / the period,
follows immediately after the main statement.]
e.g. After grace had been said by the Doctor, dinner began.
Until the ambulance arrived, nothing could be done.

Exercise 24 Are the following loose or periodic?

1. I bought only three C D’s because I could not afford more.

2. Having swum all day and feeling that we had had too much sun, we went
home.
3. When the curtain goes up, the show will begin.
4. He had an injection when he went to his doctor.
5. He had to leave early because of an emergency.
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6. When he left I was annoyed.
7. We met an old friend of yours at yesterday’s match.

Change the loose sentences into periodic ones and vice versa.

8. When the storm stopped, we set sail.

9. If you are to do something well, you need patience.
10. The referee had to intervene when the contest became too intense.
11. I cried because he told me I was stupid.
12. Because he is injured he cannot play. [12]

Note The main statement in a paragraph is called the TOPIC SENTENCE. It is

normally the first sentence in the paragraph and following sentences build upon it. But, it
can be in the middle or held over to the end for dramatic effect.

Here are some examples of topic sentences which start a paragraph:

1. The first day confirmed my fears.
2. Why do we need TV sets?
3. I ask myself how I became a musician and my mind goes back and back.

Here is one at the end from A Short History of Australia by Manning Clark.
4. The white man had come to Australia.

Deep and surface structure.

We often leave out words when we speak or write because their inclusion is not
necessary for complete understanding.
This shortening / omission leaves us with the surface structure. The deep
structure is the complete, unexpurgated sentence.
surface structure deep structure

Come here! You, come here! or Mary or Children etc.

Don’t know. I do not know.
The man told you that? Did the man tell you that?
The book in the cupboard is mine. The book which is in the cupboard is mine.
Ever seen snow? Have you ever seen snow?

In the sentences below, the words in bold can be left out.

1. Paul said that he had never heard Peter singing and hoped that he never would
hear him singing.
2. I scored my first goal in the first five minutes and I scored my second goal just
before the final whistle blew.

Exercise 25 Give the deep structure of the following sentences. [Sometimes surface
structure leads to ambiguity.]

1. Stop that at once!

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2. The self-contained log-cabins sleep six.
3. Swimming pool available.
4. Game trails on request.
5. Conference facilities available.
6. Dive the reefs.
7. Labrador puppies for sale.
8. She likes him more than you.
9. Harold told Keith that he had passed.
10. Where are my blue and grey slacks? [I have two pairs]
11. They have not and will not say anything.
12. The woollen and nylon socks are in the drawer. [I have two pairs] [12]

WORD ORDER the normal order is: subject, verb, object or complement.

 Adverbs should be placed as closely as possible to the words they modify.

Only I saw him – means that I was the only one to see him
I saw only him – means that he was the only one I saw.
Adverbs of time may be placed at the beginning or end of a sentence.
Seldom do I see him. I saw him yesterday.
Intransitive verbs can have the adverb before or after them. e.g. He ran
quickly. He often sits there.
Transitive verbs must not be separated from their objects by the adverb. e.g.
He closed the door firmly. Not: He closed firmly the door.
 Prepositions Although a preposition may be used at the end of a sentence it is
better to avoid doing so. e.g. He is the man I spoke of. Rewrite he is the man
of whom I spoke.
 Word order must not lead to ambiguity. e.g. I gave the hat to the girl with
ostrich feathers. Rewrite as: I gave the hat with ostrich feathers to the girl. Or I
gave the girl the hat with ostrich feathers.
 In reported speech the verb is placed at the end of the clause in a question.
“Where is your book?” asked the teacher. becomes: The teacher asked where
his book was. NOT … where was his book.

Exercise 26 Correct the word order.

1. The locksmith repaired the lock who came today.
2. They found the dog fifteen kilometers from here that they had lost.
3. He only wanted that. [and nothing else]
4. Wanted: Motorcar by man with automatic gears.
5. He told him to stop talking in a loud voice. [The first he had a loud voice]
6. I met the man who has sailed around the world twice in West Street.
7. The man asked why was he sleeping instead of working.
8. Kidnapped is the book that he is asking you for the return of. [8]