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in

5.8.7 Morphological Processing

It deals with tools for extracting image components that are useful in the representation and
description of shape and boundary of objects. It is majorly used in automated inspection
applications.
It is a broad set of image processing operations that process images based on shapes.
It apply a structuring element to an input image, creating an output image of the same
size. In a morphological operation, the value of each pixel in the output image is based on
a comparison of the corresponding pixel in the input image with its neighbours. Figure
5.20 shows the morphological operation on binaray image.

FIGURE 5.20 Morphological operations on binary image

The most basic morphological operations Erosion

are as follows:- „ Erosion removes pixels on the
1. Dilation 2. Erosion boundaries of the objects in an image.
„ Erosion removes floating pixels and thin
Dilation lines so that only substantive objects
„ Dilation adds pixels to the boundaries remain. Remaining lines appear thinner
of objects in an image. and shapes appear smaller.
„ Dilation makes objects more visible Figure 5.22 shows the original and
and fills-in small holes in the objects, processed images using erosion operation.
Lines appear thicker, and filled shapes
thus appear larger.

Figure 5.21 shows the original and

processed images using dilation operation.

FIGURE 5.22 Original and Processed Images using

Erosion

5.8.8 Image Segmentation

Image segmentation is a method in which
a digital image is broken down into
FIGURE 5.21 Original and Processed Images using
various subgroups called image segments,
Dilationi

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which helps in reducing the complexity of each region is represented and

the image to make further processing or described in a form suitable for further
analysis of the image simpler. computer processing. Representation
makes a decision whether the data
Approaches in Image should be represented as a boundary
Segmentation or as a complete region.
1. Similarity approach:This approach is
based on detecting similarity between Boundary Representation
image pixels to form a segment, based „ Focus on the external shape
on a threshold. ML algorithms like characteristics, such as boundaries,
clustering are based on this type of corners and inflections.
approach to segment an image. „ Chain code method is used to represent
2. Discontinuity approach: This the boundaries using a connected
approach relies on the discontinuity of sequence of straight line segments.
pixel intensity values of the image. Line, „ The below figure 5.24 shows the four
Point, and Edge Detection techniques and eight connectivity of chain codes
use this type of approach for obtaining method.
intermediate segmentation results
which can be later processed to obtain,
the final segmented image.

Image Segmentation Techniques

1. Threshold Based Segmentation
2. Edge Based Segmentation
3. Region-Based Segmentation
4. Clustering Based Segmentation
5. Artificial Neural Network Based
Segmentation
FIGURE 5.24 Chain codes (Four and Eight
Connectivity)

Region Representation
„ Focus on the internal properties, such
as colour, texture or skeleton shape.
„ These representation works based on
FIGURE 5.23 Segmentation of Palm Image
the number of pixels present in that
5.8.9 Representation and
region.
Description 2. Description
Description means that we quantify
1. Representation
the objects which we represented.
After an image is segmented into Based on the representation we have
regions in the segmentation process, two types of descriptors.

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„ Boundary Descriptors last before step of image processing, which

„ Region Descriptors use artificial intelligence software. Object
recognition is a computer vision technique
for identifying objects in images or videos.
Boundary Descriptors
Object recognition is a key output
Some of the boundary descriptors are as
of deep learning and machine learning
follows
algorithms. When humans look at a
„ Length „ Eccentricity photograph or watch a video, we can
„ Diameter „ Curvature readily spot people, objects, scenes, and
„ Major axis „ Shape number visual details. Figure 5.25 shows face
recognition of a person for different
„ Minor axis
expressions.
Object recognition is a key
Regional Descriptors
technology behind driverless cars,
Some of the regional descriptors are as enabling them to recognize a stop sign
follows or to distinguish a pedestrian from a
„ Area „ Circularity ratio lamp post. It is also useful in a variety of
applications such as disease identification
„ Perimeter „ Rectangularity
in bioimaging, industrial inspection, and
„ Compactness robotic vision.
These descriptors will allows us to
compare the properties of two different 5.8.11 Knowledge Base
images to make sure whether it is same Knowledge is the last stage in DIP. In this
or different. stage, important information of the image
is located, which limits the searching
5.8.10 Object Recognition processes. The knowledge base is very
It is the process that assigns label to an complex when the image database has a
object based on its descriptors. It is the high-resolution satellite.

FIGURE 5.25 Face recognition of an individual based on the expression of a person

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5.9 Applications of Digital „ Automatic number plate recognition

Image Processing and Traffic sign recognition.
System „ RADAR (Radio Detection and
Ranging)
The field of Digital Image Processing has
experienced continuous and significant „ Acoustic Image Processing (The
development in recent years. Some of the study of underwater sound is known
applications which include as Underwater Acoustics or Hydro
Acoustics)
Medical field „ SONAR (Sound Navigation and
For medical diagnosis, different types of Ranging)
imaging modalities such as which include „ Robotics and automated inspection of
„ X-ray, industrial parts.
„ Ultrasound,
Pattern recognition
„ Computed aided tomography (CT),
Cine angiograms, Pattern recognition is used in
„ Radiology Nuclear Magnetic „ computer aided diagnosis
Resonance (NMR) etc., „ recognition of handwriting
Remote sensing satellites „ recognition of image.
In this application, sensors mounted on Space image applications
a remote sensing satellite use DIP for include
carrying out the following operations
„ Recognition and analysis of objects
„ Employed in flood control and fire contained in images obtained from
control deep space-probe missions.
„ Mobilization of Earth resources „ Image transmission and storage
„ Geographical mapping applications occur in broadcast
„ Prediction of agricultural crops television
„ Urban growth and weather monitoring „ Teleconferencing
Intelligent transportation „ Transmission of facsimile images for
system Office automation.
This technique is used in „ In military communications

learning outcome
After studying this chapter, students can understand the following
1. Analog and Digital Image Processing.
2. Representation of Digital Image.
3. Components of Digital Image Processing.
4. Fundamental steps of Digital Image Processing.
5. Applications of Digital Image Processing.

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QUESTIONS 6. ______________ is the process of

improving the quality of digitally
I. Choose the best answer from the stored image by manipulating the
given four options. image with software.
1. _____________ is the term used a) Image restoration
most widely to denote the elements
b) Image acquisition
of digital element.
c) Image compression
a) Amplitude
d) Image enhancement
b) Intensity
7. ____________ Model used for Image
c) Pixel
Processing Application.
d) Gray Level
a) HSI (Hue,Saturation, Intensity)
2. The term gray level is used often to
b) Radiance
refer to the intensity of __________
c) Luminance
a) Monochrome Image
d) RGB Model
b) Pseudocode Image
8. _____________ add pixels to the
c) Analog Image
boundaries of object in an Image
d) Digital Image
a) Erosion
3. Digitizing the amplitude values is
b) Dilation
called _______________
c) Region
a) Sampling
d) Descriptors
b) quantization
9. ________________ deals with
c) Gray Levels
technique reducing the storage
d) Spatial Domain required to save an image.
4. IPT (Image Processing Tool Box) is a a) Image Enhancement
function in ____________
b) Image Restoration
a) Java Script
c) Image Compression
b) MATLAB Language
d) Image Acquisition
c) LAB VIEW
10. ________________ is a collection
d) Python of decreasing resolution image
5. ______________ is the action of arranged in the shape of pyramid.
retrieving an image from a source a) Wavelet
such as cameras and sensor.
b) Lossy Compression
a) Image enhancement
c) Lossless Compression
b) Image restoration
d) Multiresolution
c) Image acquisition
d) Image compression

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II. Answer in few sentence. 2. Distinguish between analog and

1. What is the Digital Image Processing? digital image.
2. How to representing the digital 3. Sketch the block diagram for
image? fundamental steps in Digital Image
Processing.
3. Define Sampling and quantization.
4. Describe the characteristics of Light
4. What is meant by IPT?
and three quantities of colour.
5. What are the types of noise in Image
5. Explain in detail about the object
restoration?.
recognition.
6. What is meant by HSI Model?.
7. What is Image Enhancement?.
IV. Briefly explain the following
8. What is Image Compression? Give questions.
its types.
1. Write the difference between Lossy
9. Define Image Segmentation. and Lossless Compression.
10. Mention few boundary and regional 2. Explain in detail about the
descriptors? Morphological Process and its
operation.
III. Explain the following questions. 3. What are the applications of Digital
1. How to calculate the total number of Image Processing in various fields?
pixels in an Image. Explain

ANSWERS
1(c) 2(a) 3(b) 4(b) 5(c)
6(d) 7(a) 8(b) 9(c) 10(d)

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06

CHAPTER
Sound Engineering

learning objective
The students can understand the following in this chapter
1. Characteristics of sound waves 5. PA system and Audio power amplifier
2. Microphones & Speakers circuits
3. Audio mixer-types 6. Effects of noise pollution

4. Applications of Acoustic Engineering

6.1 Introduction We can also study about the

microphone, speaker, PA system, Power
In this chapter, we can learn some
amplifier circuits, acoustical applications
fundamental knowledge and skills
and DTS/DOLBY systems.
regarding the field of sound engineering.
First we have to understand, what Sound travels in different mediums in
different speed
is sound and audio? Sound is a frequency
caused by vibration that can be heard by Speed of sound in solids : 5960 m/s
humans, animals or any device that can Speed of sound in liquids : 1482 m/s
pick up those frequencies. Speed of sound in Air (gases) : 334 m/s
Audio means ‘of sound’ or ‘of the Sound cannot travel in Vacuum
reproduction of sound’. Specifically it
refers to the range of frequencies detectable
by the human ear-approximately 20Hz 6.2 Characteristics of Sound
to 20 kHz. The audio work involves the waves
production, recording, manipulation and
The figure 6.1 shows the waveform of a
reproduction of sound waves.
sound wave. We know that sound travels

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in the form of waves.A wave is a vibratory

disturbance in a medium which carries
energy from one point to another without
a direct contact between the two points.
Longitudinal wave

Vibration of particles
Direction of energy transfer

FIGURE 6.2 Characteristics of Sound waves

Vibration of particles Transverse wave

1. Wavelength
FIGURE 6.1 Longitudinal and Transverse Wave
The minimum distance in which a sound
There are two types of waves: wave repeats itself is called its wavelength.
That is it is the length of one complete
1. Longitudinal waves wave. It is denoted by a Greek letter λ
2. Transverse waves. (lambda). In a sound wave, the combined
length of a compression and an adjacent
Longitudinal Waves: A wave in rarefaction is called its wavelength.
which the particles of the medium vibrate Also, the distance between the centers
back and forth in the ‘same direction’ in of two consecutive compressions or two
which the wave is moving. Medium can consecutive rarefactions is equal to its
be solid, liquid or gases. Therefore, sound wavelength. The SI unit for measuring
waves are longitudinal waves. wavelength is meter (m).
Transverse Waves: A wave in which 2. Amplitude
the particles of the medium vibrate up and
When a wave passes through a medium,
down ‘at right angles’ to the direction in
the particles of the medium get
which the wave is moving. These waves
displaced temporarily from their original
are produced only in a solids and liquids
undisturbed positions. The maximum
but not in gases.
displacement of the particles of the
Sound is a longitudinal wave which medium from their original undisturbed
consists of compressions and rarefactions positions, when a wave passes through
travelling through a medium. the medium is called amplitude of the
Sound wave can be described by wave. In fact the amplitude is used to
five characteristics: They are describe the size of the wave. The SI
unit of measurement of amplitude is
1. Wavelength
meter(m). The amplitude of the vibrating
2. Amplitude body producing the sound determines the
3. Time-Period loudness of the sound. If the amplitude is
4. Frequency higher, the sound produced is louder.
5. Speed or Velocity 3 Time-Period
Fig 6.2 shows characteristics of sound The time required to produce one complete
waves. wave or cycle is called time-period of the
wave. Now, one complete wave is produced
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by one full vibration of the vibrating body. Microphones enable many types of audio
So, we can say that the time taken to recording devices for purposes including
complete one vibration is known as time- communications of many kinds, as well as
period. It is denoted by letter T. The unit of music vocals, speech and sound recording.
measurement of time-period is second (s). The following is the method of conversion
4. Frequency/pitch
of sound waves into electrical signal.
„ Sound waves strike the diaphragm.
Low
frequency „ Diaphragm vibrates in response.
„ The voice coil, attached with the
High diaphragm, vibrates with it.
frequency
„ The voice coil is surrounded by a
FIGURE 6.3 High and low frequency magnetic field created by the magnet.

The number of complete waves or cycles „ The motion of the voice coil in this
produced in one second is called frequency magnetic field generates the electrical
of the wave. Since one complete wave signal.
is produced by one full vibration of the The basic types of microphones,
vibrating body, so we can say that the classified according to their principle of
number of vibrations per second is called operation are: Carbon, Crystal, Dynamic,
frequency. The SI unit of frequency is Hertz Ribbon and condensor.
(Hz). The pitch of a sound is the ear and
brain interpreting the frequency of the Characteristics of microphone
sound. When there is a high frequency, the Each of these has its own characteristics
ear interprets the sound as a higher pitch, of microphone: (1) Output level
when the frequency is low the ear hears a (2) Frequency response, (3) Output
low pitch as shown in fig 6.3. It is a measure impedance and (4) Directivity.
of sound in frequency.
Among the above the important
5. Speed or Velocity characteristic of a microphone is its output
The distance travelled by a wave in one impedance. This is a measurement of
second is called velocity of the wave or speed the AC resistance looking back into the
of the wave. It is represented by the letter v. microphone. Generally, microphones can be
The SI unit for measuring the velocity is divided into low (50–1,000 ohms), medium
meters per second (m/s or ms-1). (5,000–15,000 ohms) and high (20,000+
ohms) impedance.
6.3 Microphones
Though we studied about microphones in XI 6.3.1 Specifications of Microphone
standard, here we see some more important „ Frequency response.
role of microphones in sound engineering.
„ Polar response.
A microphone is a device that „ Sensitivity.
translates sound vibrations in the air into
electronic signals and scribes them to a „ Maximum sound pressure level.
recording medium or over a loudspeaker. „ Self-noise.

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Among the above, Frequency polar patterns which vary greatly in

response and Polar response are more their directionality and null points of
important for a microphone performance. maximum rejection.

Frequency Response Microphones are also classified

according to their power usage, they are
If we break down the term, “frequency passive microphone and active microphone.
response” means how well a microphone
responds to frequencies. Microphones are
6.3.2 Active Microphone
primarily designed to respond to sound
frequencies (20 Hz – 20,000 Hz). Some Active microphones are the same as passive
microphones will also respond well to microphones, but, they have one major
infrasound (sound frequencies less than difference — they have internal electronics
20 Hz) and ultrasound (sound frequencies and a custom transformer that boost the
greater than 20,000 Hz). mic’s output level and maintain consistent
impedance over the entire frequency
Polar Response spectrum.
A microphone’s polar response/pattern
6.3.3 Passive Microphone
represents its directional sensitivity. In
other words, how well the mic responds A passive microphone does not need
to sounds from various directions. Omni power in order to function. Dynamic
directional, Cardioid or Unidirectional mics are passive since they work on
and Bidirectional are common qualitative electromagnetic induction, which requires
polar patterns, and each mic has its own no power. Mics without internal preamps,
quantitative polar pattern.

Polar Pattern Types

There are 3 general microphone polar
patterns:
„ Omni directional: Omni directional
microphones are, at least in theory,
equally sensitive to sounds coming FIGURE 6.4 Dynamic & Cardioid microphones
from all directions.
„ Bidirectional: bidirectional 6.3.4 Lavalier Microphone (color
microphones are equally sensitive to Mic)
sounds from the front and rear of the
mic capsule/element and have a “ring Lavalier Microphone (Fig 6.5) are
of silence” which rejects sound sources also known as lav, lapel or lap microphones.
from the sides of the capsule/element. It is a very small condenser mic designed
„ Unidirectional: unidirectional to pick up speech from a single person.
microphones are most sensitive in one This mic is widely used for TV program,
direction. These are the Cardioid-type public Address systems etc.

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MEMS find use in modern-day

electronic gadgets, such as cellphones,
tablets, laptops, automotive industry, etc.

MEMS Microphone Chip

Circuitry Chip

FIGURE 6.5 Lavalier Microphone

Lavalier mic is usually attached to

the subject’s clothing with a specialized
lapel or thereabouts. This provides
MEMS Microphone
consistent close range sound pickup and Structure
ideal for interview situations. It also It also
Circuitry Area
means that the subject does not have to
worry about the mic techniques to worry
about mic techniques.
Try to discretely hide the cable in the
clothing. If there is nowhere to place the mic
on the subject’s chest, try the color. Lavalier
mics can be quite susceptible to noise caused
by movement of the subject position the
mic, making sure it can not move around
FIGURE 6.6 MicroElectroMechanical
too much, and make sure the cable not to be
Michrophones (MEMS)
pulled by anyway.
A small wind filter can be used to
reduce wind noise. 6.4 Head phones
Headphones (Fig 6.7) are a pair of small
6.3.5 Micro Electro-mechanical
speakers, which is used for listening to
Microphones (MEMS) sound from a music player, computer,
MEMS microphones (Fig 6.6) are Laptop, Smart phone or such other
extremely small microphones designed electronic devices. It is also called as
to fit on a silicon chip. They are based on earphones or Headset.
the same working principles as condenser The modern headphones are
microphones. They have an analog to available in much smaller format that is
digital converter (ADC) module installed inserted into the ear and commonly called
on the same chips. It converts the analog ear buds. Nowadays headphones can be
input into digital values, which are used either wireless or wired.
by the modern electronic devices of today.
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FIGURE 6.7 Headphones

There are three types of driver

 e first headphone was developed
Th
units. They are
in 1910 by the US navy. It was simple
and was used as an earpiece device 1. Dynamic driver
without complicated electronics. 2. Planar magnetic driver
2. Electrostatic driver

Working functions Most of the headphones uses Dynamic

Headphones work like a speaker and driver unit. They are
opposite to microphones. It covert 1. Permanent magnet
electrical energy into sound by using
2. Electromagnetic coil
magnet to vibrate the air, which creates
sound. 3. Diaphragm.
Basically, how headphones work
Once the electrical signals make
largely lies in the fact that they use magnets.
its way through the wires into your
In each ear cup, one magnet is permanent
headphones, it reaches what is called a
magnet and is firmly placed and the other is
driver unit.
an electromagnet, which moves.

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When the electrical signal hits your third, or midrange, speaker is also used,
ear cup, it is sent to the electromagnet, and in a few systems there are separate
which rapidly switches its polarity back “subwoofers” and “super tweeters” to
and forth depending on the pattern it reproduce the extremities of the audible
sent or the sound being reproduced. spectrum. The sound energy is measured
When the electromagnet switches it is by the unit called decibels (dB).
polarity, it’s rapidly repelled and attracted
to the permanent magnet, which makes it 6.5.1 Basic Speaker Parts
vibrate. Those vibrating electromagnets
are attached to what is called a ‘diaphragm’ Figure 6.8 shows various parts of a speaker
which is a thin membrane. When the (driver).
electromagnets vibrate, the diaphragm „ The Driver. A loudspeaker is defined
does too, which causes the air around it as the sound driver or driver.
to vibrate, which is what we called sound. „ The Enclosure. Made from wood,
Different frequencies vibrate at plastic and in some cases drywall or
different rates so the electromagnet vibrates concrete. The enclosure is the box or
faster to produce high tones, or slower to cavity where the driver is mounted.
produce slow tones. When we turn the „ The Diaphragm.
volume up or down, the vibrations are more
„ The Cone.
or less intense, which causes the air to vibrate
high or low and thus sound varies. Most of „ The Voice Coil.
the headphones uses dynamic driver unit. „ The Dust Cap.
„ The Spider.
6.5 Speakers „ The Surround.
Loudspeaker, also called speaker, is a Every speaker has at least three parts –
sound reproduction device for converting enclosure, driver (or drivers), and electronic
the electrical energy into acoustic signal components (crossovers, amplifiers).
energy, that is radiated into a room or
open air.. The term signal energy indicates
Speaker Driver
that the electrical energy has a specific
form, corresponding, to speech, music, Driver is the part of the speaker that
or any other signal in the range of audible actually transforms all the electrical
frequencies (roughly 20 to 20,000 Hertz). signals into sound. It consists of several
A single loudspeaker cannot fully parts that are glued together.
reproduce the entire frequency range At the bottom of the driver, there is a
of recorded sound, so it is customary to rear (bottom) plate and a pole piece (they are
divide the frequency spectrum into parts made of metal). A ring-shaped permanent
that are reproduced by different kinds magnet is placed onto the bottom plate and
of speakers designed for a particular then glued to the top (front) plate. The voice
frequency range. The low-frequency coil windings are held by the voice coil former,
speaker is called a woofer, and the high- which fits the pole piece. Two ends of the
frequency speaker is called a tweeter. voice coil are attached to the solder terminal
In many sound reproduction systems a (which is located somewhere on the frame).
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FIGURE 6.8 Various parts of speaker (driver)

The amplifier is also connected to the solder to the voice coil former and to the rubber
terminal. When the electrical signal from surround which is the thing that keeps the
the amplifier (alternating current) is fed to diaphragm in place (along with spider). The
the coil, the coil becomes an electromagnet diaphragm is glued to the frame.
and reacts with that ring-shaped permanent
magnet. This basically means that the voice The spider
coil moves back and forth depending on
the orientation of the poles (electromagnet It is the part that keeps the voice coil in
changes the orientation of the poles if the position and ensures that the voice coil
current flow is reversed). The electrical only moves along the axis. The spider is
signal fed to the coil constantly changes the glued to the frame and to the voice coil.
flow of the current causing the voice coil to
move. The metal frame (basket) is glued to The dust cap
the top plate and it holds the speaker cone It covers and protects the voice coil and
(diaphragm). internal parts of the speaker.
When the electrical signal (current)
Cone/Diaphragm is fed into the coil, the coil moves back and
It is the part that creates the sound waves forth and along with the coil, the diaphragm
(converts the mechanical motion of the voice (cone or dome) moves, since it is glued to
coil into sound). The diaphragm is glued it. The diaphragm basically gets pushed and
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pulled by the voice coil. The diaphragm Midrange drivers (midrange

pushes and pulls the air in front of it and woofers or mid woofers) – Smaller than
creates sound waves (sound pressure waves). woofers but larger than tweeters (usually
These waves come to our eardrums and cause 3-5 inches). They are in charge of midrange
them to vibrate. The eardrum vibrations are frequencies.
sent to our brain as electrical signals and then Tweeters – The smallest drivers
interpreted as sound. (usually 1-inch drivers or even smaller).
Since the electrical signal can be They are in charge of high frequencies.
interpreted as a wave, the loudness and Figure 6.9 shows the three different types
frequency of the output sound (which is of speakers.
also a wave) are determined by the input
signal. The frequency of the electrical
signal determines the speed of the voice
coil movements which corresponds to
the frequency of the output sound. The
amplitude of the input electrical signal
determines the distance the voice coil has to
cover which corresponds to the loudness of
the sound (sound pressure level). FIGURE 6.9 Different types of drivers in a 3-way
speaker
Now, let’s think about the last two
sentences. Is it possible for one driver to
6.5.3 Importance of Crossover
produce all the audible frequencies (20 Hz
to 20 kHz) equally well? Larger drivers have In order to connect the different drivers
larger cones which mean they are heavier and (woofers, midrange woofers, and tweeters)
harder to move/vibrate. They are not good to work together, you need a device that
enough when it comes to high-frequency would break the input signal into two or
reproduction, since they cannot move fast.
On the other hand, small driver cones can
vibrate at a greater rate (they can move
faster) but they are not good enough for
low-frequency reproduction (it is difficult to
make them vibrate at slow rates). That’s why
many manufacturers make speakers with
multiple drivers – each driver is in charge of
reproducing a certain range of frequencies.

6.5.2 Types of Drivers

Based on the size, the drivers can be
divided into 3 groups:
Woofers – The largest drivers
(usually larger than 5 inches). They are in
charge of low frequencies.
FIGURE 6.10 Cross over Connection of speakers

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three smaller outputs signals (low, mid, components. The sound would exist even
and high-frequency signals) and send without the enclosure but there are a few
them to appropriate drivers. These devices reasons for using it. The first reason is the
are called crossovers. Figure 6.10 shows most basic one – it is more convenient
cross over connection of speakers. to install everything inside one compact
box. The enclosure is also very important
6.5.4 Enclosure/Housing/ for sound quality. (see the Fig 6.11). It is
Cabinet supposed to eliminate the driver vibrations
and handle the air (sound) that gets pushed
The box inside which all the drivers and
behind the driver cone (diaphragm). The
other components are installed is called
diaphragm vibrates due to the movement
enclosure. Depending on the type and size
of the voice coil – it pushes the air toward
of the enclosure, the sound will be different.
our ears but it also pushes it back toward
6.5.5 T
 he Importance of the the enclosure (it moves back and forth).
Enclosure Different types of enclosures handle
this air (or sound waves, if you want) in
The third part of a speaker is the different ways.
enclosure. This is the box (made of wood,
MDF, plastic, or some other material) that 6.5.6 Electronic components
holds the drivers and other electronic (crossovers and amplifiers)
Many speakers have amplifiers. Their
purpose is to amplify the electrical signal
and improve the accuracy of the output
signal. Some speakers (those with two,
three, or multiple drivers) have crossovers,
which redirect signals of different
frequencies to dedicated drivers (woofers,
midrange woofers, tweeters).

6.5.7 Speaker efficiency

In order to calculate the efficiency,
you have to divide the acoustic power
output by the electrical power input. The
speakers, in general, are highly inefficient
when it comes to converting the electrical
input into acoustic power output and even
the most efficient speakers have efficiency
rated at 2%.The higher the sensitivity
rating, the louder your speaker is. An
average speaker comes with a sensitivity
of around 87 dB to 88 dB. A speaker with a
sensitivity rating over 90 dB is considered
excellent.
FIGURE 6.11 Enclosure of speakers

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6.5.8 Wattage of speaker 6.6.1 Basic functions and

Higher the power (watts), the louder working of audio mixer
and cleaner the speakers will play. Small An audio mixer is a device with the primary
differences in power however don’t make function to accept, combine, process
much of an audible change. In order to and monitor audio. Mixers are primarily
perceptively hear a difference (a 3dB used in four types of environments: live
increase), the power would have to double. (at a concert), in a recording studio, for
broadcast audio, and for film/television.
6.5.9 Impedance of speaker An audio mixer can come in either analog
or digital form.
Speaker impedance is a measure of the
amount of opposition to current flow in
an electric circuit. The speaker impedance The general functionalities of an
is usually measured in ohms, and it is audio mixer in a typical sound
essential for amplifiers, AV receivers, or system.
speakers connected to each other because At the most basic level, an audio mixer
mismatched impedance will cause combines multiple signals and routes
distortion. them to a common output for recording
or amplification through a sound
6.6 Audio Mixer reinforcement system. “Signals” are those
sounds captured by microphones or
Audio mixer, also called mixing console,
received from electric instruments.
is an electronic device for combining and
modifying audio signals. Audio mixers
can be analog or digital type. Digital The function of mixer in the
audio mixer use digital signal processing amplifier
and analog mixers are usually based A mixer is an electronic device which is
on operational amplifiers (op-amps) often used for changing the quality and
electronic circuits. An 8 channel Audio the levels of audio signals. It is also known
mixer is shown in figure 6.12 as a mixing console, an audio mixer, or
a soundboard. Using a mixer is the most
convenient way to route or combine
various audio signals and even change the
timbre and dynamics of the sound.

The parts of audio mixer

„ Input jacks.
„ Microphone preamplifiers.
„ Equalization.
„ Dynamics processing (e.g. dynamic
range compression, gating), if
FIGURE 6.12 Audio Mixer
supported.

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„ Routing, including direct outs, produced by a microphone (surprise)

auxiliary-sends, panning control, and and is the weakest of all the audio
subgroup assignments. signals.
„ Level-control faders (on small mixers, „ Line Level – Examples of line level
these may be rotary knobs to save – Headphone output of phone, Aux
space and cost) input on car stereo.
„ Instrument Level – Examples Guitar,
Mixer setup instructions keyboard.
1. Turn each channel’s gain knob and „ Speaker Level – Example Speaker.
level fader all the way down.
2. Connect your main speakers to the Analog Mixers
mixer’s Main out jacks. Analog consoles follow a more “hands-
3. Power on the mixer and speakers (or on” approach that makes the workflow
power amplifier). very fast and intuitive. They might seem
4. Set mixer levels to unity and adjust intimidating at first because of all the
the speaker output level. knobs that they have, but these controls
are actually organized in a very simple-to-
5. Turn up the Main mix fader level to 0
understand way, since all the controls on
(unity).
channel one are identical to the controls
on channel 2, and these are called “channel
The importance of mixing audio strips”.
Mixing helps to vary the frequency of
each instrument in order to result in a Digital Mixer
cleaner and better sound quality. Example,
placement and instrument volume are With digital consoles one could say that
adjusted to different levels throughout you also get that instant access to all the
the song to lead to the intended audio controls like faders, and other simple
experience. processing (this depends on the mixer
itself ), but you also have the ability to
Using a mixer in the field or in post access a lot more processing power that
production gives more control over sound comes built-in with the mixer. However,
production. By addressing the soundtrack this has to be done on a channel-by-
in the same way how we deal with the video, channel basis, meaning that you have to
we’ll find dramatic increase in the quality select the channel you want to process and
of the audio in our video productions. then go into a menu to select the effects
you want to add.
The four types of audio signal
One difference with analog mixers
level
is the routing; you can select where to route
In fact, there are four different types of each input, and in fact you can even layer
signals in the audio world that when multiple inputs, meaning that you can
mismatched can cause problems. control a large number of input channels
„ Microphone Level. Microphone level via a handful of faders by arranging them
or mic level is the voltage signal in fader layers.

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Application of Acoustics:
Acoustics have wide range of applications in
many fields. We can study some of them.
1. Noise and environmental Acoustics
Noise Specialists are mostly concerned
with making our world a (quitter) peaceful
place. They study man – made noise
caused by machinery, transportation
using roadways, Railways, aircraft and
general activities. Knowledge produced
by these scientists can be used to redesign
noisy machinery or to recommend
ways of redesign noisy machinery or to
recommend ways of shielding the noise,
They also help law makers and public
FIGURE 6.13 Digital Mixer
officials to create rules for limiting
One feature that is worth noting exposure of noise.
about digital consoles is that they can store
2. Medical Acoustics
your different setups as presets. You may
have three different bands playing at a venue Medical researchers and doctors studied
and instead of manually moving the faders and used acoustics to diagnose and treat
like you would on an analog console. You different types of ailments. The study
can save the settings for each band as presets of material acoustics includes the use of
and recall them with the press of one button. ultrasound and other acoustical techniques
to learn how different types of sound
interact with cells, tissues, organs and
6.7 Acoustic Engineering entire organisms. Bio medical acoustians
Acoustic is a branch of physics concerned may work with engineers, physician and
with the study of sound (mechanical waves in speech therapist.
gases, liquids and solids), and a scientist or an 3. Musical acoustics
engineer who works in the field of acoustics
Musical acoustians study the science of
is an acoustical. Acoustics have much
how music is made, travels and is heard.
application in the everyday world and this
Since musical acoustics combines elements
technology is called acoustical engineering.
of art and science, people with training in
The study of acoustical can be this field can work in the entertainment
sub divided into three parts. They are industry and much more.
production, transmission, and reception.
4. Speech and hearing
All these elements are necessary for sound
to occur. For example, a ringing alarm Hearing specialist and speech scientists are
clock cannot be heard if it is placed inside interested in how our ears sense sounds,
a vacuum container. Without air, sound what types of sounds can damage our ears
produced by the clock has no medium and how speech is made, is traveled and
through which it can travel. is heard. People interesting in hearing
and speech come from many different
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fields, including physics, speech and When the ear is presented with
hearing science, experimental psychology, reflections of a sound that arrive much later
linguistics, electrical Engineering and than the direct sound, the brain interprets
others. those as echoes, and is able to separate them
5. Architectural acoustics
from the original sound. Once the reflections
arrive soon enough after the direct sound to
Architectural acoustians study how to pass the threshold of 50 milliseconds, the
design buildings and other spaces that brain is then able to fuse the reflected energy
have pleasing sound quality and safe sound with the direct sound and use it to enhance
levels. Architectural acoustics includes the the intelligibility of the speech being heard.
design of concert halls, classrooms and
even heating systems they may work with
musical acoustians and noise specialists. Acoustic design principles
The main driver behind acoustic design
6.7.1 Acoustics in Auditorium in auditoriums comes down to the
and Theater phenomenon above: Strive to keep and
A most important part of our auditorium enhance ‘early’ reflections to arrive at the
design is the acoustics. We will start with listener not more than 50 milliseconds after
a brief description of how our ear works in the direct sound; and dampen and reduce
the context of listening. ‘late’ reflections that would arrive at the
listener more than 50 ms after the direct
sound. At a given listener location, if there is
more early acoustic energy than late, speech
will be intelligible. To that end, surfaces
should be provided and shaped to provide
such early reflections, and reflection paths
that provide late acoustic energy should be
made acoustically absorptive.

FIGURE 6.14 Auditorium This leads to certain rules of

thumb
How the ear works
1. Shoebox-shaped rooms provide for
The human ear has developed over the strong early lateral reflections (even
evolution of humans into an organ capable more important for music, but quite
of receiving the short term fluctuations of helpful for speech as well)
air pressure around us and extracting vast 2. Reflections down from a ceiling can
amounts of information from them. These often provide early reflections, and
short term air pressure fluctuations are therefore should be made acoustically
commonly called sound waves. hard (reflective)
When listening in an auditorium, 3. The back walls of an auditorium have
our brains try to make sense of the a risk of providing late reflections
cacophony of sound waves arriving at both to the audience and to the
the ears. Here, it is useful to think of the stage: Providing acoustic absorption
concept of the flicker fusion threshold.
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at such locations is usually helpful. Construction and Working

This could be in the form of fabric Function.
panels, slatted wood finish, acoustic
The circuit is constructed with the TDA
plaster or even acoustic drywall.
2030 IC, which has only 5 pins and all are
4. The audience seats and the audience function pins.
themselves are usually the biggest
acoustic absorption in the room. The The audio input is given to pin
use of the right amount of acoustic 1 (Non Inverting Pin) of the IC. Pin 2
absorption in the seats can serve as a (Inverting Pin) is connected with capacitor
great way to achieve the acoustic goals (47mfd) and voltage divided resistors,
of the space. which acts as a feedback path. Pin 3 is
connected with negative voltage (-Vs) and
the pin 5 is the connected with positive
6.8 Power amplifier voltage (+Vs). The speaker is connected
6.8.1 Audio Amplifier using TDA between pin 4 and ground. This circuit
provides a 14 watts output.
2030 IC
The fig 6.15 shows the circuit of the audio
amplifier using TDA 2030 and Figure 6.16
shows the TDA 2030 Pinout. The IC is
a monolithic IC, available in Penta watt
package. It can be used as a low frequency
amplifier. The IC includes high output
current (900mA), low harmonic as well
as crossover distortion. And also includes FIGURE 6.16 TDA 2030 Audio Amplifier Pinout
the protection system from the short
circuit and very high temperature.

FIGURE 6.15 Audio Amplifier using TDA2030 IC

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