Unit 55:Instrumentation and Control Principles

Unit code: J/601/1417

QCF level: 4
Credit value: 15

OUTCOME 1 – INSTRUMENTATION SYSTEMS

TUTORIAL 3 – INSTRUMENT SYSTEM MODELS AND

CALIBRATION

1. Understand instrumentation systems used in process control

Sensors/transducers:
System terminology: use those used toterminology
of correct measure pressure e.g. resistive,
e.g. accuracy, strain gauge,
error, repeatability, inductive,
precision,
capacitive, semiconductor,
linearity, reliability, ceramic, piezoelectric,
reproducibility, linear variable
sensitivity, resolution, range, differential transformer
span, zero drift, (LVDT);
hysteresis
level e.g. conductivity, capacitive, ultrasonic, radar, nucleonic, load cells, radiometric, microwave,
hydrostatic, sonar; flow e.g. ultrasonic, Coriolis, vortex, magnetic, differential pressure; temperature
e.g. resistance, thermocouple, semiconductor, radiation pyrometers; displacement e.g. diffraction
grating, lasers, variable resistance, ceramic, piezoelectric, LVDT
Transmitters/signal converters: current to pressure; pressure to current; microprocessor- based
(smart); digital; analogue; optical; wireless
Transmission medium: pneumatic; hydraulic; electrical; fibre-optic; wireless
Signal conditioners: industry-standard devices; industry-standard signal ranges and conversion
between them

It is assumed that the student is already familiar with basic engineering science. If not the tutorial
found at www.freestudy.co.uk/instrumentation/tutorial1.pdf should be studied first.

On completion of this tutorial, you should be able to do the following.

 Explain the model of a basic instrument system.

 Calculate the relationship between input and output for complete system.

 Explain and identify the main errors that occur in instrument systems.

 Explain the basic principles of calibration.

 Explain primary and secondary standards.

©D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk 1
 1. MODELS OF INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

A mathematical model relates the input and output of a system or sub-system. In other words it is a
formula relating the input and output. The instrument is usually drawn as a block with the input and
output shown. The mathematical model is written inside the block. The general symbol for signals
is  but specific symbols may be used. The suffix i denotes the input and o the output.

When the input and output is a simple ratio, the model is just a number representing the ratio of
output to input. It is often denoted by G, especially if it is a gain. In such case G = o/i. If the input
and output have different units, then G has units also.

WORKED EXAMPLE No.1

Find the output if the input is 10 mW. The gain is a ratio and not in decibels.

SOLUTION

G = o/i = 50o= 50 x i = 50 x 10 = 500 mW

WORKED EXAMPLE No.2

Find the output if the input is 50oC.

SOLUTION

G = o/i = 2 v/oC o = 2i = 100 V

©D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk 2
 Some sensors have non linear equations and we cannot represent the relationship with a simple ratio
so must use the full equation. For example a differential pressure flow meter has an equation

Flow rate = C (p)1/2

Where C is a constant and p is the differential pressure.

WORKED EXAMPLE No.3

The input and output of the D.P. meter is related by the law Q = C (p)1/2
Where Q is the input flow rate in m3/s, p is the output differential pressure and C is the meter constant. Determi

SOLUTION

Q = C (p)1/2 = 0.0004 (250)1/2 = 0.00632 m3/s or 6.32 dm3/s

©D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk 3
2. MODELS FOR COMPLETE SYSTEMS

A complete instrument system is made up from several sub-systems connected in series. The best
way to deduce the input or output of a complete system is a step by step analysis of the information
passing through. Consider the case of a D.P. flow meter. The meter converts flow rate into
differential pressure. The d.p. is then converted into current and the current is indicated on a meter.

WORKED EXAMPLE No.4

The equations for each sub system in the above system is as follows.

p = 2 Ammeter
Flow meter P/I converter x 106 Q2 where p is in bar and Q is m3/s. I = 20 p where I is mA and p is in bar
 = 14 I where  is in degrees and I in mA.

Calculate the output angle if the flow rate is 0.0004 m3/s.

SOLUTION

STEP 1
Calculate the differential pressure.
p = 2 x 106 Q2 = 2 x 106 (0.0004)2 = 0.32 bar
STEP 2
Calculate the current.
I = 20p = 20 x 0.32 = 6.4 mA

STEP 3
Calculate the angle of the needle on the dial.
 = 140 I = 14 x 6.4 = 89.6o.

©D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk 4
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.2

1.Find the output rotation for the temperature system below. the equations for each sub-system are as follows
Thermocouple3 mV per oC. Amplifier gain5
Meter0.02o per mV

(Answer 54o)

2.An LVDT output is amplified and connected to a chart recorder. The block diagram is shown. Calculate the o

LVDT V = 0.2 V/mm gain = 4

Amplifier Chart recorder
xo = 5 mm/V

(Answer 48 mm)

You have just seen how to work out problems involving instrument systems with different
subsystems connected in series. The following is true for all types of systems.

In many cases each block may have a model that can be written as a ratio of output to input G =
o/i. (This is not always true). In such cases we can easily work out the model for the complete
system as follows. Consider three systems with model equations G1, G2 and G3 connected in
series.

By definition G1 = 1/I G2 = 2/1 G3 = o/2

Now consider that if the three make up a single system the overall transfer function is Goverall = o/
i

If we multiply G1 x G2 x G3 we have (1/i)( 2/1)( o/2 ) = o/i = Goverall

From this we conclude that the model for systems in series is obtained by multiplying the individual
equations (ratios) together. Before doing this, make sure that the units are compatible.

©D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk 5
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.3

A potentiometer produces 50 mV per degree of rotation of its shaft. Calculate the angle when the output is 4 V.
(Answer 80o)

A turbine flow meter coupled to an electric voltage generator produces 4 mV for each litre/s flowing. Calculate th
(Answer 250 litres/s)

An instrument system consists of pressure transducer with a range of 0 to 5 bar and a corresponding output of 0 to

Draw a neat labelled block diagram of the system.

Deduce and write down the equation linking the output and input of the pressure transducer. (Answer G = 2mV/b

Deduce and write down the equation linking the input and output of the processor. (Answer I = 4 + 1.5V)

The output of the signal processor is 15 mA. Deduce the indicated pressure. (Answer 3.67 bar)

An instrument system comprises an a.c. tachometer connected to a processor that converts the frequency into mill

Write down the overall relationship between current and speed.(Answer 0.06 mA per rev/min)
Calculate the output when the input speed is 400 rev/min. (Answer 24 mA)

©D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk 6
3. INSTRUMENT ERRORS

Any given instrument is prone to errors either due to aging or due to manufacturing tolerances.
Here are some of the common terms used when describing the performance of an instrument.

3.1 RANGE
The range of an instrument is usually regarded as the difference between the maximum and
minimum reading. For example a thermometer that has a scale from 20 to 100 oC has a range of
80oC. This is also called the FULL SCALE DEFLECTION (f.s.d.).

3.2 ACCURACY
The accuracy of an instrument is often stated as a % of the range or full scale deflection. For
example a pressure gauge with a range 0 to 500 kPa and an accuracy of plus or minus 2% f.s.d.
could have an error of plus or minus 10 kPa. When the gauge is indicating 10 kPa the correct
reading could be anywhere between 0 and 20 kPa and the actual error in the reading could be 100%.
When the gauge indicates 500 kPa the error could be 2% of the indicated reading.

3.3 REPEATABILITY
If an accurate signal is applied and removed repeatedly to the system and it is found that the
indicated reading is different each time, the instrument has poor repeatability. This is often caused
by friction or some other erratic fault in the system.

3.4 STABILITY
Instability is most likely to occur in instruments involving electronic processing with a high degree
of amplification. A common cause of this is adverse environment factors such as temperature and
vibration. For example, a rise in temperature may cause a transistor to increase the flow of current
which in turn makes it hotter and so the effect grows and the displayed reading DRIFTS. In
extreme cases the displayed value may jump about. This, for example, may be caused by a poor
electrical connection affected by vibration

3.5 TIME LAG ERROR

In any instrument system, it must take time for a change in the input to show up on the indicated
output. This time may be very small or very large depending upon the system. This is known as the
response time of the system. If the indicated output is incorrect because it has not yet responded to
the change, then we have time lag error.

A good example of time lag error is an ordinary glass thermometer. If you plunge it into hot water,
it will take some time before the mercury reaches the correct level. If you read the thermometer
before it settled down, then you would have time lag error. A thermocouple can respond much more
quickly than a glass thermometer but even this may be too slow for some applications.

When a signal changes a lot and quite quickly, (speedometer for example), the person reading the
dial would have great difficulty determining the correct value as the dial may be still going up when
in reality the signal is going down again.

3.6 RELIABILITY
Most forms of equipment have a predicted life span. The more reliable it is, the less chance it has of
going wrong during its expected life span. The reliability is hence a probability ranging from zero
(it will definitely fail) to 1.0 (it will definitely not fail).

6. DRIFT
This occurs when the input to the system is constant but the output tends to change slowly. For
example when switched on, the system may drift due to the temperature change as it warms up.

©D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk 7
4. INSTRUMENT CALIBRATION

Most instruments contain a facility for making two adjustments. These are

 The RANGE adjustment.

 The ZERO adjustment.

In order to calibrate the instrument an accurate gauge is required. This is likely to be a

SECONDARY STANDARD. Instruments calibrated as a secondary standard have themselves been
calibrated against a PRIMARY STANDARD.

4.1 PROCEDURE
An input representing the minimum gauge setting should be applied. The output should be adjusted
to be correct. Next the maximum signal is applied. The range is then adjusted to give the required
output. This should be repeated until the gauge is correct at the minimum and maximum values.

4.2 CALIBRATION ERRORS

RANGE AND ZERO ERRO

After obtaining correct zero and range for the instrument, a calibration graph should be produced.
This involves plotting the indicated reading against the correct reading from the standard gauge.
This should be done in about ten steps with increasing signals and then with reducing signals.
Several forms of error could show up. If the zero or range is still incorrect the error will appear as
shown.

HYSTERESIS and NON LINEAR ERRORS

Hysteresis is produced when the displayed values are too small for increasing signals and too large
for decreasing signals. This is commonly caused in mechanical instruments by loose gears and
linkages and friction. It occurs widely with things involving magnetisation and demagnetisation.

The calibration may be correct at the maximum and minimum values of the range but the graph
joining them may not be a straight line (when it ought to be). This is a non linear error. The
instrument may have some adjustments for this and it may be possible to make it correct at mid
range as shown

.
©D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk 8
WORKED EXAMPLE No.5

A digital thermometer reads from -120 to + 300 oC. The accuracy is guaranteed to plus or minus 2% f.s.d
SOLUTION

The range of the instrument is the same as the f.s.d. and is 420. The accuracy is hence plus or minus 2% of 42
Accuracy = (2/100)(420) = 8.4
The possible temperature being indicated is hence 80 plus or minus 8.4. That means the actual temperature is b

©D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk 9
6. The diagram shows a system for measuring rotational speed.

The tachometer produces one cycle of electricity for every revolution. The f/V converter
converts the frequency into mV such that a V= 0.6 f. The V/I converter produces an output of
0.8 mA/mV. Calculate the output when the tachometer is turned at 3000 rev/min. (24 mA)

7. The diagram shows a system for measuring temperature and producing the result in the form
of a current in the range 4 to 20 mA.

Determine the current when the temperature is 120oC. (19.2 mA)

8. An anemometer is designed to measure air speeds in the range 2 to 30 m/s. The instrument is
guaranteed accurate to within ±2% f.s.d. Calculate the possible range of wind speed when the
instrument indicates 20 m/s. (20.56 to 19.44 m/s)

9. The diagram shows the results of a calibration of an instrument. Graph A is the ideal one. State
the kind of error, which is shown on graphs B and C.

10. An experiment to calibrate a liquid expansion thermometer is carried out by placing the sensor
in a vat of oil and heating it up and then cooling it down. The true temperature A is measured
with a high quality instrument and the indicated temperature B is compared with it. The graph
produced is shown.

State the possible reason for the kind of error shown.

©D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk 10