Earth and Life Science

Concepts, Origin and Unifying Themes in Studying Life

◼ It helps to understand the resources we use and

BIOLOGY potential threats to those resources.
◼ It helps to understand how life originated on earth
and how it has evolved overtime.
◼ A branch of science that deals with the study of ◼ It helps to understand our environment we live,
life. threats to our environment and how we could
◼ Helps to know about the diversity in the living conserve our environment.
world, the ways by which it can be conserved, more ◼ It helps to understand how the characters pass
about ourselves. from generation to generation.
◼ The study of various aspects of living organisms ◼ It helps to improve our health.
and their interactions with the non-living components ◼ It helps to increase food production.

Three Primary Branches of Biology:

- Botany (study of plants)
- Zoology (study of animals)
What makes life amazing?
- Microbiology (study of microorganisms)
➢ Life on earth began more than 3.8 billion years
What is life? ago, evolving from the most basic of microbes into a
● The condition that distinguishes animals, plants, dazzling array of complexity overtime.
and microorganisms from inorganic matter.
➢ Every aspect of life from the smallest
Traditional Branches of Biological Sciences: submicroscopic living particle to the largest most
Taxonomy- classification of living and extinct imposing plant and animal species is included.
organisms ➢ All living things are made up of cells. Some
Cytology- study of normal cells organisms are unicellular and consist of only a single
Genetics- study of genes cell that carries out all life processes.
Ecology- study of organisms ● Paramecium ● Bacteria
Physiology- study of how the human body works ● Amoeba ● Yeast
Embryology- study of the formation and development ➢ Other organisms are multicellular and are
of an embryo and fetus composed of many cells which perform specialized
Morphology- study of form and structure of and specific function.
organisms ● Nerve cells ● Loose connective tissue fibroblast
Evolution- study of history of life forms on earth ● Bone issue with Osteocyte ● Striated muscle cell
Biochemistry- study of chemical processes ● Smooth muscle ● Intestinal epithelial cell
Immunology- study of immune systems ● Red blood cells ● Flat (adipose) cell
Herpetology- study of reptiles and amphibians
Ichthyology- study of fish
Ornithology- study of birds Early Beliefs about the Origin of Life
Entomology- study of insects
Spontaneous Generation
Modern Branches of Biology: ➢ Is the idea that life could appear from nonliving material
➢ Bioinformatics ➢ Also known as abiogenesis
➢ Molecular Biology
➢ Pharmacogenomics Aristotle (384-322BC)
➢ First person to propose the idea of spontaneous
generation in 14th century and held its position as the
belief on the origin of life until the 17th century.
Importance of Studying Biology
Redi’s Experiment
◼ It helps to understand how our body is made, how ➢ In 1668 - Francesco Redi, an Italian physician did an
it functions and how it could be maintained in a experiment to see if the maggots on decaying meat came
healthy manner. from fly eggs.
➢ He concluded that life arose from living matter such as in Biogenetic Theory
maggots from eggs not from spontaneous generation in the
● The invention of the microscope and advances in
meat.
➢ Disproving spontaneous generation science made it clear that living things created other
living things.

Needham’s Experiment
➢ In 1745 – 1748 - John Needham, a Scottish
clergyman and naturalist showed that
microorganisms flourished in various soaps that have
been exposed to the air.
➢ He then concluded that life in the broth caused
spontaneous generation to occur.
➢ Proving the theory of spontaneous generation

Spallanzani’s Experiment
➢ In 1765 - 1767 - Lazzaro Spallanzani, an Italian
abbot and biologist tried several variations on
Needham soup experiments.
➢ He concluded that life occurred from something
that entered the unsealed flask that it was the one
responsible for life to grow.
➢ Disprove the theory of spontaneous generation

Pasteur’s Experiment
➢ In 1860 - Louis Pasteur, he designed the flask with
long, specially curved, swanlike necks. This allowed
sterilized broth to be exposed to fresh air from the
outside, but any microorganisms from the air would
be trapped in a pool of water in the neck.
➢ Disprove the theory of spontaneous generation

Current Beliefs about the Origin of Life

Divine Creation
● It is believed that life forms and everything in the
universe were created through a supernatural power
rather than naturalistic means.

Spontaneous Origin
● He hypothesis that many gases present in the
Earth's early atmosphere, under very high
temperatures, might have formed simple organic
compounds such as amino acid.
Alexander Oparin
● A Russian biochemist proposed the idea
on the first organic compounds.
● This would have collected in lakes and seas as Earth
cooled, and overtime, fueled by energy from lightning
and UV radiation, could have formed larger molecules
such as proteins.
 Earth and Life Science
Unifying Themes in Studying Life

Movement • Nonliving things sometimes also grow

- Most animals can move from one place but only accretion, which is growth by
to another by walking, flying, swimming, external addition of substances.
gliding or jumping. Such movement is
called locomotion or motility. Excretion
- Is the process that removes the waste
- Some animals such as sponges, cannot products of digestion and metabolism
locomote but can move parts of their from the body.
bodies. Plants also show slow
movements of body parts like in flowers Nutrition
will remain tendrils clinging for support, - Is the process of taking in food and
shoots bending toward light, and vines converting it into energy and other
creeping as they grow. vital nutrients required for life.

Reproduction
Respiration - Is a process by which genetic
- It is a metabolic process that occurs in information is passed on from one
all organisms. It is a biochemical generation to another as organisms
process that occurs within cells. In this produce offspring that resemble their
process the energy (ATP - Adenosine parents.
Triphosphate) is produced by the - Organisms reproduce in two ways:
breakdown of glucose which is further
used by cells to perform various • Sexual reproduction – two individuals
functions. contributing their sex cells to produce a
unique individual of their kind.
Irritability/Sensitivity
- External factors or stimuli affect living • Asexual reproduction – occurs when
things. an organism makes copies of itself
• tropism or response – reaction of an usually in lower life form.
organism to respond appropriately
against stimuli. • Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is used as
• sensitivity or irritability – ability of a physical carrier of the transferred
an organism to respond appropriately genetic information that is passed from
against a stimulus. parent to offspring by a process called
Ex. Houseflies are easily attracted to sexual reproduction.
smelly food.
Development
Growth - All living things undergo defined stages
- It is an increase in size and volume by in their life cycle called development,
converting food and become a part of which starts with birth and ends in
body cells death. No organism is immortal, but all
living things have ways of making sure
• Living things exhibit growth from that their species survive. This is
within the cells in a process called achieved by the ability to reproduce
intussusception. their own kind.
Adaptation Organism Level
- It is the ability to adjust to changes in • An organism is made up of different organ
the environment. systems with individualized but coordinated
functions.
Evolution
- It refers to the changes in Life’s Hierarchy of Organization form Atom
characteristics of a group of organisms (simple) to Biosphere (complex)
(populations) over time.
• Evolutionary adaptation is a gradual • The organism interacts with other organisms of
or rapid change in body structure or the same kind known as population.
behavior to be better suited and to • Community is an array of populations sharing
survive a new environment. their habitat.

- Charles Darwin - Atoms

• He published On the Origin of Species - Biosphere
by Means of Natural Selection in 1859. - Molecule
• Fossils and other evidence document - Cell
- Tissue
the evolution of life on earth over
- Organ
billions of years. - Body system
- Organism
Organization of Life - Population
The six levels of organization of the body and the - Community
major characteristic of each level. - Ecosystem
- Chemical Level
- Cellular Level • These communities exist in an environment affected
- Tissue Level by both living and nonliving components known as
- Organ Level ecosystem.
- System Level
• Biosphere make up all ecosystems on earth whether
they support life on land water or lower atmosphere.
Chemical Level
• A unit of matter that comprises a chemical The Three Domains of Life
element. • The living world has three major divisions or
• It is the smallest particle of an element. domains: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya.

Cellular Level • Of the three domains, Bacteria and Archaea are

• Cell is the basic organizational unit of life. prokaryotes, while Eukarya are eukaryotes.
• It is the simplest organization of matter that
exhibits the properties of life. Domain Bacteria
• The structure and function of a typical cell (The True Bacteria)
usually apply to all animals and plants. ■ Also known as eubacteria, or simply bacteria
has very sturdy cell walls and simpler genome
Tissue Level structure.
• It is the level in which different cell types are ■ The most present-day bacteria.
joined together to form a structure called tissue. ■ i.e. Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) is one
type of photosynthetic eubacteria that has been
Organ Level vital in the history of life on earth.
• It is where different kinds of tissues are joined
to form a structure of a body called organ. Domain Eukarya (Eukryota)
■ It came from the Greek words for "true" and
Organ System Level "nucleus” because they possess an internal
• Different organs comprise an organ system structure called a nucleus that encloses most of
with a specialized function. their genetic material.
■ All organisms other than the bacteria are
eukaryotes.

Earth and Life Science

Bioenergetics: Cell as the Basic Unit of Life

Earlies Microscopic Observations Cell Theory Development

Robert Hooke (1665) 1. All organisms are composed of one or more

- 1665 an English scientist, Robert Hooke, cells. (Schleiden and Schwann) (1838-39)
devised one of the earliest microscopes.
- He named and coined the term "cell" 2. The cell is the basic unit of life in all living
and described it like a honeycomb. things. (Schleiden and Schwann) (1838-39)
- He discovered a cell while looking at a
thin slice of cork from the bark of an 3. All cells arise from pre-existing cells. (Omnis
oak tree. cellula e cellula) (Virchow) (1858)
- It is called as cellulae using the Latin
word for a "small room." Cell Types and Organelles
- Robert Hooke (1665)
Cell
Anton van Leeuwenhoek - the basic unit of living organisms
- 1673, Used a handmade microscope to - are the smallest independent units of
observe pond scum & discovered single- life.
celled organisms. - The structure and function of a typical
- He called them "animalcules". cell usually apply to all animals and
- He also observed blood cells from fishes, plants.
birds, frogs, dogs, and humans. - Some organisms are single celled; others
- Therefore, it was known that cells are are multicellular
found in animals as well as plants.
• Two Types of Cells
• Between the Hooke and Leeuwenhoek 1. Prokaryotic Cells
discoveries and the mid-19th century, very little - It is characterized by the
cell advancements were made. absence of nucleus or other
membrane-bound organelles.
• This is probably due to the widely accepted, - Thus, the cell's DNA is suspended
traditional belief in Spontaneous Generation. in the cytoplasm. Though
prokaryotic cells are simpler, they
1838 - German Botanist, Matthias Schleiden, adapt very quickly to the
concluded that all plant parts are made of cells. changing environment and have
been present on the Earth for the
1839 - German physiologist, Theodor Schwann, past 3 billion years. A bacterium
who was a close friend of Schleiden, stated that is an example of a prokaryote.
all animal tissues are composed of cells.
2. Eukaryotic Cells
1858 - Rudolf Virchow german physician, - It has nucleus and other
extensive study of pathology, concluded that all membrane- bound organelles. -
cells must arise from pre-existing cells. The nucleus encloses the DNA.
- Due to the presence of these
membrane-bound organelles,
chemical reaction takes place in a
compartmentalized manner.
 - Eukaryotic cells may come in - This organelle is made up of
different sizes, shapes, interconnected thin folded membranes
appearance depending on their that are found throughout the
type and the functions that they cytoplasm of the cell. There are two
play. types of ER.
- Animal and plant cells, being a. Rough ER - with Ribosomes
both eukaryotic, have similar b. Smooth ER- without Ribosomes
organelles present.
3. Golgi Apparatus
A cell has three major parts: - This organelle consists of layered stacks
of flattened membranes that process,
1. Cell membrane - this structure sort, and deliver proteins. It also
is made up of lipid bilayer with packages proteins. Some of the proteins
large protein molecules that are stored within itself, distributed to
control the flow of substances the other organelles, and secreted
into and out of the cell. outside the cell.

2. Nucleus (DNA) - this structure is 4. Ribosomes - This small round structure

enveloped by a nuclear found in the cell consists of large small
membrane and contains the DNA sub-units made up of RNA and protein.
and nucleolus. This nuclear These organelles can be found attached
membrane has pores that allow to the ER or floating in the cytoplasm.
the molecules to pass between This is the site of protein synthesis.
the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
The chromosome inside the 5. Vacuole - This organelle is a fluid-filled
nucleus contains the genes sac that stores substances needed by
carrying instruction for protein the cell, which may include water, food,
synthesis. ions, and enzymes. Small numerous
vacuoles are found in an animal cell;
3. Cytoplasm - this constitutes however, a large central vacuole is
about 90% of the cell and houses found in the plant cells. The vacuole in
the organelles. It is a jelly-like plant cell is filled with watery fluid
clear substance that is composed which strengthens the cell and helps
primarily of water and also support the entire plant.
contains proteins, amino acids,
glucose, and salts. It is also a site
for many chemical reactions in 6. Perisome - This structure contains
the cell. enzymes involved in digesting fatty
acids. They also absorb nutrients which
The Following are Organelles which can be found the cell has acquired. They also play a
in both plants and animal cells: part in the way organisms digest
alcohol (ethanol). In effect, you would
1. Mitochondrion / Mitochondria expect liver cells to have more
- This organelle is shaped like a bean and peroxisomes than most other cells in the
made up of two membranes. The inner human body.
membrane is folded and these infoldings
are called cristae, which partitions the 7. Vesicle - This small membrane-bound
matrix and the intermembrane space. sac functions to transport materials
- The mitochondria supply the energy for from one place to another inside the
the cell. cell. They also function in metabolism
and enzyme storage as well.
2. Endoplasmic Reticulum
The Following are the organelles found only in a 3. Cell Wall - This structure is a rigid layer
plant cells: found not only in plant cells but also in
algae, fungi, and most bacteria. Cell
1. Centrioles - This is a cylinder-shaped walls also allow plants to grow to great
organelle that is made up of heights. A tree uses strong cell walls to
microtubules arranged in a circle. There maintain its shape so it can grow very
are nine microtubules. They help the cell high.
to divide during mitosis and meiosis.

4. Chloroplast - This organelle is made up

2. Lysosomes - This membrane-bound of outer and inner membranes. They
organelle is basically a specialized have closed compartments of stacked
vesicle that contains a variety of membranes called grana (singular for
enzymes. It is used to digest food or granum). Each granum contains
break down the cell when the cell dies. thylakoids which contain chlorophyll - a
It also defends the cell from bacteria light absorbing molecule that plays an
and viruses important role in photosynthesis.

Earth and Life Science

Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis
- Is the process that converts solar energy
into chemical energy - Heterotrophs are the consumers of the
biosphere
• Directly or indirectly, photosynthesis nourishes
almost the entire living world - Almost all heterotrophs, including humans,
depend on photoautotrophs for food
Autotrophs and Heterotrophs and 02
- Autotrophs sustain themselves without
eating anything derived from other Where does photosynthesis take place?
organisms
Autotrophs: self-producers
- Autotrophs are the producers of the Location: Leaves - the photosynthetic organs of
biosphere, producing organic molecules the plant
from CO2 and other inorganic molecules a. Stomata- allows the exchange of gases
b. Mesophyll cells - main photosynthetic
- Almost all plants are photoautotrophs, tissue
using the energy of sunlight to make - palisade layer: full of chloroplast
organic molecules from H20 and CO2 - spongy layer: fewer chloroplast and
many air spaces
- Photosynthesis occurs in plants, algae,
certain other protists, and some Chloroplast
prokaryotes - Gk. Word chloros=green and plastes=the
one who forms
- These organisms feed not only themselves - Small organelles located inside the plant
but also most of the living world cells
- Photosynthesis takes place in
- Heterotrophs obtain their organic chloroplasts, which contain the
material from other organisms – chlorophyll
 - Wavelength determines the type of
Internal Structure of the Chloroplast electromagnetic energy
● Outer Membrane - It is a semi-porous - The electromagnetic spectrum is the entire
membrane and is permeable to small molecules range of electromagnetic energy, or radiation
and ions, which diffuses easily. The outer - Visible light consists of wavelengths (including
membrane is not permeable to larger proteins. those that drive photosynthesis) that produce
colors we can see
● Inner membrane - The inner membrane of the - Light also behaves as though it consists of
chloroplast forms a border to the stroma. It discrete particles, called photons
regulates passage of materials in and out of the
chloroplast Absorption of Chlorophyll

● Stroma - It is an alakaline, aqueous fluid - Located in the thylakoid membranes

which is protein-rich and is present within the - Chlorophyll have Mg+ in the center
inner membrane of the chloroplast. The space - Chlorophyll pigments harvest energy (photons)
outside the thylakoid space is called stroma. by absorbing certain wavelengths (blue-420nm
and red-660nm are most important)
● Thylakoid - Is the little, round, flat pillow- - Plants are green because the green
shaped things inside the chloroplast. The light- wavelength is reflected, not absorbed.
trapping green pigment, chlorophyll is found
inside the thylakoid membrane, held by The Two Stages of Photosynthesis
membrane proteins.
● Photosynthesis consists of the light reactions
● Granum/Grana - are stacks, which are formed (the photo part) and Calvin cycle (the synthesis
by combining 2 to 100 thylakoids together. part)
Connecting each granum by stromal thylakoids - The light reactions (in the thylakoids):
allows the functioning of all granules as a unit • Split H₂O
during photosynthesis. • Release 02
• Reduce NADP+ to NADPH
●Thylakoid System – It is suspended in the • Generate ATP from ADP by
stroma. The thylakoid system is a collection of photophosphorylation
membranous sacks called thylakoids. The
chlorophyll is found in the thylakoid and is the ● The Calvin cycle (in the stroma) forms sugar
sight for the process of the light reaction from C 0 2 , using ATP and NADPH
photosynthesis to happen. ● The Calvin cycle begins with carbon fixation,
incorporating C 0 2 into organic molecules
● Granal thylakoids – Granal Thylakoids are
arranged in the grana. They are pancake shaped Light Dependent Reaction
circular discs, which are about 300-600 - The light-dependent reactions use light energy
nanometers in diameters. to make two molecules needed for the next stage
of photosynthesis: the energy storage molecule
● Stromal Thylakoids – Are in contact with ATP and the reduced electron carrier NADPH.
stroma. They are form in helicoids sheets. - In plants, the light reactions take place in the
thylakoid membranes of organelles called
The Nature of Sunlight chloroplasts.
- Units of light called photons strike a molecule
- Light is a form of electromagnetic energy, also of chlorophyll in PS II.
called electromagnetic radiation - The light is absorbed by two electrons (2e) in
- Like other electromagnetic energy, light travels the chlorophyll a which gives them enough
in rhythmic waves energy to leave the molecule
- Wavelength is the distance between crests of
waves
At the same time, water (H2O) splits apart
producing the following:
1. Primary Photoevent
1. two electrons, which replace the electrons - Photoexcitation of Electrons
loss of chlorophyll a in PS II during light - Ejects e- from Photosystem ll
absorption.
2. two hydrogen ions (2H+), which are 2. Charge Separation
positively charged, and are released - Stabilize the Photosystem ll
inside the interior space of the - Evolves 02 and H+
thylakoid membrane.
3. one oxygen (0) atom that combines with 3. Electron Transport
another oxygen atom, producing one - Pumps H+ into thylakoid
oxygen molecule (02), which is released - Reduces NADP + into NADPH
into the atmosphere as a waste
product. 4. Chemiosmosis
- ATP Synthase
Photosystem
- A photosystem consists of a reaction- Splitting of Water
center complex (a type of protein
complex) surrounded by light- ● Chloroplasts split H20 into hydrogen and
harvesting complexes oxygen, incorporating the electrons of hydrogen
into sugar molecules.
- The light-harvesting complexes (pigment - 2 H+
molecules bound to proteins) funnel the - 2 electrons
energy of photons to the reaction - 1 Oxygen
center
● In 1961, a scientist Melvin Calvin won a Nobel
- A primary electron acceptor in the Prize by discovering this reaction.
reaction center accepts an excited
electron from chlorophyll a ● In this cycle, chemical energy NADPH and ATP
from light reactions are used to create glucose.
- Solar-powered transfer of an electron
from a chlorophyll a molecule to the ● The Calvin cycle has three major steps:
primary electron acceptor is the first
step of the light reactions 1. carbon fixation (catalyzed by rubisco) -
Carbon fixation occurs when carbon dioxide
- There are two types of photosystems in (CO2) from the atmosphere combines with a
the thylakoid membrane simple five-carbon (5-C) sugar compound,
ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP), forming an
- Photosystem II (PS II) functions first (the unstable six- carbon (6-C) molecule. The 6-C
numbers reflect order of discovery) and molecule is immediately broken down into two
is best at absorbing a wavelength of three-carbon (3-C) sugar phosphates known as
680 nm 3-phosphoglycerate (3- PGA).

- The reaction-center chlorophyll a of PS II 2. reduction reactions - The 3-PGA molecules

is called P680 gain energy from the ATP and NADPH from the
light reactions and rearrange themselves to form
- Photosystem I (PSI) is best at absorbing a glycerate 3-phosphate (G3P). This molecule also
wavelength of 700 nm contains three carbon atoms but is more stable
than 3-PGA. A single G3P molecule goes on to
- The reaction-center chlorophyll a of PS I form into glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, the
is called P700 three-carbon (3-C) carbohydrate precursor of
glucose and other sugars. The rest of the G3P
proceed to the regeneration step.

3. Regeneration of the CO₂ acceptor (RuBP) - The

remaining G3P molecules then use more ATP to
convert back into RuBP, completing the cycle.
Converting the G3P molecules to the RUBP allows
the cycle to repeat.

● The second stage of photosynthesis happens in

the stroma surrounding thylakoids in chloroplast.
● The reactions in this stage occur without the
direct use of energy from light, hence they are
often called dark reactions.