Current and Voltage

B2 Transformers
Network Protection & Automation Guide
Network Protection & Automation Guide

Chapter

B2
Current and Voltage
Transformers
1. Introduction 107

2. Electromagnetic voltage transformers 107

3. Capacitor voltage transformers 111

4. Current transformers 113

5. Novel instrument transformers 121

 Current and Voltage Transformers

B2 1. Introduction

Whenever the values of voltage or current in a power circuit are 1.1 Measuring transformers
too high to permit convenient direct connection of measuring
Voltage and current transformers for low primary voltage or
instruments or relays, coupling is made through transformers.
current ratings are not readily distinguishable; for higher ratings,
Such 'measuring' transformers are required to produce a scaled
dissimilarities of construction are usual. Nevertheless the
down replica of the input quantity to the accuracy expected for
differences between these devices lie principally in the way they
the particular measurement; this is made possible by the high
are connected into the power circuit. Voltage transformers are
efficiency of the transformer. The performance of measuring
much like small power transformers, differing only in details of
transformers during and following large instantaneous changes
design that control ratio accuracy over the specified range of
in the input quantity is important, in that this quantity may depart
output. Current transformers have their primary windings
from the sinusoidal waveform. The deviation may consist of a
connected in series with the power circuit, and so also in series
step change in magnitude, or a transient component that persists
with the system impedance. The response of the transformer is
for an appreciable period, or both. The resulting effect on
radically different in these two modes of operation.
instrument performance is usually negligible, although for
precision metering a persistent change in the accuracy of the
transformer may be significant.
However, many protection systems are required to operate during
the period of transient disturbance in the output of the measuring 1/1 Rp Lp Rs Ls
transformers that follows a system fault. The errors in transformer
output may abnormally delay the operation of the protection, or
cause unnecessary operations. The functioning of such
Ze Burden
transformers must, therefore, be examined analytically.
It can be shown that the transformer can be represented by the
equivalent circuit of Figure B2.1, where all quantities are referred
to the secondary side.
When the transformer is not 1/1 ratio, this condition can be
represented by energising the equivalent circuit with an ideal
Figure B2.1:
transformer of the given ratio but having no losses.
Equivalent circuit of transformer

2. Electromagnetic voltage transformers

In the shunt mode, the system voltage is applied across the 2.1 Errors
input terminals of the equivalent circuit of Figure B2.1. The
The ratio and phase errors of the transformer can be calculated
vector diagram for this circuit is shown in Figure B2.2.
using the vector diagram of Figure B2.2.
The secondary output voltage Vs is required to be an accurate The ratio error is defined as:
scaled replica of the input voltage Vp over a specified range
of output. To this end, the winding voltage drops are made ( K n Vs )
×100%
small, and the normal flux density in the core is designed to Vp
be well below the saturation density, in order that the exciting
current may be low and the exciting impedance substantially where:
constant with a variation of applied voltage over the desired Kn is the nominal ratio
operating range including some degree of overvoltage. These Vp is the primary voltage
limitations in design result in a VT for a given burden being Vs is the secondary voltage
much larger than a typical power transformer of similar rating.
If the error is positive, the secondary voltage exceeds the
The exciting current, in consequence, will not be as small,
nominal value. The turns ratio of the transformer need not be
relative to the rated burden, as it would be for a typical power
equal to the nominal ratio; a small turns compensation will
transformer.
usually be employed, so that the error will be positive for low
burdens and negative for high burdens.

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Current and Voltage Transformers

2. Electromagnetic voltage transformers B2

The phase error is the phase difference between the reversed

secondary and the primary voltage vectors. It is positive when
the reversed secondary voltage leads the primary vector.
Requirements in this respect are set out in IEC 60044-2.
All voltage transformers are required to comply with one of
the classes in Table B2.1.

0.8 - 1.2 x rated voltage

Accuracy 0.25 - 1.0 x rated burden at 0.8pf
Class
phase displacement
voltage ratio error (%)
(minutes)
0.1 +/- 0.1 +/- 5
0.2 +/- 0.2 +/- 10
0.5 +/- 0.5 +/- 20
Im 1.0 +/- 1.0 +/- 40
3.0 +/- 3.0 not specified

Table B2.1:
Measuring voltage transformer error limits

For protection purposes, accuracy of voltage measurement

may be important during fault conditions, as the system voltage
might be reduced by the fault to a low value. Voltage
transformers for such types of service must comply with the
extended range of requirements set out in Table B2.2.

Figure B2.2: 0.8 - 1.2 x rated voltage

Vector diagram for voltage transformer Accuracy 0.25 - 1.0 x rated burden at 0.8pf
Class
phase displacement
voltage ratio error (%)
(minutes)
Vp = primary applied voltage 3P +/- 3.0 +/- 120
Ep = primary induced e.m.f. 6P +/- 6.0 +/- 240

Vs = secondary output voltage

Table B2.2:
F = flux Additional limits for protection voltage transformers

Ie = exciting current
Im = magnetizing component
2.2 Voltage factors
Ic = iron loss component
The quantity Vf in Table B2.3 is an upper limit of operating
Ф = phase angle error voltage, expressed in per unit of rated voltage. This is important
for correct relay operation and operation under unbalanced
Ѳ = secondary burden angle
fault conditions on unearthed or impedance earthed systems,
Ip Rp = primary resistance voltage drop resulting in a rise in the voltage on the healthy phases.
Ip Xp = primary reactance voltage drop Voltage factors, with the permissible duration of the maximum
voltage, are given in Table B2.3.
Is Rs = secondary resistance voltage drop
Is Xs = secondary reactance voltage drop
Is = secondary current
I pL = load component of primary current
Ip = primary current

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 Current and Voltage Transformers

B2 2. Electromagnetic voltage transformers

b. insulation – designed for the system impulse voltage level.

Voltage Primary winding connection / Insulation volume is often larger than the winding volume
Time rating
factor Vf system earthing conditions
c. mechanical design – not usually necessary to withstand
Between lines in any network. short-circuit currents. Must be small to fit the space available
1.2 continuous Between transformer star point within switchgear
and earth in any network.
Three-phase units are common up to 36kV but for higher
1.2 continuous
Between line and earth in an voltages single-phase units are usual. Voltage transformers for
1.5 30 s effectively earthed network . medium voltage circuits will have dry type insulation, but for
high and extra high voltage systems, oil immersed units are
1.2 continuous Between line and earth in a general. Resin encapsulated designs are in use on systems
non-effectively earthed neutral
up to 33kV. Figure B2.3 shows a typical voltage transformer.
1.9 30 s system with automatic earth fault
tripping.

1.2 continuous Between line and earth in an

isolated neutral system without
automatic earth fault tripping, or in
1.9 8 hours a resonant earthed system
without automatic earth fault
tripping.

Table B2.3:
Voltage transformers: Permissible duration of maximum
voltage

2.3 Secondary leads

Voltage transformers are designed to maintain the specified
accuracy in voltage output at their secondary terminals. To
maintain this if long secondary leads are required, a distribution Figure B2.3:
box can be fitted close to the VT to supply relay and metering Typical voltage transformer
burdens over separate leads. If necessary, allowance can be
made for the resistance of the leads to individual burdens
when the particular equipment is calibrated. 2.6 Residually connected voltage transformers

2.4 Protection of voltage transformers The three voltages of a balanced system summate to zero,
but this is not so when the system is subject to a single-phase
Voltage Transformers can be protected by H.R.C. fuses on
earth fault. The residual voltage of a system is measured by
the primary side for voltages up to 66kV. Fuses do not usually
connecting the secondary windings of a VT in 'broken delta'
have a sufficient interrupting capacity for use with higher
as shown in Figure B2.4.
voltages. Practice varies, and in some cases protection on
the primary is omitted.
The secondary of a Voltage Transformer should always be A B C
protected by fuses or a miniature circuit breaker (MCB). The
device should be located as near to the transformer as
possible. A short circuit on the secondary circuit wiring will
produce a current of many times the rated output and cause
excessive heating. Even where primary fuses can be fitted,
these will usually not clear a secondary side short circuit
because of the low value of primary current and the minimum
practicable fuse rating.
Residual
2.5 Construction voltage

The construction of a voltage transformer takes into account

the following factors:
a. output – seldom more than 200-300VA.
Figure B2.4:
Cooling is rarely a problem
Residual voltage connection

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Current and Voltage Transformers

2. Electromagnetic voltage transformers B2

The output of the secondary windings connected in broken 2.8 Cascade voltage transformers
delta is zero when balanced sinusoidal voltages are applied,
The capacitor VT Section 3 was developed because of the
but under conditions of unbalance a residual voltage equal
high cost of conventional electromagnetic voltage transformers
to three times the zero sequence voltage of the system will
but, as shown in Section 3.2, the frequency and transient
be developed.
responses are less satisfactory than those of the orthodox
In order to measure this component, it is necessary for a zero voltage transformers. Another solution to the problem is the
sequence flux to be set up in the VT, and for this to be possible cascade VT (Figure B2.5).
there must be a return path for the resultant summated flux.
The conventional type of VT has a single primary winding,
The VT core must have one or more unwound limbs linking
the insulation of which presents a great problem for voltages
the yokes in addition to the limbs carrying windings. Usually
above about 132kV. The cascade VT avoids these difficulties
the core is made symmetrically, with five limbs, the two
by breaking down the primary voltage in several distinct and
outermost ones being unwound. Alternatively, three single-
separate stages.
phase units can be used. It is equally necessary for the primary
winding neutral to be earthed, for without an earth, zero The complete VT is made up of several individual transformers,
sequence exciting current cannot flow. the primary windings of which are connected in series, as
shown in Figure B2.5. Each magnetic core has primary
A VT should be rated to have an appropriate voltage factor
windings (P) on two opposite sides. The secondary winding
as described in Section 2.2 and Table B2.3, to cater for the
(S) consists of a single winding on the last stage only. Coupling
voltage rise on healthy phases during earth faults.
windings (C) connected in pairs between stages, provide low
Voltage transformers are often provided with a normal star- impedance circuits for the transfer of load ampere-turns
connected secondary winding and a broken-delta connected between stages and ensure that the power frequency voltage
‘tertiary’ winding. Alternatively the residual voltage can be is equally distributed over the several primary windings.
extracted by using a star/broken-delta connected group of
The potentials of the cores and coupling windings are fixed
auxiliary voltage transformers energised from the secondary
at definite values by connecting them to selected points on
winding of the main unit, providing the main voltage transformer
the primary windings. The insulation of each winding is
fulfils all the requirements for handling a zero sequence voltage
sufficient for the voltage developed in that winding, which is
as previously described. The auxiliary VT must also be suitable
a fraction of the total according to the number of stages. The
for the appropriate voltage factor. It should be noted that third
individual transformers are mounted on a structure built of
harmonics in the primary voltage wave, which are of zero
insulating material, which provides the interstage insulation,
sequence, summate in the broken-delta winding.
accumulating to a value able to withstand the full system
2.7 Transient performance voltage across the complete height of the stack.
Transient errors cause few difficulties in the use of conventional
voltage transformers, although some do occur. Errors are
A
generally limited to short time periods following the sudden
application or removal of voltage from the VT primary.
If a voltage is suddenly applied, an inrush transient will occur, C
as with power transformers. The effect will, however, be less P

severe than for power transformers because of the lower flux

C
density for which the VT is designed. If the VT is rated to have
a fairly high voltage factor, little inrush effect will occur. An
error will appear in the first few cycles of the output current C
in proportion to the inrush transient that occurs.
P - primary winding
When the supply to a voltage transformer is interrupted, the C C - coupling windings
core flux will not readily collapse; the secondary winding will S - secondary winding

tend to maintain the magnetising force to sustain this flux,

C
and will circulate a current through the burden which will
decay more or less exponentially, possibly with a superimposed
n
audio-frequency oscillation due to the capacitance of the S
a
winding. Bearing in mind that the exciting quantity, expressed N
in ampere-turns, may exceed the burden, the transient current
may be significant.

Figure B2.5:
Schematic diagram of typical cascade voltage transformer

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 Current and Voltage Transformers

B2 3. Capacitor voltage transformers

The entire assembly is contained in a hollow cylindrical Capacitors C1 and C2 cannot conveniently be made to close
porcelain housing with external weather-sheds; the housing tolerances, so tappings are provided for ratio adjustment,
is filled with oil and sealed, an expansion bellows being either on the transformer T, or on a separate auto-transformer
included to maintain hermetic sealing and to permit expansion in the secondary circuit. Adjustment of the tuning inductance
with temperature change. L is also needed; this can be done with tappings, a separate
tapped inductor in the secondary circuit, by adjustment of
The size of electromagnetic voltage transformers for the higher
gaps in the iron cores, or by shunting with variable capacitance.
voltages is largely proportional to the rated voltage; the cost
A simplified equivalent circuit is shown in Figure B2.7.
tends to increase at a disproportionate rate. The capacitor
voltage transformer (CVT) is often more economic.
This device is basically a capacitance potential divider. As
with resistance-type potential dividers, the output voltage is
seriously affected by load at the tapping point. The capacitance
divider differs in that its equivalent source impedance is
capacitive and can therefore be compensated by a reactor
connected in series with the tapping point. With an ideal
reactor, such an arrangement would have no regulation and
could supply any value of output.
A reactor possesses some resistance, which limits the output
that can be obtained. For a secondary output voltage of 110V,
the capacitors would have to be very large to provide a useful
output while keeping errors within the usual limits. The solution
Figure B2.7:
is to use a high secondary voltage and further transform the
Simplified equivalent circuit of capacitor voltage transformer
output to the normal value using a relatively inexpensive
electromagnetic transformer. The successive stages of this
reasoning are indicated in Figure B2.6. It will be seen that the basic difference between Figure B2.7
and Figure B2.1 is the presence of C and L. At normal
frequency when C and L are in resonance and therefore
cancel, the circuit behaves in a similar manner to a conventional
VT. At other frequencies, however, a reactive component exists
C1 which modifies the errors.
Standards generally require a CVT used for protection to
conform to accuracy requirements of Table B2.2 within a
C2 C2
frequency range of 97-103% of nominal. The corresponding
frequency range of measurement CVT’s is much less, 99%-
101%, as reductions in accuracy for frequency deviations
(a) Basic capacitive (b) Capacitive divider with
voltage divider inductive compensation outside this range are less important than for protection
applications.
L = tuning inductance
Rp = primary winding resistance (plus losses)
Ze = exciting impedance of transformer T
Rs = secondary circuit resistance

(c) Divider with E/M VT output stage Zb = burden impedance

C = C1 + C2 (in Figure B2.6)
3.1 Voltage protection of auxiliary capacitor
Figure B2.6:
Development of capacitor voltage transformer If the burden impedance of a CVT were to be short-circuited,
the rise in the reactor voltage would be limited only by the
reactor losses and possible saturation, that is, to Q × E2 where
There are numerous variations of this basic circuit. The E2 is the no-load tapping point voltage and Q is the amplification
inductance L may be a separate unit or it may be incorporated factor of the resonant circuit. This value would be excessive
in the form of leakage reactance in the transformer T . and is therefore limited by a spark gap connected across the

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Current and Voltage Transformers

3. Capacitor voltage transformers B2

auxiliary capacitor. The voltage on the auxiliary capacitor is components, oscillations at fundamental frequency or at other
higher at full rated output than at no load, and the capacitor sub-harmonics or multiples of the supply frequency are
is rated for continuous service at this raised value. The spark possible but the third sub-harmonic is the one most likely to
gap will be set to flash over at about twice the full load voltage. be encountered.
The effect of the spark gap is to limit the short-circuit current The principal manifestation of such an oscillation is a rise in
which the VT will deliver and fuse protection of the secondary output voltage, the r.m.s. value being perhaps 25%-50% above
circuit has to be carefully designed with this point in mind. the normal value; the output waveform would generally be of
Facilities are usually provided to earth the tapping point, either the form shown in Figure B2.8.
manually or automatically, before making any adjustments to
tappings or connections.
3.2 Transient behaviour of capacitor voltage
transformers
A CVT is a series resonant circuit. The introduction of the

Amplitude
electromagnetic transformer between the intermediate voltage
and the output makes possible further resonance involving
Time
the exciting impedance of this unit and the capacitance of
the divider stack. When a sudden voltage step is applied,
oscillations in line with these different modes take place, and
will persist for a period governed by the total resistive damping
that is present. Any increase in resistive burden reduces the
time constant of a transient oscillation, although the chance
of a large initial amplitude is increased.
Figure B2.8:
For very high-speed protection, transient oscillations should Typical secondary voltage waveform with third sub-harmonic
be minimised. Modern capacitor voltage transformers are oscillation.
much better in this respect than their earlier counterparts, but
high performance protection schemes may still be adversely
affected. Such oscillations are less likely to occur when the circuit losses
are high, as is the case with a resistive burden, and can be
3.3 Ferro-resonance
prevented by increasing the resistive burden. Special anti-
The exciting impedance Ze of the auxiliary transformer T and ferro-resonance devices that use a parallel-tuned circuit are
the capacitance of the potential divider together form a sometimes built into the VT. Although such arrangements help
resonant circuit that will usually oscillate at a sub-normal to suppress ferro-resonance, they tend to impair the transient
frequency. If this circuit is subjected to a voltage impulse, the response, so that the design is a matter of compromise.
resulting oscillation may pass through a range of frequencies.
Correct design will prevent a CVT that supplies a resistive
If the basic frequency of this circuit is slightly less than one-
burden from exhibiting this effect, but it is possible for non-
third of the system frequency, it is possible for energy to be
linear inductive burdens, such as auxiliary voltage transformers,
absorbed from the system and cause the oscillation to build
to induce ferro- resonance. Auxiliary voltage transformers for
up. The increasing flux density in the transformer core reduces
use with capacitor voltage transformers should be designed
the inductance, bringing the resonant frequency nearer to
with a low value of flux density that prevents transient voltages
the one-third value of the system frequency.
from causing core saturation, which in turn would bring high
The result is a progressive build-up until the oscillation exciting currents.
stabilises as a third sub-harmonic of the system, which can
be maintained indefinitely. Depending on the values of

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 Current and Voltage Transformers

B2 4. Current transformers

The primary winding of a current transformer is connected 4.1 Errors

in series with the power circuit and the impedance is negligible
The general vector diagram (Figure B2.2) can be simplified
compared with that of the power circuit. The power system
by the omission of details that are not of interest in current
impedance governs the current passing through the primary
measurement; see Figure B2.10. Errors arise because of the
winding of the current transformer. This condition can be
shunting of the burden by the exciting impedance. This uses
represented by inserting the load impedance, referred through
a small portion of the input current for exciting the core,
the turns ratio, in the input connection of Figure B2.1.
reducing the amount passed to the burden. So Is = Ip - Ie,
This approach is developed in Figure B2.9, taking the numerical where Ie is dependent on Ze, the exciting impedance and
example of a 300/5A CT applied to an 11kV power system. the secondary e.m.f. Es, given by the equation
The system is considered to be carrying rated current (300A)
Es = Is (Zs + Zb), where:
and the CT is feeding a burden of 10VA.
Zs = the self-impedance of the secondary winding, which
A study of the final equivalent circuit of Figure B2.9(c), taking
can generally be taken as the resistive component Rs
note of the typical component values, will reveal all the
only
properties of a current transformer. It will be seen that:
Zb = the impedance of the burden
a. the secondary current will not be affected by change of
the burden impedance over a considerable range
b. the secondary circuit must not be interrupted while the
primary winding is energised. The induced secondary
e.m.f. under these circumstances will be high enough to
present a danger to life and insulation
c. the ratio and phase angle errors can be calculated easily
if the magnetising characteristics and the burden Ip

impedance are known

=21.2Ω

=6350V 300/5A Burden

10VA
= Secondary induced e.m.f. = Secondary resistance voltage drop
= Secondary output voltage = Secondary reactance voltage drop
(a) Physical arrangement = Primary current = Exciting current
= Secondary current = Component of in phase with
= Phase angle error = Component of in quadrature with
= Flux
=21.2Ω 0.2Ω

'Ideal' Figure B2.10:

CT
=6350V j50Ω 150Ω 0.4Ω Vector diagram for current transformer (referred to secondary)
r=300/5

4.1.1 Current or ratio error

(b) Equivalent circuit of (a)
This is the difference in magnitude between Ip and Is and is
equal to Ir, the component of Ie which is in phase with Is.
=21.2Ω x 602
=76.2kΩ 0.2Ω 4.1.2 Phase error
This is represented by Iq, the component of Ie in quadrature
=6350V x 60 j50Ω 150Ω 0.4Ω
with Is and results in the phase error Ф.
=381kV
The values of the current error and phase error depend on
the phase displacement between Is and Ie, but neither current
(c) Equivalent circuit, all quantities referred nor phase error can exceed the vectorial error Ie. It will be
to secondary side seen that with a moderately inductive burden, resulting in Is
and Ie approximately in phase, there will be little phase error
and the exciting component will result almost entirely in ratio
Figure B2.9: error.
Derivation of equivalent circuit of a current transformer

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Current and Voltage Transformers

4. Current transformers B2

A reduction of the secondary winding by one or two turns is 4.3 Accuracy limit current of protection current
often used to compensate for this. For example, in the CT transformers
corresponding to Figure B2.9, the worst error due to the use
Protection equipment is intended to respond to fault conditions,
of an inductive burden of rated value would be about 1.2%.
and is for this reason required to function at current values
If the nominal turns ratio is 2:120, removal of one secondary
above the normal rating. Protection class current transformers
turn would raise the output by 0.83% leaving the overall current
must retain a reasonable accuracy up to the largest relevant
error as -0.37%.
current. This value is known as the ‘accuracy limit current’
For lower value burden or a different burden power factor, the and may be expressed in primary or equivalent secondary
error would change in the positive direction to a maximum of terms. The ratio of the accuracy limit current to the rated
+0.7% at zero burden; the leakage reactance of the secondary current is known as the 'accuracy limit factor'.
winding is assumed to be negligible. No corresponding
The accuracy class of protection current transformers is
correction can be made for phase error, but it should be noted
shown in Table B2.5.
that the phase error is small for moderately reactive burdens.
4.2 Composite error
Phase Composite
This is defined in IEC 60044-1 as the r.m.s. value of the Current error
displacement error at rated
at rated
difference between the ideal secondary current and the actual Class at rated accuracy
primary
secondary current. It includes current and phase errors and current limit primary
current (%)
(minutes) current (%)
the effects of harmonics in the exciting current. The accuracy
class of measuring current transformers is shown in Table 5P +/-1 +/-60 5
B2.4. 10P +/-3 10
Standard accuracy limit factors are 5, 10, 15, 20, and 30

(a) Limits of error accuracy for error classes 0.1 - 1.0

Table B2.5:
+/- Percentage current (ratio) error Protection CT error limits for classes 5P and 10P
Accuracy
% current
class
5 20 100 120
Even though the burden of a protection CT is only a few VA
0.1 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.1 at rated current, the output required from the CT may be
0.2 0.75 0.35 0.2 0.2 considerable if the accuracy limit factor is high. For example,
0.5 1.5 0.75 0.5 0.5 with an accuracy limit factor of 30 and a burden of 10VA, the
1 3 1.5 1.0 1.0 CT may have to supply 9000VA to the secondary circuit.
Alternatively, the same CT may be subjected to a high burden.
+/- Phase displacement (minutes) For overcurrent and earth fault protection, with elements of
Accuracy similar VA consumption at setting, the earth fault element of
% current
class
an electromechanical relay set at 10% would have 100 times
5 20 100 120
the impedance of the overcurrent elements set at 100%.
0.1 15 8 5 5
Although saturation of the relay elements somewhat modifies
0.2 30 15 10 10 this aspect of the matter, it will be seen that the earth fault
0.5 90 45 30 30 element is a severe burden, and the CT is likely to have a
1 180 90 60 60 considerable ratio error in this case. So it is not much use
applying turns compensation to such current transformers;
it is generally simpler to wind the CT with turns corresponding
(b) Limits of error for error classes 3 and 5
to the nominal ratio.
+/- Percentage current (ratio) error
Accuracy Current transformers can be used for the dual duty of
% current
class measurement and protection. They will then need to be rated
50 120 according to a class selected from both Tables B2.4 and B2.5.
3 3 5 The applied burden is the total of instrument and relay
5 3 5 burdens. Turns compensation may well be needed to achieve
the measurement performance. Measurement ratings are
expressed in terms of rated burden and class, for example
Table B2.4:
CT error classes 15VA Class 0.5. Protection ratings are expressed in terms of
rated burden, class, and accuracy limit factor, for example
10VA Class 10P10.

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 Current and Voltage Transformers

B2 4. Current transformers

4.4 Class PX current transformers 4.5.1 Wound primary type

The classification of Table B2.5 is only used for overcurrent This type of CT has conventional windings formed of copper
protection. Class PX is the definition in IEC 60044-1 for the wire wound round a core. It is used for auxiliary current
quasi-transient current transformers formerly covered by transformers and for many low or moderate ratio current
Class X of BS 3938, commonly used with unit protection transformers used in switchgear of up to 11kV rating.
schemes.
4.5.2 Bushing or bar primary type
Guidance was given in the specifications to the application
Many current transformers have a ring-shaped core, sometimes
of current transformers to earth fault protection, but for this
built up from annular stampings, but often consisting of a
and for the majority of other protection applications it is better
single length of strip tightly wound to form a close-turned
to refer directly to the maximum useful e.m.f. that can be
spiral. The distributed secondary winding forms a toroid which
obtained from the CT. In this context, the 'knee-point' of the
should occupy the whole perimeter of the core, a small gap
excitation curve is defined as 'that point at which a further
being left between start and finish leads for insulation.
increase of 10% of secondary e.m.f. would require an
increment of exciting current of 50%’; see Figure B2.11. Such current transformers normally have a single concentrically
placed primary conductor, sometimes permanently built into
the CT and provided with the necessary primary insulation. In
other cases, the bushing of a circuit breaker or power
transformer is used for this purpose. At low primary current
+ 10% ratings it may be difficult to obtain sufficient output at the desired
accuracy. This is because a large core section is needed to
provide enough flux to induce the secondary e.m.f. in the small
number of turns, and because the exciting ampere-turns form
+ 50% a large proportion of the primary ampere-turns available. The
effect is particularly pronounced when the core diameter has
been made large so as to fit over large EHV bushings.
4.5.3 Core-balance current transformers
Exciting voltage

The core-balance CT (or CBCT) is normally of the ring type,

through the centre of which is passed cable that forms the
primary winding. An earth fault relay, connected to the
secondary winding, is energised only when there is residual
current in the primary system.
The advantage in using this method of earth fault protection
lies in the fact that only one CT core is used in place of three
phase CTs whose secondary windings are residually connected.
In this way the CT magnetising current at relay operation is
reduced by approximately three-to-one, an important
consideration in sensitive earth fault relays where a low effective
Exciting current setting is required. The number of secondary turns does not
need to be related to the cable rated current because no
secondary current would flow under normal balanced conditions.
Figure B2.11: This allows the number of secondary turns to be chosen such
Definition of knee-point of excitation curve as to optimise the effective primary pick-up current.
Core-balance transformers are normally mounted over a cable
Design requirements for current transformers for general at a point close up to the cable gland of switchgear or other
protection purposes are frequently laid out in terms of knee- apparatus. Physically split cores ('slip-over' types) are normally
point e.m.f., exciting current at the knee-point (or some other available for applications in which the cables are already
specified point) and secondary winding resistance. Such made up, as on existing switchgear.
current transformers are designated Class PX.
4.5.4 Summation current transformers
4.5 CT winding arrangements
The summation arrangement is a winding arrangement used
A number of CT winding arrangements are used. These are in a measuring relay or on an auxiliary current transformer to
described in the following sections. give a single-phase output signal having a specific relationship
to the three-phase current input.

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4. Current transformers B2

4.5.5 Air-gapped current transformers

These are auxiliary current transformers in which a small air
gap is included in the core to produce a secondary voltage
output proportional in magnitude to current in the primary
winding. Sometimes termed 'transactors' and 'quadrature
current transformers', this form of current transformer has
been used as an auxiliary component of unit protection
schemes in which the outputs into multiple secondary circuits
must remain linear for and proportioned to the widest practical
range of input currents.
4.6 Line current CTs
CT's for measuring line currents fall into one of three types.
4.6.1 Overdimensioned CTs
Overdimensioned CTs are capable of transforming fully offset
fault currents without distortion. In consequence, they are
very large, as can be deduced from Section 4.10. They are
prone to errors due to remanent flux arising, for instance, from
the interruption of heavy fault currents.
Figure B2.12:
4.6.2 Anti-remanence CTs Typical modern CT for use on MV systems
This is a variation of the overdimensioned current transformer
and has small gap(s) in the core magnetic circuit, thus
also occurs, particularly in wound primary current transformers,
reducing the possible remanent flux from approximately 90%
although its precise measurement is difficult. The non-linear
of saturation value to approximately 10%. These gap(s) are
nature of the CT magnetic circuit makes it difficult to assess
quite small, for example 0.12mm total, and so the excitation
the definite ohmic value representing secondary leakage
characteristic is not significantly changed by their presence.
reactance.
However, the resulting decrease in possible remanent core
flux confines any subsequent d.c. flux excursion, resulting It is, however, normally accepted that a current transformer
from primary current asymmetry, to within the core saturation is of the low reactance type provided that the following
limits. Errors in current transformation are therefore significantly conditions prevail:
reduced when compared with those with the gapless type of
a. the core is of the jointless ring type (including spirally
core.
wound cores)
Transient protection current transformers are included in IEC
b. the secondary turns are substantially evenly distributed
60044-6 as types TPX, TPY and TPZ and this specification
along the whole length of the magnetic circuit
gives good guidance to their application and use.
c. the primary conductor(s) passes through the approximate
4.6.3 Linear current transformers
centre of the core aperture or, if wound, is approximately
The 'linear' current transformer constitutes an even more evenly distributed along the whole length of the magnetic
radical departure from the normal solid core CT in that it circuit
incorporates an appreciable air gap, for example 7.5-10mm.
d. flux equalising windings, where fitted to the requirements
As its name implies the magnetic behaviour tends to
of the design, consist of at least four parallel-connected
linearisation by the inclusion of this gap in the magnetic circuit.
coils, evenly distributed along the whole length of the
However, the purpose of introducing more reluctance into the
magnetic circuit, each coil occupying one quadrant
magnetic circuit is to reduce the value of magnetising
reactance. This in turn reduces the secondary time- constant Alternatively, when a current transformer does not obviously
of the CT, thereby reducing the overdimensioning factor comply with all of the above requirements, it may be proved
necessary for faithful transformation. Figure B2.12 shows a to be of low- reactance where:
typical modern CT for use on MV systems.
e. the composite error, as measured in the accepted way,
4.7 Secondary winding impedance does not exceed by a factor of 1.3 that error obtained
directly from the V-I excitation characteristic of the
As a protection CT may be required to deliver high values of
secondary winding
secondary current, the secondary winding resistance must
be made as low as practicable. Secondary leakage reactance

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B2 4. Current transformers

4.8 Secondary current rating most important, and were first observed in connection with
balanced forms of protection, which were liable to operate
The choice of secondary current rating is determined largely
unnecessarily when short-circuit currents were suddenly
by the secondary winding burden and the standard practice
established.
of the user. Standard CT secondary current ratings are 5A
and 1A. The burden at rated current imposed by digital or 4.10.1 Primary current transient
numerical relays or instruments is largely independent of the
The power system, neglecting load circuits, is mostly inductive,
rated value of current. This is because the winding of the
so that when a short circuit occurs, the fault current that flows
device has to develop a given number of ampere-turns at
is given by:
rated current, so that the actual number of turns is inversely
Ep
proportional to the current, and the impedance of the winding
varies inversely with the square of the current rating. However,
ip =
2
R + ω L 2 2
[ sin (ω t + β − α ) + sin ( α − β ) e − ( R L) t
]
electromechanical or static earth-fault relays may have a
...Equation B2.1
burden that varies with the current tapping used.
where:
Interconnection leads do not share this property, however,
being commonly of standard cross-section regardless of Ep = peak system e.m.f.
rating. Where the leads are long, their resistance may be R = system resistance
appreciable, and the resultant burden will vary with the square
of the current rating. For example a CT lead run of the order L = system inductance
of 200 metres, a typical distance for outdoor EHV switchgear, β = initial phase angle governed by instant of fault
could have a loop resistance of approximately 3 Ω. occurrence
The CT lead VA burden if a 5A CT is used would be 75VA, to α = system power factor angle
which must be added the relay burden (up to perhaps 10VA
for an electromechanical relay, but less than 1VA for a numerical = tan-1ωL/R
relay), making a total of 85VA. Such a burden would require The first term of Equation B2.1 represents the steady state
the CT to be very large and expensive, particularly if a high alternating current, while the second is a transient quantity
accuracy limit factor were also applicable. responsible for displacing the waveform asymmetrically.
With a 1A CT secondary rating, the lead burden is reduced Ep is the steady state peak current Ip.
to 3VA, so that with the same relay burden the total becomes 2 2 2
R +ω L
a maximum of 13VA. This can be provided by a CT of normal
dimensions, resulting in a saving in size, weight and cost. The maximum transient occurs when sin = ( α - β ) = 1; no
Hence modern CT’s tend to have secondary windings of 1A other condition need be examined.
rating. However, where the primary rating is high, say above
2000A, a CT of higher secondary rating may be used, to limit So:
the number of secondary turns. In such a situation secondary   π 
i p = I p  sin ω t −  + e − (
R L) t

ratings of 5A may be used. In extreme cases a 20A secondary   2  ...Equation B2.2
CT may be used, followed by a 20/1 interposing CT.
When the current is passed through the primary winding of a
4.9 Rated short-time current
current transformer, the response can be examined by replacing
A current transformer is overloaded while system short-circuit the CT with an equivalent circuit as shown in Figure B2.9(b).
currents are flowing and will be short-time rated. Standard
As the 'ideal' CT has no losses, it will transfer the entire function,
times for which the CT must be able to carry rated short-time
and all further analysis can be carried out in terms of equivalent
currents (STC) are 0.25, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0 or 3.0 seconds.
secondary quantities ( is and Is ). A simplified solution is
A CT with a particular short-time current/ time rating will carry obtainable by neglecting the exciting current of the CT.
a lower current for a longer time in inverse proportion to the
The flux developed in an inductance is obtained by integrating
square of the ratio of current values. The converse, however,
the applied e.m.f. through a time interval:
cannot be assumed, and larger current values than the S.T.C.
rating are not permissible for any duration unless justified by φ = K ∫t vdt
t2
...Equation B2.3
a new rating test to prove the dynamic capability. 1

4.10 Transient response of a current transformer

For the CT equivalent circuit, the voltage is the drop on the
When accuracy of response during very short intervals is burden resistance Rb.
being studied, it is necessary to examine what happens when
the primary current is suddenly changed. The effects are

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4. Current transformers B2

Integrating for each component in turn, the steady state peak

flux is given by: 20

Flux (multiples of steady value)

3 π 2ω
π 16
φ A = KR b I s ∫ sin ωt − dt
π ω
2
12
KR b I s ...Equation B2.4
=
ω
8
The transient flux is given by: T = 0.06s
α 4
KR b I s L
φ B = KR b I s ∫ e − ( R L) t
dt =
0
R ...Equation B2.5
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
Hence, the ratio of the transient flux to the steady state value
is: Time (seconds)
T - time constant of primary circuit
B wL X
= =
A R R
Figure B2.13:
where X and R are the primary system reactance and Response of a CT of infinite shunt impedance
resistance values. to transient asymmetric primary current

The CT core has to carry both fluxes, so that:

X ...Equation B2.6 Since a CT requires a finite exciting current to maintain a flux,
C = A B = A 1 it will not remain magnetised (neglecting hysteresis), and for
R
this reason a complete representation of the effects can only
The term (1+X/R) has been called the 'transient factor' (TF), be obtained by including the finite inductance of the CT in
the core flux being increased by this factor during the transient the calculation. The response of a current transformer to a
asymmetric current period. From this it can be seen that the ratio transient asymmetric current is shown in Figure B2.14.
of reactance to resistance of the power system is an important
feature in the study of the behaviour of protection relays.
Alternatively, L/R is the primary system time constant T, so
1.0
that the transient factor can be written:
0.9
ωL

1 
1  ωT
R 0.8
Amplitude of transient component

0.7
Again, fT is the time constant expressed in cycles of the a.c.
quantity T', so that: 0.6

TF = 1+2πf T = 1 + 2πT ' 0.5

This latter expression is particularly useful when assessing a 0.4

recording of a fault current, because the time constant in 0.3
cycles can be easily estimated and leads directly to the
transient factor. 0.2

0.1
For example, a system time constant of three cycles results
in a transient factor of (1+6 π ), or 19.85; that is, the CT would 0
Time
be required to handle almost twenty times the maximum flux
-0.1
produced under steady state conditions.
= Transient exciting current
The above theory is sufficient to give a general view of the = Secondary output current to burden
problem. In this simplified treatment, no reverse voltage is = 0.06s
= 0.12s
applied to demagnetise the CT, so that the flux would build
up as shown in Figure B2.13.
Figure B2.14:
Response of a current transformer to a transient asymmetric
current

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B2 4. Current transformers

Let: increment of flux from any possible remanent value positive

or negative. The formula would then be reasonable provided
is = the nominal secondary current
the applied current transient did not produce saturation
i's = the actual secondary output current
It will be seen that a precise calculation of the flux and
ie = the exciting current excitation current is not feasible; the value of the study is to
explain the observed phenomena. The asymmetric (or d.c.)
then:
component can be regarded as building up the mean flux
is = ie + i's ...Equation B2.7 over a period corresponding to several cycles of the sinusoidal
also, component, during which period the latter component
produces a flux swing about the varying 'mean level'
di e ...Equation B2.8 established by the former. The asymmetric flux ceases to
Le = R b i's
dt increase when the exciting current is equal to the total
asymmetric input current, since beyond this point the output
whence: current, and hence the voltage drop across the burden
resistance, is negative. Saturation makes the point of equality
d e R i R i
+ b e = b s between the excitation current and the input occur at a flux
d Le Le ...Equation B2.9 level lower than would be expected from linear theory.
which gives for the transient term When the exponential component drives the CT into saturation,
the magnetising inductance decreases, causing a large
T
ie = I1
T1 − T
(
e −t T − e −t T
1
) increase in the alternating component ie.
The total exciting current during the transient period is of the
where: form shown in Figure B2.15 and the corresponding resultant
T = primary system time constant L/R distortion in the secondary current output, due to saturation,
is shown in Figure B2.16.
T1 = CT secondary circuit time constant Le/Rb
I1 = prospective peak secondary current
4.10.2 Practical conditions
Practical conditions differ from theory for the following reasons:
Exciting current

a. no account has been taken of secondary leakage or burden

inductance. This is usually small compared with Lc so that
it has little effect on the maximum transient flux
b. iron loss has not been considered. This has the effect of
reducing the secondary time constant, but the value of
the equivalent resistance is variable, depending upon both Time
the sine and exponential terms. Consequently, it cannot
be included in any linear theory and is too complicated for
Figure B2.15:
a satisfactory treatment to be evolved
Typical exciting current of CT during transient asymmetric
c. the theory is based upon a linear excitation characteristic. input current
This is only approximately true up to the knee-point of the
excitation curve. A precise solution allowing for non-linearity
Primary current
is not practicable. Solutions have been sought by replacing referred to
Current

the excitation curve with a number of chords; a linear secondary

analysis can then be made for the extent of each chord
The above theory is sufficient, however, to give a good insight
Time
into the problem and to allow most practical issues to be decided. 0

d. the effect of hysteresis, apart from loss as discussed under Secondary current
(b) above, is not included. Hysteresis makes the inductance Residual flux = 0
Resistive burden
different for flux build up and decay, so that the secondary Power system T.C. = 0.05s
time constant is variable. Moreover, the ability of the core
to retain a 'remanent' flux means that the value of B
developed in Equation B2.5 has to be regarded as an Figure B2.16:
Distortion in secondary current due to saturation

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The presence of residual flux varies the starting point of the 4.11 Harmonics during the transient period
transient flux excursion on the excitation characteristic.
When a CT is required to develop a high secondary e.m.f.
Remanence of like polarity to the transient will reduce the
under steady state conditions, the non-linearity of the excitation
value of symmetric current of given time constant which the
impedance causes some distortion of the output waveform;
CT can transform without severe saturation; conversely, reverse
such a waveform will contain, in addition to the fundamental
remanence will greatly increase the ability of a CT to transform
current, odd harmonics only.
transient current.
When, however, the CT is saturated uni-directionally while
If the CT were the linear non-saturable device considered in
being simultaneously subjected to a small a.c. quantity, as in
the analysis, the sine current would be transformed without
the transient condition discussed above, the output will contain
loss of accuracy. In practice the variation in excitation
both odd and even harmonics. Usually the lower numbered
inductance caused by transferring the centre of the flux swing
harmonics are of greatest amplitude and the second and
to other points on the excitation curve causes an error that
third harmonic components may be of considerable value.
may be very large. The effect on measurement is of little
This may affect relays that are sensitive to harmonics.
consequence, but for protection equipment that is required
to function during fault conditions, the effect is more serious. 4.12 Test windings
The output current is reduced during transient saturation,
On-site conjunctive testing of current transformers and the
which may prevent the relays from operating if the conditions
apparatus that they energise is often required. It may be
are near to the relay setting. This must not be confused with
difficult, however, to pass a suitable value of current through
the increased r.m.s. value of the primary current due to the
the primary windings, because of the scale of such current
asymmetric transient, a feature which sometimes offsets the
and in many cases because access to the primary conductors
increase ratio error. In the case of balanced protection, during
is difficult. Additional windings may be provided to make such
through faults the errors of the several current transformers
tests easier, these windings usually being rated at 10A. The
may differ and produce an out-of-balance quantity, causing
test winding will inevitably occupy appreciable space and
unwanted operation.
the CT will cost more. This fact should be weighed against
the convenience achieved; very often it will be found that the
tests in question can be replaced by alternative procedures.

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B2 5. Novel instrument transformers

The preceding types of instrument transformers have all been Optical converters and optical glass fibre channels implement
based on electromagnetic principles using a magnetic core. the link between the sensor and the low-voltage output. The
There are now available several new methods of transforming fundamental difference between an instrument transducer
the measured quantity using optical and mass state methods. and a conventional instrument transformer is the electronic
interface needed for its operation, providing a low power
5.1 Optical instrument transducers
signal (voltage or current or digital) for connection to protection
The key features of a freestanding optical instrument transducer devices. This type of interface is not practical for 1 or 5A
can be illustrated with the functional diagram of Figure B2.17. conventional inputs. This interface is required both for the
sensing function and for adapting the new sensor technology
to that of the secondary output in low current, low voltage or
digital communication format (IEC 61850-9-2).
HV
Bus Non-conventional optical transducers lend themselves to
smaller, lighter devices where the overall size and power rating
Insulating of the unit does not have any significant bearing on the size
function
Sensor
Sensing and the complexity of the sensor. Small, lightweight insulator
function Instrument structures may be tailor-made to fit optical sensing devices
E/O converter Transformer
+ as an integral part of the insulator. Additionally, the non-linear
Communication effects and electromagnetic interference problems in the
secondary wiring of conventional VTs and CTs are minimised.
Optical link
(fibre optics) Optical transducers can be separated into two families: firstly
Electronic the hybrid transducers, making use of conventional electrical
interface Communication circuit techniques to which are coupled various optical
+
O/E converter converter systems, and secondly the ‘all-optical’ transducers
that are based on fundamental, optical sensing principles.
Secondary
output 5.1.1 Optical sensor concepts
Certain optical sensing media (glass, crystals, plastics) show
a sensitivity to electric and magnetic fields and some properties
of a probing light beam can be altered when passing through
Figure B2.17: them. One simple optical transducer description is given in
Functional diagram of optical instrument transducer Figure. B2.18.

'Odd' polariser
input output
polariser polariser

optical optical
fibre fibre sensing
light
detector
in out
light source
45 ∞ 90 ∞

optical
zero field level
1.0 sensing 1.0
medium
+
0.5 0.5

0 0
t t

reference modulated
light input light input
intensity intensity

Figure. B2.18:
Schematic representation of the concepts behind the optical sensing of varying electric and magnetic fields

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Consider the case of a beam of light passing through a pair of current measuring device the sensitive element is either located
polarising filters. If the input and output polarising filters have their free in the magnetic field (Figure B2.19(a)) or it can be immersed
axes rotated 45° from each other, only half the light will come in a field-shaping magnetic ‘gap’ (Figure B2.19(b)). In the case of
through. The reference light input intensity is maintained constant a voltage-sensing device (Figure B2.20) the same alternatives
over time. Now if these two polarising filters remain fixed and a exist, this time for elements that are sensitive to electric fields. The
third polarising filter is placed in between them, a random rotation possibility exists of combining both sensors within a single housing,
of this middle polariser either clockwise or counter-clockwise will thus providing both a CT and VT within a single compact housing
be monitored as a varying or modulated light output intensity at that gives rise to space savings within a substation.
the light detector.
When a block of optical sensing material (glass or crystal) is
immersed in a varying magnetic or electric field, it plays the role I AC line current

of the ‘odd’ polariser. Changes in the magnetic or electric field in

which the optical sensor is immersed are monitored as a varying
Optical fibre
intensity of the probing light beam at the light detector. The light Magneto-optic sensor
output intensity fluctuates around the zero-field level equal to 50% Magnetic Optical fibre
of the reference light input. This modulation of the light intensity field

due to the presence of varying fields is converted back to time- (a) 'Free-field' type

varying currents or voltages. AC line current

A transducer uses a magneto-optic effect sensor for optical current I

measuring applications. This reflects the fact that the sensor is not
basically sensitive to a current but to the magnetic field generated
by this current. Although ‘all-fibre’ approaches are feasible, most Optical fibres
Magnetic field
commercially available optical current transducers rely on a bulk-
Gapped
glass sensor. Most optical voltage transducers, on the other hand, magnetic core
Magneto-optic sensor

rely on an electro-optic effect sensor. This reflects the fact that the (b) 'Field-shaping' type

sensor used is sensitive to the imposed electric field.

5.1.2 Hybrid transducers Figure B2.19:
Optical current sensor based on the magnetic properties of
The hybrid family of non-conventional instrument transducers can optical materials
be divided into two types: those with active sensors and those
with passive sensors. The idea behind a transducer with an active
sensor is to change the existing output of the conventional 'Floating'
electrode
instrument transformer into an optically isolated output by adding
an optical conversion system (Figure B2.18). This conversion
system may require a power supply of its own: this is the active Electro-optic
sensor
AC line
sensor type. The use of an optical isolating system serves to de- voltage
Optical fibres
couple the instrument transformer output secondary voltages and
currents from earthed or galvanic links. Thus the only link that
remains between the control room and the switchyard is a fibre
Reference
optic cable. (a) 'Free-field' type electrode

Another type of hybrid non-conventional instrument transformer Reference

electrode
is achieved by retrofitting a passive optical sensing medium into
a conventional ‘hard-wire secondary’ instrument transformer. This
can be termed as a passive hybrid type since no power supply Light
AC line path
of any kind is needed at the secondary level. voltage Electro-optic
sensor
5.1.3 ‘All-optical’ transducers
These instrument transformers are based entirely on optical
Reference
materials and are fully passive. The sensing function is achieved electrode Optical
directly by the sensing material and a simple fibre optic cable (b) 'Field shaping' type
fibres

running between the base of the unit and the sensor location
provides the communication link.
Figure B2.20:
The sensing element is made of an optical material that is positioned Optical voltage sensor based on the electrical properties of
in the electric or magnetic field to be sensed. In the case of a optical materials

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B2 5. Novel instrument transformers

In all cases there is an optical fibre that channels the probing Similar to conventional instrument transformers there are ‘live
reference light from a source into the medium and another tank’ and ‘dead tank’ optical transducers. Typically, current
fibre that channels the light back to analysing circuitry. In transducers take the shape of a closed loop of light-transparent
sharp contrast with a conventional free-standing instrument material, fitted around a straight conductor carrying the line
transformer, the optical instrument transformer needs an current (Figure B2.22). In this case a bulk-glass sensor unit
electronic interface module in order to function. Therefore its is depicted (Figure B2.22(a)), along with an ‘all-optical’ sensor
sensing principle (the optical material) is passive but its example, as shown in Figure B2.22(b).
operational integrity relies on the interface that is powered in
the control room (Figure B2.21).

High voltage
sensor assembly
Fibre optic cable

Optical
interface
unit

Junction
box

AC/DC source

Figure B2.21:
Novel instrument transducer concept requiring an electronic interface in the control room

Electro-optic sensor
(bulk-glass transducer) AC line current
Dome
I
Electro-optic sensor
('all-fibre' transducer)
AC Bulk-glass
H1 H2 sensing element
line I I
current
Light in
Optical fibres
Light out
Fibre optic Liquid /solid/ gaseous
cable conduit internal insulation (a) Glass sensor approach

AC line current
I
Insulator
column Light in

Fibre junction box

Optical fibres
Sensor #1 Fibre
optic Light out
Sensor #2 cables Fibre
sensing element

(b) 'All-fibre' sensor concept

Figure B2.22:
Conceptual design of a double-sensor optical CT

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Light detectors are basically very sensitive devices and the

sensing material can thus be selected in such a way as to
scale-up readily for larger currents. ‘All-optical’ voltage
transducers however do not lend themselves easily for
extremely high line voltages. Two concepts using a 'full-voltage'
sensor are shown in Figure B2.23. Conductor

Although ‘all-optical’ instrument transformers were first

introduced 10-15 years ago, there are still only a few in service
nowadays. Figure B2.24 shows a field installation of a
combined optical CT/VT.

(a) 'Live tank' (b) 'Dead tank'

Figure B2.23:
Optical voltage transducer concepts, using a ‘full-voltage’ sensor

Figure B2.24:
Field installation of a combined optical CT/VT

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B2 5. Novel instrument transformers

5.2 Other sensing systems

There are a number of other sensing systems that can be
Electrical to optical
used, as described below. converter/transmitter
I
5.2.1 Zero-flux (Hall Effect) current transformer Burden
In this case the sensing element is a semi-conducting wafer
that is placed in the gap of a magnetic concentrating ring.
This type of transformer is also sensitive to d.c. currents. The Optical
fibres
transformer requires a power supply that is fed from the line
or from a separate power supply. The sensing current is
typically 0.1% of the current to be measured. In its simplest Current transformer
shape, the Hall effect voltage is directly proportional to the
magnetising current to be measured. For more accurate and
more sensitive applications, the sensing current is fed through
a secondary, multiple-turn winding, placed around the Figure B2.26:
magnetic ring in order to balance out the gap magnetic field. Design principle of a hybrid magnetic current transformer
This zero-flux, or null-flux, version allows very accurate current fitted with an optical transmitter
measurements in both d.c. and high-frequency applications.
A schematic representation of the sensing part is shown in
Figure B2.25.
5.2.3 Rogowski coils
The Rogowski coil is based on the principle of an air-cored
current transformer with a very high load impedance. The
Magnetic concentrator secondary winding is wound on a toroid of insulation material.
I (gapped magnetic core)
In most cases the Rogowski coil will be connected to an
amplifier, in order to deliver sufficient power to the connected
measuring or protection equipment and to match the input
impedance of this equipment. The Rogowski coil requires
i integration of the magnetic field and therefore has a time and
phase delay whilst the integration is completed. This can be
V
corrected for within a digital protection relay. The schematic
representation of the Rogowski coil sensor is shown in Figure
i B2.27.

Sensing current
Sensing element

Air core
toroidal coil
Figure B2.25:
Conceptual design of a Hall-effect current sensing element Electrical to optical
fitted in a field-shaping gap converter

5.2.2 Hybrid magnetic-optical sensor Optical

fibres
This type of transformer is mostly used in applications such
as series capacitive compensation of long transmission lines,
where a non-grounded measurement of current is required.
In this case, several current sensors are required on each Current carrying
phase in order to achieve capacitor surge protection and conductor
balance. The preferred solution is to use small toroidally wound
magnetic core transformers connected to fibre optic isolating
systems. These sensors are usually active sensors in the
Figure B2.27:
sense that the isolated systems require a power supply. This Schematic representation of a Rogowski coil, used for current
is illustrated in Figure B2.26. sensing

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B2

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