Carbohydrate Metabolism Glycolysis

CARBOHYDRATE
METABOLISM
INTRODUCTION
METABOLISM
• the sum of all the chemical

changes occurring in a cell, a
tissue, or the body
• Classification:
• Catabolic (degradative)
• Anabolic (synthetic)
•
CATABOLIC REACTIONS
• break down complex

molecules, such as proteins,
polysaccharides, and lipids,
to a few simple molecules
(for example, CO2, NH3
[ammonia], and H2O).
ANABOLIC REACTIONS
• form complex end products

from simple precursors, for
example, the synthesis of the
polysaccharide, glycogen,
from glucose.
CYCLES
• Pathways that regenerate a

component are called cycles
THREE STAGES OF CATABOLISM
TRANSPORT OF GLUCOSE INTO CELLS
• Glucose cannot diffuse

directly into cells but enters
by one of two transport
mechanisms:
1. Na+-independent, facilitated
diffusion transport system or
2. ATP-dependent Na+-
monosaccharide cotransport
system.
A . SODIUM-INDEPENDENT FACILITATED DIFFUSION
TRANSPORT SYSTEM
• This system is mediated by a

family of 14 glucose transporters
found in cell membranes. (GLUT
1-14)
• Exists monomeric protein

transporters exist in the
membrane in two conformational
states (Figure)
• Extracellular glucose binds to the

transporter, which then alters its
conformation, transporting
glucose across the cell
membrane.
•
TRANSPORT SYSTEM
1. Tissue Specificity of glucose

transporter gene expression
• The GLUTs display a tissue-

specific pattern of
expression.
TRANSPORT SYSTEM
2. Specialized functions of
glucose transport isoforms
• In facilitated diffusion,
transporter-mediated
glucose movement is down
a concentration gradient
(that is, from a high
glucose concentration to a
lower one and, therefore,
does not require energy).
•
GLYCOLYSIS
• Glycolysis is at the hub of

carbohydrate metabolism because
virtually all sugars, whether arising
from the diet or from catabolic
reactions in the body, can
ultimately be converted to glucose
• Pyruvate is the end product of

glycolysis in cells with
mitochondria and an adequate
supply of oxygen
• TYPES:
• Aerobic glycolysis
• Anaerobic Glycolysis
GLYCOLYSIS
• Aerobic Glycolysis • Anaerobic glycolysis
• Requires presence of oxygen • Conversion of glucose to

lactate
• sets the stage for the
oxidative decarboxylation of • Can occur without the
pyruvate to acetyl CoA, a participation of oxygen
major fuel of the TCA cycle
• allows the production of ATP
in tissues that lack
mitochondria (for example,
red blood cells and parts of
the eye) or in cells deprived
of sufficient oxygen.
GLYCOLYSIS
REACTIONS IN GLYCOLYSIS
The conversion of glucose to
pyruvate occurs in two stages
(Figure).
1. Energy–investment phase in
which the phosphorylated
forms of intermediates are
synthesized at the expense
of ATP.
2. Energy–generation phase in
which a net of two molecules
of ATP are formed by
substrate-level
phosphorylation per glucose
molecule metabolized.
2.5 ATP per mol of NADH

REACTIONS OF GLYCOLYSIS
1. Phosphorylation of glucose
2. Isomerization of Glucose 6-phosphate
3. Phosphorylation of Fructose 6-
phosphate
4. Cleavage of Fructose 1,6-

bisphosphate
5. Isomerization of dihydroxyacetone
phosphate
6. Oxidation of Glyceraldehyde 3-
phosphate
7. Synthesis of 3-phosphoglycerate,
producing ATP
8. Shift of the phosphate group
9. Dehydration of 2-phosphoglycerate
10.Formation of pyruvate, producing ATP

Step-1
• Phosphorylation of glucose
• Enzyme: Hexokinase
• This step is also accompanied

by considerable loss of
energy as heat.
Step-2
• Isomerization of Glucose-6-
phosphate
• Enzyme: phosphohexose
isomerase
Step-3
• Phosphorylation of
fructose-6-phosphate
• Enzyme:
phosphofructokinase-1
• Like in Step 1, the phosphate

is transferred from ATP while
some amount of energy is
lost in the form of heat as
well.
Step-4
• Cleavage of fructose 1, 6-
diphosphate
• Enzyme: aldolase
Step-5
• Isomerization of
dihydroxyacetone phosphate
• Enzyme: triose phosphate

isomerase
Step-6
• Oxidative Phosphorylation of
Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate
• Enzyme: glyceraldehyde 3-
phosphate dehydrogenase
Step-7
• Transfer of phosphate from 1,

3-diphosphoglycerate to ADP
• Enzyme: phosphoglycerate
kinase
• 1st Energy-generating step

Step-8
• Isomerization of 3-
phosphoglycerate
• Enzyme: phosphoglycerate
mutase
Step-9
• Dehydration 2-
phosphoglycerate
• Enzyme: enolase
Step-10
• Transfer of phosphate from

phosphoenolpyruvate
• Enzyme: pyruvate kinase
• 2nd Energy-generating step

REACTIONS OF GLYCOLYSIS
HORMONAL REGULATION OF GLYCOLYSIS
• Regular consumption of meals

rich in carbohydrate or
administration of insulin
initiates an increase in the
amount of glucokinase,
phosphofructokinase, and PK in
the liver
• Conversely, in Diabetes and

fasting state, gene transcription
and synthesis of glucokinase,
phosphofructokinase, and PK
are decreased when plasma
glucagon is high and insulin is
low
ALTERNATE FATES OF PYRUVATE
1. Oxidative decarboxylation of
pyruvate
2. Carboxylation of pyruvate
3. Reduction of pyruvate to
ethanol (microorganisms)
CONVERSION OF PYRUVATE TO ACETYL COA
OXIDATIVE DEC ARBOXYL ATION OF PYRUVATE
Pyruvate
Dehydrogenase
complex
Remember: For every 1 molecule of glucose undergoing glycolysis, 2 pyruvate

molecule will be produced

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CARBOHYDRATE

• the sum of all the chemical

• break down complex

• form complex end products

• Pathways that regenerate a

• Glucose cannot diffuse

• This system is mediated by a

• Exists monomeric protein

• Extracellular glucose binds to the

1. Tissue Specificity of glucose

• The GLUTs display a tissue-

• Glycolysis is at the hub of

• Pyruvate is the end product of

• Aerobic Glycolysis • Anaerobic glycolysis

• Requires presence of oxygen • Conversion of glucose to

2.5 ATP per mol of NADH

2. Isomerization of Glucose 6-phosphate

4. Cleavage of Fructose 1,6-

8. Shift of the phosphate group

10.Formation of pyruvate, producing ATP

• This step is also accompanied

• Like in Step 1, the phosphate

• Enzyme: triose phosphate

• Transfer of phosphate from 1,

• 1st Energy-generating step

• Transfer of phosphate from

• Enzyme: pyruvate kinase

• 2nd Energy-generating step

• Regular consumption of meals

• Conversely, in Diabetes and

Remember: For every 1 molecule of glucose undergoing glycolysis, 2 pyruvate

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