FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF

RADIATION
• Radiation Intensity
Emission, Irradiation, Radiosity
• Blackbody Radiation
Planck Distribution
Wien’s Displacement Law
Stefan-Boltzmann Law
• Surface Radiation Properties
Emissivity, Absorptivity, Reflectivity
Kirchhoff’s Law
• Environmental Radiation
 Radiation Intensity

Intensity (spectral)
the amount of radiation energy
streaming out through a unit area
perpendicular to the direction of
propagation Ω̂ , per unit solid angle
around the direction ω, per unit
wavelength around λ, and per unit
time about t.
solid angle: a region between the rays of
a sphere and measured as the ratio of
the element area dAn on the sphere to the
square of the sphere’s radius
Rsinθ dAn
dθ dω = 2 (steradian, sr)
dAn R
θ dA n = ( R sin θ d φ ) ( Rdθ )
R = R 2 sinθ dθ dφ
dω = sinθ dθ dφ
dφ ex) hemisphere:
φ
2π π /2
ω = ∫∩ dω = ∫0 ∫0 sinθ dθ dφ = 2π (sr)
spectral intensity n̂ I λ Ωˆ
4
d Q φ
Iλ =
dA cosθ dω d λ dt
[J/m ⋅ sr ⋅ μ m ⋅ s]
2 θ dω
G ˆ
I ( r , Ω ) = I ( x , y , z ,θ , φ )
λ λ
∞ dA
total intensity: I = ∫0 I λ d λ
Iλ
d Q = I λ cosθ dAdω d λ dt [J]
4

4
d Q
d q=
3

dt
= I λ dA cosθ dω d λ [W]
dλ λ
 4
d Q
d q′′ =
2
= I λ cosθ dω d λ [W/m 2 ]
dAdt
4
d Q
′′
dqλ = = I λ cosθ dω [W/m ⋅ μ m]
2

dAdtd λ
spectral radiative heat flux:
qλ′′ = ∫ I λ cosθ dω = ∫∩ I λ Ωˆ ⋅ nd
ˆ ω
∩
2π π /2
= ∫0 ∫0 I λ cosθ sinθ dθ dφ [W/m ⋅ μ m]
2

total radiative heat flux:

∞ ∞
q′′ = ∫0 qλ′′d λ = ∫0 ∫∩ I λ cosθ dωd λ
∞ 2π π /2
= ∫0 ∫0 ∫0 I λ cosθ sinθ dθ dφ d λ [W/m 2 ]
Example 12.1 A3
θ 3 = 0D
r3 = 0.5m A4
θ4 = 0 D

θ 2 = 30D
θ 1 = 45D
A2 θ1 = 60 D

r4 = 0.5m
r2 = 0.5m I n = 7000 W/m 2 ⋅ sr

A1 : diffuse emitter
A1 = A2 = A3 = A4 = 10−3 m 2
Find:
1) Intensity of emission in each of the three directions
2) Solid angles subtended by the three surfaces
3) Rate at which radiation is intercepted by the three surfaces

Assumption:
A1, A2, A3, and A4 Æ differential surfaces, j j ) << 1
2
( A r
1) Diffusely emitted intensity: A3
independent of direction θ 3 = 0D
r3 = 0.5mθ = 0D A4
I = I n = 7000 W/m 2 ⋅ sr 4

θ2 = 30D
2) Solid angles θ1 = 45D
A2 θ1 = 60 D

r4 = 0.5m
dAn
dω ≡ 2 , dAn , j = dA j × cos θ j r2 = 0.5m In = 7000 W/m2 ⋅ sr
r
A2 × cos θ 2
ω 2 −1 ≈ −3 A1
2
= 3.46 × 10 sr A1 = A2 = A3 = A4 = 10−3 m2
r2
A3 × cos θ 3
ω 3 −1 ≈ 2
= 4.00 × 10 −3
sr A2
r3 A2,n = A2 cos θ 2
K
A4 × cos θ 4 n
ω 4 −1 ≈ 2
= 4.00 × 10 −3
sr θ 2 = 30D
r4
3) Radiation rate on each surface ω 2 −1

q1− j ≈ I n × A1 cos θ1 × ω j −1
q1− 2 ≈ 12.1 × 10−3 W, q1− 3 ≈ 28.0 × 10−3 W, q1−4 ≈ 19.8 × 10−3 W
 Irradiation
n̂
Irradiation: I λ ,i Ωˆ i φi
all incident radiative
heat flux through the
control surface θi
dω i
spectral irradiation: Gλ
dA
dA
Gλ = ∫∩ I λ ,i cosθ i dω i I λ ,i
total irradiation: G
∞
G= ∫0 Gλ d λ
∞
= ∫0 ∫∩ I λ ,i cosθ i dω i d λ
dλ λ
 Radiosity
Radiosity: all out-going radiative heat flux
through the control surface
radiosity = emitted heat flux
I λ ,e Ωˆ e
+ reflected heat flux n̂
spectral radiosity: Jλ φe
spectral emitted heat flux
(spectral emissive power) θe dω e
qλ′′,e = ∫∩ I λ ,e cosθ e dω e
dA
dA
spectral reflected heat flux
qλ′′,r = ∫∩ I λ ,r cosθ r dω r
 spectral radiosity:
J λ = qλ′′,e + qλ′′,r = ∫∩ I λ ,e cosθ e dω e + ∫∩ I λ ,r cosθ r dω r
= ∫∩ ( I λ ,e + I λ ,r ) cosθ dω = ∫∩ I λ ,e + r cosθ dω
total radiosity: J
total emitted heat flux (total emissive power)
∞ ∞
(
qe′′ = ∫0 qλ′′,e d λ = ∫0 ∫∩ I λ ,e cosθ e dω e d λ)
total reflected heat flux
qr′′ = ∫0 qλ′′,r d λ = ∫0 ∫∩ ( I λ ,r cosθ r dω r )d λ
∞ ∞

∞
total radiosity: J = ∫ J λ d λ = qe′′ + qr′′
0
∞ ∞
= ∫0 ∫∩ I λ ,e cosθ e dω e d λ + ∫0 ∫∩ I λ ,r cosθ r dω r d λ
 Emissive Power
directional spectral emissive power
Eλ′ = I λ ,e cosθ e = I λ ,e Ωˆ e ⋅ nˆ n̂ I λ ,e Ωˆ e
φ
hemispherical spectral e

emissive power θe dω e
G ˆ
Eλ = qλ′′,e = ∫∩ I λ ,e ( r , Ω )cosθ e dω e
dA
2π π / 2 G ˆ
= ∫0 ∫0 I λ ,e ( r , Ω )cosθ e sinθ e dθ e dφe
hemispherical total emissive power
∞
E = qe′′ = ∫0 Eλ d λ
∞ G ˆ
= ∫0 ∫∩ I λ ,e ( r , Ω )cosθ e dω e d λ
 Blackbody Radiation
a) blackbody: a perfect absorber for all
incident radiation
b) Maximum emitter in each direction
and at every wavelength

T T
black non-black
black: termed based on the visible
radiation so not a perfect description
c) Emitted intensity from a blackbody:
invariant with emission angle
Proof) consider energy exchange between an element
on a spherical black enclosure, dAs and an element at
the center of the enclosure, dA. Both elements are in
thermal equilibrium.
energy absorbed by dA
dA cosθ
I λ b ,ndAs d λ dω s = I λ b ,ndAs d λ
R2
R Iλb,n
energy absorbed by dAs dAs
θ
I λ b (θ ,φ )dA cosθ d λ dω Iλb(θ,φ)
dAs dA
= I λ b (θ ,φ )dA cosθ d λ 2
R
in equilibrium
I λ b (θ ,φ ) = I λ b ,n ≠ function of (θ,φ)
and since max at a given temperature
Simulated blackbody
 Planck Law
blackbody hemispherical spectral
emissive power
G
Eλ b = qλ′′b ,e = ∫∩ I λ b ( r )cosθ dω

2π π /2 G
= ∫0 ∫0 I λ b ( r )cosθ sin θ dθ dφ
G 2π 1
= I λ b ( r )∫0 ∫0 cosθ d (cosθ )dφ
G
= π Iλb (r )
Planck’s law
(The Theory of Heat Radiation, Max Planck, 1901)
spectral distribution of hemispherical
emissive power of a blackbody in vacuum
2π C1
E λ b = π I λ b = 5 C / λT , C = hC 2 , C = hC / k
( λ e 2 −1) 1 0 2 0

h: Planck constant, k: Boltzmann constant

in a medium with a refractive index n:
2π C1
Eλ b = π I λ b = 2 5 C / λ nT
(
nλ e 2 ) −1
n = 1 in vacuum and n = 1.00029 in air at room
temperature over the visible spectrum
 2π C1 Eλ b ( λ , T ) 2π C1
Eλ b = =
λ (e C 2 / λT
−1 ) ( )
λ ( C 2 / λT
)
5
−1
5 5
T T e
≡ E ( λT )
Eλ b
T5

λΤ
Blackbody spectral emissive power
 Wien’s Displacement law (1891)
λmax : the wavelength at which Eλb(λ,T)
is maximum
Eλ b ( λ , T ) 2π C1
=
T 5 5
(
( λT ) e C 2 / λT
−1 )
d ⎛ Eλ b ⎞ → λ =
C2 1
⎜ 5 ⎟
= 0 T − C 2 / λmaxT
−
max
d ( λT ) ⎝ T ⎠ 5 1 e

λmaxT = C 3 = 2897.8 μ m ⋅ K
 Stefan-Boltzmann’s Law
blackbody total intensity and total emissive power
∞ ∞

∫ ∫
2C1
Ib = I λb d λ = dλ
0 0 λ (e
5 C 2 / λT
−1 )
4 ∞
ζ 3
2C1T π σ 4 4 4

∫
2C1T
= d ζ = ≡ T
C 24 0 eζ − 1 C 24 15 π
σ = 2C1π 5 / 15C 24 = 5.6696 × 10−8 W/m 2 ⋅ K 4
Stefan-Boltzmann’s law:
∞
Eb = qb′′,e = ∫0 Eλ b d λ = π I b = σ T 4 [W/m 2 ]
Stefan by experiment (1879): Eb ~ T 4
Boltzmann by theory (1884): Eb = σ T 4
Blackbody radiation in a wavelength interval
Eλb for a given temperature λ2
∫λ Eλb (λ , T )d λ
Fλ1 −λ2 = 1
∞
∫0 Eλb (λ , T )d λ
1 λ2
= ∫λ Eλ b (λ , T )d λ
λ1 λ2 λ σT 4 1

1 ⎡ λ2 λ1
⎤
= 4 ⎣ ∫0
E ( λ , T )d λ − ∫ E ( λ , T )d λ
σT
λb 0 λb
⎦
= F0−λ2 − F0−λ1
 1 λ2
Eλ b or Fλ1 −λ2 = ∫λ Eλ b (λ , T )d λ
σT 4 1
T5
1 λ2T Eλ b ( λ , T )
= ∫ d ( λT )
σ λT1
T 5

≡ Fλ1T −λ2T
λ1 Τ λ2Τ λΤ
= F0−λ2T − F0−λ1T
 E
Example 12.3
Eλ,b

λ1 λmax λ2
Find:
1) Emissive power of a small aperture on the enclosure
2) Wavelengths below which and above which 10% of
the radiation is concentrated
3) Spectral emissive power and wavelength
associated with maximum emission
4) Irradiation on a small object inside
Assumption:
Areas of aperture and object are very small relative to
enclosure surface.
1) Emission from the aperture E = Eb(T)

E = Eb (T ) = σ T 4

= 5.67 × 204 = 9.07 × 105 W/m 2

2) F(0→λ1 ) = 0.1
From Table 12.1
λ1T ≈ 2200 μ m ⋅ K , λ1 = 1.1μ m
F(0→λ2 ) = 0.9
λ2T ≈ 9382 μ m ⋅ K , λ2 = 4.69 μ m

λ1 λ2
3) Spectral emissive power and wavelength
associated with maximum emission
Wien’s law, λmaxT = 2898 μ m ⋅ K Eλ,b
λmax = 2898 / 2000 = 1.45 μ m
Eλ b = π I λ b
From Table 12.1
λmax
I λ b (1.45 μ m, T ) = 0.722 × 10 σ T
−4 5

= 1.31 × 105 W/m 2 ⋅ sr ⋅ μ m E = Eb(T)

Eλ b = π I λ b = 4.12 × 105 W/m 2 ⋅ μ m
G = Eb(T)
4) Irradiation of any small object
inside the enclosure
G = Eb (T ) = 9.07 × 105 W/m 2
Example 12.4

n̂
Eλb

θ = 60D

2 μm 4 μm λ
Blackbody at 1500 K

Find:
Rate of emission per unit area in directions 0D ≤ θ ≤ 60D ,
and in a wavelength interval 2 μ m ≤ λ ≤ 4 μ m
0D ≤ θ ≤ 60D , 2 μ m ≤ λ ≤ 4 μ m
n̂
I λ b cos θ dω d λ , ∫ω I λ b cos θ dω d λ
λ2
ΔE = ∫ θ = 60D
λ1 ∫ω I λ b cos θ d ω d λ
4 2π π /3
ΔE = ∫ ∫φ ∫θ I λ b cos θ sin θ dθ dφ d λ
2 =0 =0

Iλb: independent of direction

Blackbody at 1500 K
4
ΔE = ∫ I λ b
2 (∫ 0
2π
∫
0
π /3
cos θ sin θ dθ dφ d λ )
π /3
4 ⎛ sin 2 θ ⎞
ΔE = ∫
4
I λ b ⎜ 2π ⎟d λ = 0.75 ∫ π I λ b d λ
2 ⎜ 2 ⎟ 2
⎝ 0 ⎠
4
= 0.75 ∫ Eλ b d λ
2
 4
ΔE = 0.75 ∫ Eλ b d λ Eλb
2

4 Eλ ,b
ΔE = 0.75 Eb ∫ dλ
2 Eb
ΔE = 0.75 Eb ⎡⎣ F(0→4 μ m) − F(0→ 2 μ m ) ⎤⎦

From Table 12.1 2 μm 4 μm λ

λ1T = 2 μ m × 1500 K = 3000 μ m ⋅ K → F(0→2 μm ) = 0.273232
λ2T = 4 μ m × 1500 K = 6000 μ m ⋅ K → F(0→4 μm ) = 0.737818
Eb = σ T 4
ΔE = 0.75σ T 4 ⎡⎣ F(0→4 μ m ) − F(0→ 2 μ m) ⎤⎦

= 0.75 × 5.67 × 154 × ( 0.737818 − 0.273232 ) = 105 W / m 2

0.75 × 0.4645686 = 0.3484395
 Surface Radiation Properties
Definition of Properties for Non-black
Opaque Surfaces

spectral distribution directional distribution

- ity : intensive, theoretical

- ance : extensive, experimental
 Emissivity
Directional spectral emissivity ε λ′ (λ ,θ e ,φe , T )
I λ ,e cosθ e
ε λ′ =
I λ b ,e cosθ e n̂ I λ ,e Ωˆ e

Eλ′ I λ ,e φe
= =
Eλ′ b I λ b ,e
θe
I λ ,e = ε λ′ I λ b ,e
dA
Eλ′ = ε λ′ Eλ′ b
Directional total emissivity ε ′(θ e ,φe , T )
∞ ∞
∫ I λ ,e cosθ e d λ ∫ I λ ,e d λ Ie E′
ε′ = ∞0
= ∞0
= =
∫0 I λ b ,e cosθ e d λ ∫0 I λb ,e d λ I b ,e Eb′

I e = ε ′ I b ,e , E ′ = ε ′ Eb′
or I λ ,e = ε λ′ I λ b ,e
∞
∫ ε λ′ I λb ,e d λ
ε′ = ∞
0
(E b = π I b ,e = σ T 4
)
∫0 I λb ,e d λ
∞ ∞
π ∫0 ε λ′ I λ b ,e d λ ∫ ε ′
λ Eλ b d λ
= = 0

σT 4
σT 4
Hemispherical spectral emissivity ε λ (λ , T )
∫ I λ ,e cosθ e dω e
ελ = ∩

∫∩ I λ b ,e cosθ e dωe
∫ I cosθ e dω e n̂ I λ ,e Ωˆ e
∩ λ ,e
=
π I λ b ,e φe
(I λ ,e = ε λ′ I λ b ,e )
θe dω e
∫ ε ′
λ I λ cos θ d ω
= ∩ b , e e e

π I λ b ,e dA
dA
1
= ∫ ε ′
λ cosθ e dω e
π ∩
Hemispherical total emissivity ε (T )
∞

ε=
∫0 ∫∩ I λ ,e cosθ e dωe d λ =
E
∞
∫0 ∫∩ I λ b ,e cosθ e dωe d λ Eb
∞
∫ ⎡ ∫ ε ′ θ ω ⎤ λ
( I λ ,e = ε λ′ I λ b ,e )
I cos d d
= 0 ⎣ ∩ ⎦
λ λ b , e e e

σT4

∞ ⎡1 ⎤
∫0 π I λb ,e ⎢ ∫∩ ε λ′ cosθ e dω e ⎥ d λ
= ⎣π ⎦
σT 4

∞
∫ ε λ Eλ b d λ
= 0

σT 4
 ∞
∫∩ ∫0
I λ ,e cosθ e d λ dω e
or ε= ∞ (I λ ,e = ε λ′ I λ b ,e )
∫∩ ∫0 I λb ,e cosθ e d λ dω e
∫∩ cos θ ⎡
e ∫0
∞
ε ′ I d λ ⎤ dω e
= ⎣ λ λ b ,e
⎦
σT 4

θ ⎡ ∞
ε ′ π λ ⎤ dω e
1 ∫∩ cos e ∫0
⎣ λ I λb d
⎦
=
π σT 4

1 ⎡ ∫ ε λ′ π I λ b d λ ⎤
∞

= ∫∩ cosθ e ⎢ 0 ⎥ dω e
π ⎢⎣ σT 4
⎥⎦
1
= ∫∩ ε ′ cosθ e dω e
π
 Summary
Directional spectral emissivity ε λ′ (λ ,θ e ,φe , T )
I λ ,e Eλ′
ε λ′ = = → I λ ,e = ε λ′ I λ b ,e , Eλ′ = ε λ′ Eλ′ b
I λ b ,e Eλ′ b
Directional total emissivity ε ′(θ e ,φe , T )
∞

ε′ = 0
∫ ε ′ Eλ b d λ
λ

σT4
Hemispherical spectral emissivity ε λ (λ , T )
1
ε λ = ∫ ε λ′ cosθ e dω e
π ∩

Hemispherical total emissivity ε (T )

∞
∫ ε λ Eλ b d λ 1
ε= 0

σT4
or ε= ∫
π ∩
ε ′ cosθ e dω e
 Theoretical trend: Maxwell’s equation
directional dependence
1) Dielectrics 2) Conductors

ε′ n ε′ κ
κ=0

θ θ
 spectral dependence

1) Dielectrics 2) Conductors

ελ ελ

λ visible λ visible
 Directional emissivity of ideal
dielectrics predicted by EM theory
Directional spectral emissivity of platinum
at wavelength λ = 2 μm
Spectral dependence of the spectral, normal
emissivity ελ,n of selected materials
Temperature dependence of the total, normal
emissivity εn of selected materials
Representative values of total, normal emissivity εn
Example 12.5

Find:
1) Hemispherical total emissivity, ε
2) Total emissive power, E
3) Wavelength at which spectral emissive power will
be a max
Assumption:
Surface is a diffuse emitter.
1) Hemispherical total emissivity
Ιλ,eΩ̂
I λ ,e cos θ e I λ ,e
ε λ′ = = n̂
I λ b ,e cos θ e I λ b ,e φe
dωe
ελ =
∫ ∩
I λ ,e cos θ e dω e
=
∫
∩
ε λ′ I λ b ,e cos θ e dω e
θe
∫ ∩
I λ b ,e cos θ e dω e Eλ b

∞ ⎛1 ⎞ dA
∫ 0 ⎜π
⎝
∫∩ ε λ Eλb cosθ e dω e ⎟⎠ d λ
′
ε= ∞
∫ 0
Eλ b d λ
∞

=
∫ 0
ε λ Eλ b d λ
σT4
2
ε 1 ∫ Eλ ,b d λ
5
ε 2 ∫ Eλ ,b d λ
= 0
+ 2
σT4 σT4
 2
ε 1 ∫ Eλ ,b d λ
5
ε 2 ∫ Eλ ,b d λ
ε= 0
+ 2
σT4 σT4
ε = ε 1 F(0→ 2 μ m) + ε 2 ⎡⎣ F(0→5 μ m) − F(0→ 2 μ m) ⎤⎦

From Table 12.1

λ1T = 2 μ m × 1600 K = 3200 μ m ⋅ K → F(0→2 μm ) = 0.318102
λ2T = 5 μ m × 1600 K = 8000 μ m ⋅ K → F(0→5 μm ) = 0.856288
ε = 0.4 × 0.318102 + 0.8 × ( 0.856282 − 0.318102 )
= 0.4 × 0.318102 + 0.8 × 0.53818 = 0.558

2) Total emissive power

E = ε Eb = εσ T 4 = 0.558 × 5.67 × 164 = 207 kW/m 2

3) Wavelength at which spectral
emissive power will be a max

ελ =
∫ ∩
I λ ,e cos θ e dω e
=
Eλ
∫∩
I λ b ,e cos θ e dω e Eλ b
Eλ = ε λ Eλ b
Maximum Eλ may occur
in 0 < λ ≤ 2 μm or 2 < λ ≤ 5 μm.
First check where maximum Eλb
occurs.
From Wien’s law
2898 μ m ⋅ K
λmax = = 1.81μ m ( < 2μ m )
1600K λ = 1.81 μm

Thus, maximum may occur at λ = 1.81 μm or λ = 2 μm

 ⎛ I ⎞
Eλ = ε λ Eλ b = ε λ (π I λ b ) = πε λ ⎜ λ b5 ⎟ σ T 5
⎝ σT ⎠
at λ = 1.81 μm
Iλb −4
From Table 12.1, λT = 2898 μm.K
→ = 0.722 × 10
σT5
Eλ (1.81 μ m,1600 K) = π × 0.4 × 0.722 × 10−4 × 5.67 × 10−8 × 16005
= 54 kW/m 2 ⋅ μ m
at λ = 2 μm
Iλb −4
From Table 12.1, λT = 3200 μm.K → = 0.706 × 10
σT5
Eλ (2 μ m,1600 K) = π × 0.8 × 0.706 × 10−4 × 5.67 × 10−8 × 16005
= 105.5 kW/m 2 ⋅ μ m

Maximum spectral emissive power occurs at λ = 2 μm.

Peak emission
 Absorptivity
dependence on the directional and spectral
distributions of the incident radiation, thus
not a material property except α λ′
Directional spectral absorptivity α λ′ (λ ,θ i ,φ i , T )
I λ ,i Ωˆ i
φ n̂ i

θi

dA
absorbed energy at λ and (θ i , φ i )
α λ′ =
I λ ,i cosθ i
Kirchhoff’s law

blackbody
Iλb at T

dω
θ
Iλ
dA at T
absorbed energy = α λ′ I λ b dA cosθ dω d λ
emitted energy = ε λ′ I λ b dA cosθ dω d λ
in equilibrium α λ′ (λ ,θ ,φ , T ) = ε λ′ (λ ,θ ,φ , T )
: no restriction
Directional total absorptivity α ′(θ i ,φ i , T )
absorbed energy at λ and (θi, φi) = α λ′ I λ ,i cosθ i
∞ ∞ ∞
∫ α ′
λ I λ cos θ d λ ∫ α ′
λ I λ d λ ∫ ε ′
λ I λ d λ
α′ = 0 ∞ , i i
= 0∞
, i
= 0∞
, i

∫0 I λ ,i cosθ i d λ ∫0 I λ ,i d λ ∫0 I λ ,i d λ
∞ ∞
∫ ε ′
λ E λ d λ ∫ ε ′
λ I λ d λ
ε′ = 0 =
b 0 b
∞
σT 4
∫0 I λb d λ
i) when I λ ,i (λ ,θ i ,φ i ) = C (θ i ,φ i ) I λ b ,i (λ , T )
→α′ = ε′
ii) when ε λ′ not function of λ → ε λ′ = ε ′
→α′ = ε′ directional-gray surface
Hemispherical spectral absorptivity α λ (λ , T )
∫ α ′ I cos θ d ω ∫ ε ′ I λ ,i cosθ i dω i
αλ = ∩ λ λ , i i i
= ∩ λ

∫∩ I λ ,i cosθ i dω i ∫∩ I λ ,i cosθ i dω i
∫ ε ′
λ I λ cos θ d ω
= ∩ , i i i

Gλ
1
ελ = ∫ ε ′
λ cos θ d ω
π ∩ e e

i) when I λ ,i (λ ,θ i ,φ i ) = I λ ,i (λ ) only:
diffuse irradiation α λ = ε λ
ii) when ε λ′ independent of direction ε λ′ = ε λ
→ α λ = ε λ diffuse-spectral surface
Hemispherical total absorptivity α (T )
∞
∫ ∫ α ′
λ I λ ,i cosθ i dω i d λ ⎛ ∫ α ′ I cosθ i dω i ⎞
∩ λ λ ,i
α= ∞0 ∩
⎜⎜ α λ = ⎟⎟
∫0 ∫∩ I λ ,i cosθ i dω i d λ ⎝ ∫∩ I λ ,i cosθ i dω i ⎠
∞
∫ α λ G λ d λ
= 0
G
∞ ∞

α=
∫0 ∫∩ ε λ′ I λ ,i cosθ i dω i d λ
, ε =
∫0 ∩∫ ε ′
λ I λ b cos θ e d ω e d λ
∞ ∞
∫0 ∫∩ I λ ,i cosθ i dω i d λ ∫0 ∫∩ I λb cosθ e dω e d λ
i) when ε λ′ (λ ,θ e ,φe , T ) = ε (T ) → α = ε
: diffuse-gray surface
ii) when I λ , i (λ , θ i , φi ) = CI λ b , i (λ , T ) → α = ε
iii) when ε λ′ (λ ,θ e ,φe , T ) = ε ′(θ e ,φe , T ) and I λ ,i (λ ,θ i ,φi ) = I λ ,i (λ )
iv) when ε λ′ (λ ,θ e ,φe , T ) = ε λ (λ , T ) and I λ ,i (λ ,θ i ,φi ) = C (θ i ,φi ) I λ b ,i (λ , T )
 Relations among
reflectivity, absorptivity, and emissivity
a) α λ′ (λ ,θ ,φ , T ) + ρ λ′ (λ ,θ ,φ , T ) = 1
Kirchhoff’s law α λ′ (λ ,θ ,φ , T ) = ε λ′ (λ ,θ ,φ , T )
ε λ′ (λ ,θ ,φ , T ) + ρ λ′ (λ ,θ ,φ , T ) = 1
b) α ′(θ ,φ , T ) + ρ ′(θ ,φ , T ) = 1
for a directional-gray surface,
α ′(θ ,φ , T ) = ε ′(θ ,φ , T )
ε ′(θ ,φ , T ) + ρ ′(θ ,φ , T ) = 1
c) α λ (λ , T ) + ρ λ (λ , T ) = 1
for a diffuse-spectral surface,
α λ (λ , T ) = ε λ (λ , T )
ε λ (λ , T ) + ρ λ (λ , T ) = 1

d) α (T ) + ρ (T ) = 1
for a diffuse-gray surface,
α (T ) = ε (T )
ε (T ) + ρ (T ) = 1
Example 12.7
E = ε Eb αG
Ts = 500 K
ε = 0.8

Find:
1) Spectral distribution of reflectivity
2) Hemispherical total absorptivity
3) Nature of surface temperature change
1) Spectral reflectivity

ρλ = 1 − α λ
 2) Hemispherical total absorptivity

incident radiation in Ω at λ: I λ ,i cosθ i

absorbed energy: α λ′ I λ ,i cosθ i

αλ =
∫ ∩
α λ′ I λ ,i cos θ i dω i
=
∫ ∩
α λ′ I λ ,i cos θ i dω i

∫ ∩
I λ ,i cos θ i dω i Gλ

( α λ′ I λ cos θ dω ) d λ ∫
∞ ∞

α=
∫ ∫
0 ∩
,i
=
i i
0
α λ Gλ d λ
∞
∫ ∫ I λ cosθ dω d λ
0 ∩
,i i i
G
6 8 16
0.2 ∫ Gλ d λ + 500 ∫ α λ d λ + 1.0 ∫ Gλ d λ
α= 2
6 12
6
16
8
= 0.76
∫ Gλ d λ + ∫ Gλ d λ + ∫ Gλ d λ
2 6 12
= 5000 W/m2

Why is the value of α (= 0.76) closer to unity ?

3) Nature of surface temperature change

E = ε Eb αG
Ts = 500 K
ε = 0.8

Does the surface temperature increase or decrease?

E = E − E + E
st in out g

= α G − ε Eb = α G − εσ Ts4
= 0.76 × 5000 − 0.8 × 5.67 × 10−8 × 5004
= 3800 − 2835 = 965 W/m 2

Since E st > 0 , the surface temperature will increase

with time.
Example 12.9 spectral emissivity of brick wall

Ts = 500 K
Brick
Tc = 2000 K
wall
(diffuse)
Coals

Find:
1) Hemispherical total emissivity of the fire brick wall
2) Total emissive power of the brick wall
3) Absorptivity of the wall to irradiation from the coals
Assumptions:
Spectral distribution of irradiation at the brick wall
approximates that due to emission from a blackbody
at 2000 K
1) Hemispherical total emissivity

ε (T ) =
∫ 0
ε λ Eλ b d λ
σ Ts4
s

=
1
σ Ts4 ( λ1 λ2 ∞
ε λ ,1 ∫ Eλ b d λ + ε λ ,2 ∫ Eλ b d λ + ε λ ,3 ∫ Eλ b d λ
0 λ1 λ2 )
= ε λ ,1 F(0→λ1 ) + ε λ ,2 ⎡⎣ F(0→λ2 ) − F(0→λ1 ) ⎤⎦ + ε λ ,3 ⎡⎣1 − F(0→λ2 ) ⎤⎦
From Table 12.1
λ1Ts = 1.5 × 500 = 750 μ m ⋅ K : F(0→λ ) = 0.000 1

λ2Ts = 10 × 500 = 5000 μ m ⋅ K : F(0→λ ) = 0.634 2

Hence,
ε (TS ) = 0.1 × 0 + 0.5 × 0.634 + 0.8 (1 − 0.634 ) = 0.610
2) total emissive power

Ts = 500 K
Brick
Tc = 2000 K
wall
(diffuse)
Coals

E (Ts ) = ε (Ts ) Eb (Ts ) = ε (Ts )σ Ts4

E (Ts ) = 0.61 × 5.67 × 10−8 × 5004 = 2161 W/m 2
3) total absorptivity to irradiation from coal
Since brick wall is diffuse, α λ (λ ) = ε λ (λ )
irradiation from the coal: Gλ (λ ) ∝ Eλ b (λ , Tc )
∞ ∞

α=
∫ 0
α λ (λ )Gλ (λ ) d λ
=
∫
0
ε λ (λ ) Eλ b (λ , Tc ) d λ
∞ ∞
∫0
Gλ (λ ) d λ ∫0
Eλ b (λ , Tc ) d λ

α = ε λ ,1 F(0→λ ) + ε λ ,2 ⎡⎣ F(0→λ ) − F(0→λ ) ⎤⎦ + ε λ ,3 ⎡⎣1 − F(0→λ ) ⎤⎦

1 2 1 2

From Table 12.1

λ1Tc = 1.5 × 2000 = 3000 μ m ⋅ K : F(0→λ ) = 0.273 1

λ2Tc = 10 × 2000 = 20, 000 μ m ⋅ K : F(0→λ ) = 0.986 2

α = 0.1 × 0.273 + 0.5 × ( 0.986 − 0.273 ) + 0.8 (1 − 0.986 ) = 0.395

ε = 0.610
Thus, the brick wall cannot be regarded as a gray surface.
Comments:
The foregoing expressions for ε and α may be used
to determine their equivalent variation with Ts and Tc

0.610

0.395
 Environmental Radiation
extraterrestrial solar irradiation
Solar rays θ
n̂
Gs,o
Sc
Earth atmosphere
G S ,o = Sc ⋅ f ⋅ cos θ Earth surface

Sc : solar constant (flux of solar energy incident on a

surface oriented normal to the sun’s rays, when
the earth is at its mean distance from the sun)
Sc = 1353 W/m 2
f : correction factor to account for the eccentricity of
the earth’s orbit about the sun
0.97 ≤ f ≤ 1.03
θ : incident angle of solar irradiation
 R = 6.95 × 108 m
dω
Ib,s earth
sun

L = 1.50 × 1011 m
TS = 5780 K
σ TS4 π R 2
Sc = I b , s cos θ dω = (cosθ ≈ 1)
π L2
5.67 × ( 57.8 ) ( 6.95 ) × 1016
4 2

= = 1358 W/m 2
(1.5)
2
× 1022
The earth surface can not be considered as gray
surface to the solar irradiation
Because: TS = 5780 K → λmax ~ 0.5 μ m
TE = 250 ~ 300 K → λmax ~ 10 μ m
Earth irradiation due to atmospheric emission: Gatm = σ Tsky
4
Spectral distribution of solar radiation
Directional distribution of solar radiation
at earth’s surface

actual diffuse
Scattering of solar radiation
in the earth’s atmosphere
Example 12.11

Gsky Tsky = −10°C

G S = 750 W/m 2

T∞ = 30D C, h = 0.22 (Ts − T∞ )

1/ 3
ε = 0.1
α S = 0.95 Ts = 120D C
flat-plate solar
collector
qu′′ : useful heat removal
Find:
1) Useful heat removal rate per unit area, qu′′[W/m ]
2

2) Efficiency η of the collector.

Assumptions:
steady-state
absorber surface diffuse
1) Useful heat removal rate
G S = 750 W/m 2 G sky Tsky = − 10 ° C
E in = E out ε = 0.1 T∞ , h = 0.22 (Ts − T∞ )
1/ 3

α S = 0.95
Ts = 120D C
α SGS + α skyGsky = qc′′onv + E + qu′′
qu′′ : useful heat removal
qu′′ = α SGS + α sky Gsky − qc′′onv − E
α S GS α sky G sky q ′′ E
Gsky = σ T , α sky ≈ ε = 0.1
4
sky conv

′′ = h (Ts − T∞ ) = 0.22 (Ts − T∞ )

4/ 3
qconv
E = εσ Ts4
qu′′
qu′′ = α SGS + εσ T − 0.22 ( Ts − T∞ ) − εσ T
4 4/ 3 4
sky s

= 712.5 + 27.1 − 88.7 − 135.2 = 516 W/m 2

 2) The collector efficiency
G S = 750 W/m 2 G sky Tsky = − 10 ° C
qu′′ 516 W/m 2 ε = 0.1 T∞ , h = 0.22 (Ts − T∞ )
1/ 3
η= = 2
= 0.69 α S = 0.95
GS 750 W/m Ts = 120D C

qu′′ : useful heat removal

Comments:
1) Since the spectral range of Gsky is entirely different
from that of GS, it would be incorrect to assume that
αsky = αS .
2) With a convection coefficient h = 5 W/m 2 ⋅ K, the
useful heat flux and the efficiency are reduced to
qu′′ = 161W/m 2 and η = 0.21 . A cover plate can
contribute significantly to reducing convection (and
radiation) heat loss from the absorber plate.
h = 0.22 (Ts − T∞ ) = 0.22 (120 − 30 )
1/ 3 1/ 3
= 0.986 W/m 2 ⋅ K