“The Periodic Table”

Organizing the Elements

● OBJECTIVES:
•Explain how elements are
organized in a periodic table.
 Organizing the Elements
● OBJECTIVES:
•Compare early and modern
periodic tables.
 Organizing the Elements
● OBJECTIVES:
•Identify three broad classes
of elements.
 Organizing the Elements
● A few elements, such as gold and
copper, have been known for thousands
of years - since ancient times
● Yet, only about 13 had been identified
by the year 1700.
● As more were discovered, chemists
realized they needed a way to organize
the elements.
 Organizing the Elements
● Chemists used the properties of
elements to sort them into groups.
● In 1829 J. W. Dobereiner arranged
elements into triads – groups of three
elements with similar properties
• One element in each triad had
properties intermediate of the other two
elements
 Mendeleev’s Periodic Table
● By the mid-1800s, about 70
elements were known to exist
● Dmitri Mendeleev – a Russian
chemist and teacher
● Arranged elements in order of
increasing atomic mass
● Thus, the first “Periodic Table”
 Mendeleev
● He left blanks for yet
undiscovered elements
•When they were discovered,
he had made good predictions
● But, there were problems:
•Such as Co and Ni; Ar and
K; Te and I
 A better arrangement
● In 1913, Henry Moseley –
British physicist, arranged
elements according to
increasing atomic number
● The arrangement used today
● The symbol, atomic number &
mass are basic items
included-textbook page 162
and 163
Another possibility:
Spiral Periodic Table
 The Periodic Law says:
● When elements are arranged in order
of increasing atomic number, there is
a periodic repetition of their physical
and chemical properties.
● Horizontal rows = periods
• There are 7 periods
● Vertical column = group (or family)
• Similar physical & chemical prop.
• Identified by number & letter (IA, IIA)
 Areas of the periodic table
● Three classes of elements are: 1)
metals, 2) nonmetals, and 3)
metalloids
1) Metals: electrical conductors, have
luster, ductile, malleable
2) Nonmetals: generally brittle and
non-lustrous, poor conductors of
heat and electricity
 Areas of the periodic table
● Some nonmetals are gases (O, N,
Cl); some are brittle solids (S); one
is a fuming dark red liquid (Br)
● Notice the heavy, stair-step line?
3) Metalloids: border the line-2 sides
• Properties are intermediate
between metals and nonmetals
 Classifying the Elements
● OBJECTIVES:
•Describe the information
in a periodic table.
 Classifying the Elements
● OBJECTIVES:
•Classify elements based
on electron configuration.
 Classifying the Elements
● OBJECTIVES:
•Distinguish
representative elements
and transition metals.
 Groups of elements - family names
● Group IA – alkali metals
• Forms a “base” (or alkali) when
reacting with water (not just dissolved!)
● Group 2A – alkaline earth metals
• Also form bases with water; do not
dissolve well, hence “earth metals”
● Group 7A – halogens
• Means “salt-forming”
Electron Configurations in Groups
● Elements can be sorted into 4
different groupings based on
their electron configurations:
1) Noble gases Let’s
2) Representative elements now
take a
3) Transition metals closer
look at
4) Inner transition metals these.
 Electron Configurations in Groups
1) Noble gases are the elements
in Group 8A (also called Group18 or 0)
• Previously called “inert gases”
because they rarely take part in a
reaction; very stable = don’t react
• Noble gases have an electron
configuration that has the outer s
and p sublevels completely full
 Electron Configurations in Groups
2) Representative Elements are
in Groups 1A through 7A
• Display wide range of properties,
thus a good “representative”
• Some are metals, or nonmetals,
or metalloids; some are solid,
others are gases or liquids
• Their outer s and p electron
configurations are NOT filled
 Electron Configurations in Groups
3) Transition metals are in the “B”
columns of the periodic table
• Electron configuration has the
outer s sublevel full, and is now
filling the “d” sublevel
• A “transition” between the metal
area and the nonmetal area
• Examples are gold, copper, silver
 Electron Configurations in Groups
4) Inner Transition Metals are
located below the main body of
the table, in two horizontal rows
• Electron configuration has the
outer s sublevel full, and is now
filling the “f” sublevel
• Formerly called “rare-earth”
elements, but this is not true
because some are very abundant
 ● Elements in the 1A-7A groups
1A 8A
are called the representative
2A elements 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A

outer s or p filling
The group B are called the
transition elements

● These are called the inner

transition elements, and they
belong here
Group 1A are the alkali metals (but NOT H)
Group 2A are the alkaline earth metals
H
● Group 8A are the noble gases
● Group 7A is called the halogens
H 1s1
1 Do you notice any similarity in these
1s22s1 configurations of the alkali metals?
Li
3
1s22s22p63s1
Na
11
1s22s22p63s23p64s1
K
19
1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s1
Rb
37
1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d10
Cs
55 5p66s1
Fr 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d105p66
87
s24f145d106p67s1
Do you notice any similarity in the
1s2 He
2
configurations of the noble gases?
1s22s22p6 Ne
10
1s22s22p63s23p6 Ar
18
1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p6 Kr
36
1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d105p6 Xe
10 54
1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d
Rn
5p66s24f145d106p6 86
 1 Elements in the s - blocks
s
2 He
s
● Alkali metals all end in s1
● Alkaline earth metals all end in s2
• really should include He, but it fits
better in a different spot, since He
has the properties of the noble
gases, and has a full outer level
of electrons.
 Transition Metals - d block
Note the change in configuration.

1 1
s s
d1 d2 d3 d 5 d5 d6 d7 d8 d10 d10
The P-block p1 p2 3 4 5 6
p
p p p
 F - block
● Called the “inner transition elements”

f1 f2 f3 f4 f5 f6 f7 f8 f9 f10 f11 f12 f13 f14

 1
2
3
Period 4
Number
5
6
7

● Each row (or period) is the energy

level for s and p orbitals.
● The “d” orbitals fill up in levels 1 less
than the period number, so the first d
is 3d even though it’s in row 4.
1
2
3d
3
4
5
4d 6
5d 7
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
4f
5f
● f orbitals start filling at 4f, and are 2
less than the period number
 Periodic Trends
● OBJECTIVES:
•Describe trends among the
elements for atomic size.
 Periodic Trends
● OBJECTIVES:
•Explain how ions form.
 Periodic Trends
● OBJECTIVES:
•Describe periodic trends for
first ionization energy, ionic
size, and electronegativity.
 Trends in Atomic Size
● First problem: Where do you
start measuring from?
● The electron cloud doesn’t
have a definite edge.
● They get around this by
measuring more than 1 atom
at a time.
 Atomic Size

}
Radius
● Measure the Atomic Radius - this is half the
distance between the two nuclei of a diatomic
molecule.
 ALL Periodic Table Trends
● Influenced by three factors:
1. Energy Level
• Higher energy levels are further
away from the nucleus.
2. Charge on nucleus (# protons)
• More charge pulls electrons in
closer. (+ and – attract each other)
● 3. Shielding effect (blocking effect?)
 What do they influence?
Energy levels and Shielding
have an effect on the
GROUP (  )
Nuclear charge has an
effect on a PERIOD (  )
 #1. Atomic Size - Group trends
● As we increase H
the atomic Li
number (or go
down a group). . . Na
● each atom has
K
another energy
level,
● so the atoms get Rb
bigger.
 #1. Atomic Size - Period Trends
● Going from left to right across a period,
the size gets smaller.
● Electrons are in the same energy level.
● But, there is more nuclear charge.
● Outermost electrons are pulled closer.

Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
 Rb
K
Period 2
Atomic Radius (pm)

Na

Li
Kr
Ar
Ne
H

3 10 Atomic Number
 Ions
● Some compounds are composed of
particles called “ions”
• An ion is an atom (or group of atoms)
that has a positive or negative charge
● Atoms are neutral because the number
of protons equals electrons
• Positive and negative ions are formed
when electrons are transferred (lost or
gained) between atoms
 Ions
● Metals tend to LOSE electrons,
from their outer energy level
• Sodium loses one: there are now
more protons (11) than electrons
(10), and thus a positively charged
particle is formed = “cation”
• The charge is written as a number
1+
followed by a plus sign: Na
• Now named a “sodium ion”
 Ions
● Nonmetals tend to GAIN one or
more electrons
• Chlorine will gain one electron
• Protons (17) no longer equals the
electrons (18), so a charge of -1
1-
• Cl is re-named a “chloride ion”
• Negative ions are called “anions”
 #2. Trends in Ionization Energy
● Ionization energy is the amount
of energy required to completely
remove an electron (from a
gaseous atom).
● Removing one electron makes a
1+ ion.
● The energy required to remove
only the first electron is called
the first ionization energy.
 Ionization Energy
● The second ionization energy is
the energy required to remove
the second electron.
• Always greater than first IE.
● The third IE is the energy
required to remove a third
electron.
• Greater than 1st or 2nd IE.
 Table 6.1, p. 173
Symbol First Second Third
H 1312
He 2731 5247
Li 520 7297 11810
Be 900 1757 14840
B 800 2430 3569
C 1086 2352 4619
N 1402 2857 4577
O 1314 3391 5301
F 1681 3375 6045
Ne 2080 3963 6276
Symbol First Second Third
H 1312 Why did these values
2731 5247 increase so much?
He
Li 520 7297 11810
Be 900 1757 14840
B 800 2430 3569
C 1086 2352 4619
N 1402 2857 4577
O 1314 3391 5301
F 1681 3375 6045
Ne 2080 3963 6276
 What factors determine IE
● The greater the nuclear charge,
the greater IE.
● Greater distance from nucleus
decreases IE
● Filled and half-filled orbitals have
lower energy, so achieving them
is easier, lower IE.
● Shielding effect
 Shielding
● The electron on the
outermost energy
level has to look
through all the other
energy levels to see
the nucleus.
● Second electron has
same shielding, if it
is in the same period
 Ionization Energy - Group trends
● As you go down a group,
the first IE decreases
because...
•The electron is further
away from the attraction of
the nucleus, and
•There is more shielding.
Ionization Energy - Period trends
● All the atoms in the same period
have the same energy level.
● Same shielding.
● But, increasing nuclear charge
● So IE generally increases from
left to right.
● Exceptions at full and 1/2 full
orbitals.
 He
● He has a greater IE
First Ionization energy

than H.
● Both elements have
H
the same shielding
since electrons are
only in the first level
● But He has a greater
nuclear charge

Atomic number
First Ionization energy He
● Li has lower IE
than H
● more shielding
H
● further away
● These outweigh
the greater
Li
nuclear charge

Atomic number
First Ionization energy He
● Be has higher IE
than Li
● same shielding
H Be ● greater nuclear
charge
Li

Atomic number
 He
● B has lower IE
First Ionization energy

than Be
● same shielding
H ● greater nuclear
Be
charge
B ● By removing an
Li electron we make
s orbital half-filled
Atomic number
 First Ionization energy

H
He

Li
Be

B
C

Atomic number
First Ionization energy He

H C
Be

B
Li

Atomic number
First Ionization energy He
● Oxygen breaks
N
the pattern,
because
H Be
C O removing an
electron leaves
B
it with a 1/2
Li filled p orbital

Atomic number
First Ionization energy He

N F

H C O
Be

B
Li

Atomic number
 He Ne
● Ne has a lower
First Ionization energy

N F IE than He
● Both are full,
H Be
C O ● Ne has more
shielding
B ● Greater
Li distance

Atomic number
 He Ne
● Na has a lower
First Ionization energy

N F IE than Li
1
● Both are s
H Be
C O ● Na has more
shielding
B ● Greater
Li distance
Na

Atomic number
 First Ionization energy

Atomic number
 Driving Forces
● Full Energy Levels require
lots of energy to remove their
electrons.
•Noble Gases have full
orbitals.
● Atoms behave in ways to try
and achieve a noble gas
configuration.
 2nd Ionization Energy
● For elements that reach a
filled or half-filled orbital by
removing 2 electrons, 2nd
IE is lower than expected.
2
● True for s
● Alkaline earth metals form
2+ ions.
 3rd IE
2 1
● Using the same logic s p
atoms have an low 3rd IE.
● Atoms in the aluminum
family form 3+ ions.
● 2nd IE and 3rd IE are
always higher than 1st IE!!!
 Trends in Ionic Size: Cations
● Cations form by losing electrons.
● Cations are smaller than the atom
they came from – not only do
they lose electrons, they lose an
entire energy level.
● Metals form cations.
● Cations of representative
elements have the noble gas
configuration before them.
 Ionic size: Anions
● Anions form by gaining electrons.
● Anions are bigger than the atom
they came from – have the same
energy level, but a greater area the
nuclear charge needs to cover
● Nonmetals form anions.
● Anions of representative elements
have the noble gas configuration
after them.
 Configuration of Ions
● Ions always have noble gas
configurations ( = a full outer level)
● Na atom is: 1s22s22p63s1
● Forms a 1+ sodium ion: 1s22s22p6
● Same configuration as neon.
● Metals form ions with the
configuration of the noble gas
before them - they lose electrons.
 Configuration of Ions
● Non-metals form ions by
gaining electrons to
achieve noble gas
configuration.
● They end up with the
configuration of the noble
gas after them.
 Ion Group trends
● Each step down a
1+
group is adding Li
1+
an energy level Na
1+
K
● Ions therefore get
1+
bigger as you go Rb
down, because of 1+
the additional Cs
energy level.
 Ion Period Trends
● Across the period from left to
right, the nuclear charge
increases - so they get smaller.
● Notice the energy level changes
between anions and cations.
N3- O2-
B 3+ F1-
Li1+

Be2+ C4+
 #3. Trends in Electronegativity
● Electronegativity is the tendency
for an atom to attract electrons to
itself when it is chemically
combined with another element.
● They share the electron, but how
equally do they share it?
● An element with a big
electronegativity means it pulls the
electron towards itself strongly!
 Electronegativity Group Trend
● The further down a group,
the farther the electron is
away from the nucleus,
plus the more electrons an
atom has.
● Thus, more willing to
share.
● Low electronegativity.
Electronegativity Period Trend
● Metals are at the left of the table.
● They let their electrons go easily
● Thus, low electronegativity
● At the right end are the
nonmetals.
● They want more electrons.
● Try to take them away from others
● High electronegativity.
The arrows indicate the trend:
Ionization energy and Electronegativity
INCREASE in these directions
Atomic size and Ionic size increase
in these directions: