Introductory Circuit Analysis

CHAPTER 5
Series dc Circuits

Mditshwa 2024

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 OBJECTIVES

• Become familiar with the characteristics

of a series circuit and how to solve for
the voltage, current, and power to each
of the elements.
• Develop a clear understanding of
Kirchhoff’s voltage law and how
important it is to the analysis of electric
circuits.

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 OBJECTIVES

• Become aware of how an applied

voltage will divide among series
components and how to properly apply
the voltage divider rule.
• Understand the use of single- and
doublesubscript notation to define the
voltage levels of a network.
• Learn how to use a voltmeter,
ammeter, and ohmmeter to measure
the important quantities of a network.
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 INTRODUCTION

• Two types of current are readily

available to the consumer today.
▪ One is direct current (dc), in which
ideally the flow of charge (current) does
not change in magnitude (or direction)
with time.
▪ The other is sinusoidal alternating
current (ac), in which the flow of
charge is continually changing in
magnitude (and direction) with time.
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 INTRODUCTION

• The battery in Fig. 5.1, has the ability

to cause (or “pressure”) charge to flow
through the simple circuit.

FIG. 5.1 Introducing the basic

components of an electric circuit.
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 INTRODUCTION

• The positive terminal attracts the

electrons through the wire at the same
rate at which electrons are supplied by
the negative terminal.

FIG. 5.1 Introducing the basic

components of an electric circuit.
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 INTRODUCTION

• As long as the battery is connected in

the circuit and maintains its terminal
characteristics, the current (dc)
through the circuit will not change in
magnitude or direction.

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 INTRODUCTION

• By convention (as discussed in Chapter

2), the direction of conventional current
flow (𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 ) as shown in Fig. 5.1 is
opposite to that of electron flow
(𝐼𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 ).
• Also, the uniform flow of charge
dictates that the direct current I be the
same everywhere in the circuit.

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 INTRODUCTION

• This chapter and the following chapters

add elements to the system in a very
specific manner to introduce a range of
concepts that will form a major part of
the foundation required to analyze the
most complex system.
• Be aware that the laws, rules, and so
on introduced here and in Chapter 6
will be used throughout your studies.

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 SERIES RESISTORS

• Before the series

connection is
described, first
recognize that every
fixed resistor has only
two terminals to
connect in a
configuration—it is FIG. 5.4 Series
connection of
therefore referred to resistors.
as a two-terminal
device.
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 SERIES RESISTORS

• For resistors in series,

▪ the total resistance
of a series
configuration is the
sum of the
resistance levels.

FIG. 5.4 Series

𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + ⋯ + 𝑅𝑛
connection of
(5.1) resistors.

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 SERIES RESISTORS

• If three elements
were connected to
the same point, as
shown in Fig. 5.5,
there would not be a
series connection
between resistors 𝑅1
and 𝑅2
FIG. 5.5 Configuration in which
none of the resistors are in series.
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 SERIES RESISTORS

FIG. 5.6 Series FIG. 5.7 Series

connection of resistors connection of four
for Example 5.1. resistors of the same
value (Example 5.2).
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 SERIES RESISTORS

FIG. 5.8 Two series combinations of the same

elements with the same total resistance.

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 SERIES RESISTORS

• For the special case where resistors are

the same value, Eq. (5.1) can be
modified as follows:

𝑅𝑇 = N × 𝑅 (5.2)

• where N is the number of resistors in

series of value R.

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 SERIES RESISTORS

FIG. 5.9 Series FIG. 5.10 Series circuit

combination of resistors of Fig. 5.9 redrawn to
for Example 5.3. permit the use of Eq.
(5.2): RT = NR.

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 SERIES RESISTORS
Analogies
• One analogy that works well for the
series combination of elements is
connecting different lengths of rope
together to make the rope longer.
• Adjoining pieces of rope are connected
at only one point, satisfying the
definition of series elements.
• Connecting a third rope to the common
point would mean that the sections of
rope are no longer in a series.
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 SERIES RESISTORS
Instrumentation
• The total resistance of any
configuration can be measured by
simply connecting an ohmmeter across
the access terminals.
• Since there is no polarity associated
with resistance, either lead can be
connected to point a, with the other
lead connected to point b.

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 SERIES RESISTORS
Instrumentation

FIG. 5.11 Using an ohmmeter to measure

the total resistance of a series circuit.

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 SERIES CIRCUITS

• If we now take an 8.4 V dc supply and

connect it in series with the series
resistors in Fig. 5.4, we have the
series circuit in Fig. 5.12.

FIG. 5.12 Schematic representation for a

dc series circuit.
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 SERIES CIRCUITS

• A circuit is any combination of

elements that will result in a
continuous flow of charge, or
current, through the configuration.

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 SERIES CIRCUITS

• The manner in which the supply is

connected determines the direction of
the resulting conventional current.
• For series dc circuits:
▪ the direction of conventional
current in a series dc circuit is such
that it leaves the positive terminal
of the supply and returns to the
negative terminal, as shown in Fig.
5.12.
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 SERIES CIRCUITS

• It is important to realize that when a dc

supply is connected, it does not “see”
the individual connection of elements
but simply the total resistance “seen”
at the connection terminals, as shown
in Fig. 5.13(a).
• In other words, it reduces the entire
configuration to one such as in Fig.
5.13(b) to which Ohm’s law can easily
be applied.
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 SERIES CIRCUITS

FIG. 5.13 Resistance “seen” at the

terminals of a series circuit.

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 SERIES CIRCUITS

• The magnitude of the voltage drop

across each resistor can then be found
by applying Ohm’s law using only the
resistance of each resistor.
• That is,
𝑉1 = 𝐼1 𝑅1
𝑉2 = 𝐼2 𝑅2
•
𝑉3 = 𝐼3 𝑅3
𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = 𝐼3 = 𝐼𝑠 FIG. 5.12 Schematic representation
for a dc series circuit.
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 SERIES CIRCUITS

FIG. 5.15 Series circuit FIG. 5.16 Series circuit

to be investigated in to be analyzed in
Example 5.4. Example 5.5.

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 SERIES CIRCUITS

FIG. 5.17 Circuit in Fig. 5.16 redrawn to

permit the use of Eq. (5.2).

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 SERIES CIRCUITS
Analogies
• The analogies used earlier to define the
series connection are also excellent for
the current of a series circuit.
• For instance, for the series connected
ropes, the stress on each rope is the
same as they try to hold the heavy
weight.

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 SERIES CIRCUITS
Analogies
• For the water analogy, the flow of
water is the same through each section
of hose as the water is carried to its
destination.

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 SERIES CIRCUITS
Instrumentation
• Another important concept to
remember is:
▪ The insertion of any meter in a circuit
will affect the circuit.
• Furthermore, it is particularly helpful in
the laboratory to realize that the
voltages of a circuit can be measured
without disturbing (breaking the
connections in) the circuit.

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 SERIES CIRCUITS
Instrumentation

FIG. 5.19 Using voltmeters to measure

the voltages across the resistors in Fig.
5.12.
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 SERIES CIRCUITS
Instrumentation
• In general, when using a voltmeter,
start with a scale that will ensure that
the reading is less than the maximum
value of the scale. Then work your way
down in scales until the reading with
the highest level of precision is
obtained.

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 SERIES CIRCUITS
Instrumentation
• Turning our attention to the current of
the circuit, we find that using an
ammeter to measure the current of a
circuit requires that the circuit be
broken at some point and the meter
inserted in series with the branch in
which the current is to be determined.

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 SERIES CIRCUITS
Instrumentation

FIG. 5.20 Measuring the current

throughout the series circuit in Fig.
5.12.

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 POWER DISTRIBUTION IN A
SERIES CIRCUIT
• In any electrical system, the power
applied will equal the power dissipated
or absorbed.
• For any series circuit the power
applied by the dc supply must
equal that dissipated by the
resistive elements.

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POWER DISTRIBUTION IN A
SERIES CIRCUIT

FIG. 5.21 Power distribution in a series

circuit.
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POWER DISTRIBUTION IN A
SERIES CIRCUIT
▪ In equation form,
𝑃𝐸 = 𝑃𝑅1 + 𝑃𝑅2 + 𝑃𝑅3
▪ The power delivered by the supply can
be determined using
𝑃𝐸 = 𝐸𝐼𝑆 (𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠, 𝑊)
▪ The power dissipated by the resistive
elements can be determined by any of
the following forms;
2
2
𝑉1
𝑃1 = 𝑉1 𝐼1 = 𝐼1 𝑅1 =
𝑅1
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POWER DISTRIBUTION IN A
SERIES CIRCUIT

FIG. 5.22 Series circuit to be

investigated in Example 5.7.
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 POWER DISTRIBUTION IN A
SERIES CIRCUIT
• Since the current is the same through
series elements, you will find in the
following examples that
▪ in a series configuration, maximum
power is delivered to the largest
resistor.

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VOLTAGE SOURCES IN SERIES

• Voltage sources can be connected in

series, to increase or decrease the total
voltage applied to a system.
• The net voltage is determined by
summing the sources with the same
polarity and subtracting the total of the
sources with the opposite polarity.
• The net polarity is the polarity of the
larger sum.
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VOLTAGE SOURCES IN SERIES

FIG. 5.23 Reducing series dc voltage

sources to a single source.
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VOLTAGE SOURCES IN SERIES
Instrumentation
• The connection of batteries in series to
obtain a higher voltage is common in
much of today’s portable electronic
equipment.

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 VOLTAGE SOURCES IN SERIES
Instrumentation

FIG. 5.24 Series connection of dc supplies: (a) four 1.5 V batteries

in series to establish a terminal voltage of 6 V; (b) incorrect
connections for two series dc supplies; (c) correct connection of
two series supplies to establish 60 V at the output terminals.
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 KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW

• The law, called Kirchhoff’s voltage

law (KVL), was developed by Gustav
Kirchhoff in the mid-1800s.
• It is a cornerstone of the entire field
and, in fact, will never be outdated or
replaced.

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 KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW

• The application of the law requires that

we define a closed path of
investigation, permitting us to start at
one point in the network, travel
through the network, and find our way
back to the original starting point.

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 KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW

• The law specifies that

▪ the algebraic sum of the potential
rises and drops around a closed
path (or closed loop) is zero.
• In symbolic form it can be written as

∑↻ 𝑉 = 0
▪ where ∑ represents summation, ↻ the
closed loop, and 𝑉 the potential drops
and rises.
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KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW

FIG. 5.26 Applying

Kirchhoff ’s voltage law
to a series dc circuit.
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 KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW

• The law specifies that the algebraic

sum of the potential rises and drops
around a closed path (or closed loop) is
zero.

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 KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW

FIG. 5.27 Series FIG. 5.28 Series dc

circuit to be examined circuit to be analyzed in
in Example 5.8. Example 5.9.

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KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW

FIG. 5.29
Combination of
voltage sources to
be examined in
Example 5.10.

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 KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW

FIG. 5.31 Applying

Kirchhoff ’s voltage law to
FIG. 5.30 Series
a circuit in which the
configuration to be
polarities have not been
examined in Example
provided for one of the
5.11.
voltages (Example 5.12).
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VOLTAGE DIVISION IN A SERIES
CIRCUIT
• The previous section demonstrated that
the sum of the voltages across the
resistors of a series circuit will always
equal the applied voltage.
• It cannot be more or less than that
value.
• The next question is, how will a
resistor’s value affect the voltage
across the resistor?
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VOLTAGE DIVISION IN A SERIES
CIRCUIT
▪ It turns out that the voltage across
series resistive elements will divide as
the magnitude of the resistance levels.
• In other words, in a series resistive
circuit, the larger the resistance, the
more of the applied voltage it will
capture.
• In addition, the ratio of the voltages
across series resistors will be the same
as the ratio of their resistance levels.
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VOLTAGE DIVISION IN A SERIES
CIRCUIT
• Ratio Rule

𝑉1 𝑅1
=
𝑉2 𝑅2

FIG. 5.33 Example 5.15.

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VOLTAGE DIVISION IN A SERIES
CIRCUIT

FIG. 5.35 The largest of the

FIG. 5.34 The ratio of the series resistive elements will
resistive values determines the capture the major share of the
voltage division of a series dc applied voltage.
circuit.
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VOLTAGE DIVISION IN A SERIES
CIRCUIT: Voltage Divider Rule
• The voltage divider
rule (VDR) permits the
determination of the
voltage across a series
resistor without first
having to determine the
current of the circuit.

FIG. 5.36 Developing the

voltage divider rule.
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VOLTAGE DIVISION IN A SERIES
CIRCUIT: Voltage Divider Rule
• First, determine the
total resistance as
follows:
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
• Then
𝐸
𝐼𝑆 = 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 =
𝑅𝑇

FIG. 5.36 Developing the

voltage divider rule.
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VOLTAGE DIVISION IN A SERIES
CIRCUIT: Voltage Divider Rule
• Apply Ohm’s law to each
resistor:
𝐸
𝑉1 = 𝐼1 𝑅1 = 𝑅1
𝑅𝑇
𝐸
𝑉2 = 𝐼2 𝑅2 = 𝑅2
𝑅𝑇
• The resulting format for
𝑉1 and 𝑉2 is
𝑅𝑥
𝑉𝑥 = 𝐸 FIG. 5.36 Developing the
𝑅𝑇
voltage divider rule.
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VOLTAGE DIVISION IN A SERIES
CIRCUIT: Voltage Divider Rule
• The voltage divider rule states that
▪ the voltage across a resistor in a series
circuit is equal to the value of that
resistor times the total applied voltage
divided by the total resistance of the
series configuration.

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 NOTATION
Voltage Sources and Ground
• Except for a few special
cases, electrical and
electronic systems are
grounded for reference
and safety purposes.
• The symbol for the ground FIG. 5.45
connection appears in Fig. Ground
5.45 with its defined potential.
potential level—zero volts.

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 NOTATION
Voltage Sources and Ground

FIG. 5.46 Three ways to sketch

the same series dc circuit.

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 NOTATION
Voltage Sources and Ground

FIG. 5.48 Replacing the

FIG. 5.47 Replacing the notation for a negative
special notation for a dc dc supply with the
voltage source with the standard notation.
standard symbol.

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 NOTATION
Double-Subscript Notation
• The fact that voltage is an across
variable and exists between two points
has resulted in a double-subscript
notation that defines the first subscript
as the higher potential.

FIG. 5.50 Defining the sign for double-subscript notation.

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 NOTATION
Double-Subscript Notation
▪ The double-subscript notation 𝑉𝑎𝑏
specifies point 𝑎 as the higher potential.
▪ If this is not the case, a negative sign
must be associated with the magnitude
of 𝑉𝑎𝑏.
• In other words,
▪ the voltage 𝑉𝑎𝑏 is the voltage at point 𝑎
with respect to (w.r.t.) point 𝑏.

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 NOTATION
Single-Subscript Notation
• If point b of the notation Vab is
specified as ground potential (zero
volts), then a single-subscript notation
can be used that provides the voltage
at a point with respect to ground.
FIG. 5.51 Defining
the use of single-
subscript notation
for voltage levels.

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 NOTATION
Single-Subscript Notation
• In Fig. 5.51, Va is the voltage from
point a to ground. In this case, it is
obviously 10 V since it is right across
the source voltage E.

FIG. 5.51 Defining

the use of single-
subscript notation
for voltage levels.

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 NOTATION
Single-Subscript Notation
• The voltage Vb is the voltage from
point b to ground. Because it is directly
across the 4Ω resistor, Vb = 4 V.

FIG. 5.51 Defining

the use of single-
subscript notation
for voltage levels.

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 NOTATION
General Comments
• A particularly useful relationship can
now be established that has extensive
applications in the analysis of electronic
circuits.
• For the above notational standards, the
following relationship exists:

𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑏

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 NOTATION
General Comments
• In other words, if the voltage at points
a and b is known with respect to
ground, then the voltage Vab can be
determined

FIG. 5.52 FIG. 5.53

Example Example
5.22. 5.23.
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 NOTATION
General Comments

FIG. 5.55 The impact of

positive and negative
FIG. 5.54 voltages on the total
Example 5.24. voltage drop.
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 NOTATION
General Comments

FIG. 5.57 Determining

FIG. 5.56 Vb using the defined
Example 5.25. voltage levels.

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 NOTATION
General Comments

FIG. 5.59 FIG. 5.61 Redrawing the circuit

Example in Fig. 5.59 using standard dc
5.26. voltage supply symbols.
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 NOTATION
General Comments

FIG. 5.62 FIG. 5.63 Circuit

Example of Fig. 5.62
5.27. redrawn.
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 NOTATION
General Comments

FIG. 5.64
Example 5.28.

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 GROUND CONNECTION
AWARENESS
• The placement of the ground
connection will not affect the
magnitude or polarity of the voltage
across an element but it may have a
significant impact on the voltage from
any point in the network to ground.

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VOLTAGE REGULATION & INTERNAL
RESISTANCE OF VOLTAGE SOURCES
• When you use a dc supply such as the
generator, battery, or supply you
initially assume that it will provide the
desired voltage for any resistive load
you may hook up to the supply.

FIG. 5.68 (a) Sources of dc voltage; (b) equivalent circuit.

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VOLTAGE REGULATION & INTERNAL
RESISTANCE OF VOLTAGE SOURCES
• every practical (real-world) supply
has an internal resistance in series
with the idealized voltage source

FIG. 5.68 (a) Sources of dc voltage; (b) equivalent circuit.

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VOLTAGE REGULATION & INTERNAL
RESISTANCE OF VOLTAGE SOURCES
• The supply in Fig. 5.69 helps explain
the action that occurred above as we
changed the load resistor.

FIG. 5.69 Demonstrating the effect of changing

a load on the terminal voltage of a supply.
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VOLTAGE REGULATION & INTERNAL
RESISTANCE OF VOLTAGE SOURCES
• Due to the internal resistance of the
supply, the ideal internal supply must
be set to 20.1V in Fig. 5.69(a) if 20V
are to appear across the 1k resistor.

FIG. 5.69 Demonstrating the effect of changing

a load on the terminal voltage of a supply.
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VOLTAGE REGULATION & INTERNAL
RESISTANCE OF VOLTAGE SOURCES
• If we plot the terminal voltage versus
current demand from 0A to 275.34mA,
we obtain the plot in Fig. 5.70.

FIG. 5.70 Plotting VL versus IL for the supply in Fig. 5.69.

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VOLTAGE REGULATION & INTERNAL
RESISTANCE OF VOLTAGE SOURCES
• The slope of the line is defined by the
internal resistance of the supply.
∆𝑉𝐿
• That is, 𝑅𝑖𝑛𝑡 =
∆𝐼𝐿

FIG. 5.70 Plotting VL versus IL for the supply in Fig. 5.69.

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VOLTAGE REGULATION & INTERNAL
RESISTANCE OF VOLTAGE SOURCES
• To help us anticipate the expected
response of a supply, a defining
quantity called voltage regulation
(abbreviated VR; often called load
regulation on specification sheets) was
established.

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VOLTAGE REGULATION & INTERNAL
RESISTANCE OF VOLTAGE SOURCES
• The basic equation in terms of the
quantities is the following:

𝑉𝑁𝐿 − 𝑉𝐹𝐿
𝑉𝑅 = × 100%
𝑉𝐹𝐿
• The examples to follow demonstrate
▪ that the smaller the voltage or load
regulation of a supply, the less will the
terminal voltage change with increasing
levels of current demand.
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 LOADING EFFECTS OF
INSTRUMENTS
• In the previous section, we learned that
power supplies are not the ideal
instruments we may have thought they
were.
• The applied load can have an effect on
the terminal voltage.

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 LOADING EFFECTS OF
INSTRUMENTS
• Fortunately, since today’s supplies
have such small load regulation factors,
the change in terminal voltage with
load can usually be ignored for most
applications.
• If we now turn our attention to the
various meters we use in the lab, we
again find that they are not totally
ideal:

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 LOADING EFFECTS OF
INSTRUMENTS
▪ Whenever you apply a meter to a
circuit, you change the circuit and the
response of the system. Fortunately,
however, for most applications,
considering the meters to be ideal is a
valid approximation as long as certain
factors are considered.

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 LOADING EFFECTS OF
INSTRUMENTS
• For instance, any ammeter connected
in a series circuit will introduce
resistance to the series combination
that will affect the current and voltages
of the configuration.
• The resistance between the terminals of
an ammeter is determined by the
chosen scale of the ammeter.

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 LOADING EFFECTS OF
INSTRUMENTS
▪ In general, for ammeters, the higher
the maximum value of the current for a
particular scale, the smaller will the
internal resistance be.

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LOADING EFFECTS OF
INSTRUMENTS

FIG. 5.76 Including the effects of the

internal resistance of an ammeter: (a)
2 mA scale; (b) 2 A scale.
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 LOADING EFFECTS OF
INSTRUMENTS

FIG. 5.77 Applying an ammeter set on the 2

mA scale to a circuit with resistors in the
kilohm range: (a) ideal; (b) practical.
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PROTOBOARDS (BREADBOARDS)

• At some point in the design of any

electrical/electronic system, a
prototype must be built and tested.
• One of the most effective ways to build
a testing model is to use the
protoboard (in the past most commonly
called a breadboard).

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PROTOBOARDS (BREADBOARDS)

FIG. 5.78 Protoboard with areas of

conductivity defined using two different
approaches.
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PROTOBOARDS (BREADBOARDS)

FIG. 5.79 Two setups for the network in Fig. 5.12 on

a protoboard with yellow leads added to each
configuration to measure voltage V3 with a voltmeter.
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 APPLICATIONS

• Before looking at a few applications, we

need to consider a few general
characteristics of the series
configuration that you should always
keep in mind when designing a system.

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 APPLICATIONS

• First, and probably the most important,

is that if one element of a series
combination of elements should fail, it
will disrupt the response of all the
series elements. If an open circuit
occurs, the current will be zero. If a
short circuit results, the voltage will
increase across the other elements, and
the current will increase in magnitude.

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 APPLICATIONS

• Second, and a thought you should

always keep in mind, is that for the
same source voltage, the more
elements you place in series, the less is
the current and the less is the voltage
across all the elements of the series
combination.

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 APPLICATIONS

• Last, and a result discussed in detail in

this chapter, is that the current is the
same for each element of a series
combination, but the voltage across
each element is a function of its
terminal resistance.

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 APPLICATIONS
Series Control
• One common use of the series
configuration is in setting up a system
that ensures that everything is in place
before full power is applied.

FIG. 5.80 Series control

over an operating system.
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 APPLICATIONS
Holiday Lights
• In recent years, the small blinking
holiday lights with 50 to 100 bulbs on a
string have become very popular.

FIG. 5.81 Holiday lights: (a) 50-

unit set; (b) bulb construction.
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 APPLICATIONS
Holiday Lights

FIG. 5.82 (a) Single-set wiring diagram;

(b) special wiring arrangement; (c)
redrawn schematic; (d) special plug and
flasher unit.
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 APPLICATIONS
Microwave Oven

FIG. 5.83 Series safety switches in a

microwave oven.
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 APPLICATIONS
Series Alarm Circuit

FIG. 5.84 Series

alarm circuit.

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 COMPUTER ANALYSIS
PSpice

FIG. 5.85 Series dc network to be

analyzed using PSpice.

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 COMPUTER ANALYSIS
PSpice

FIG. 5.86 Applying PSpice to a

series dc circuit.
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 COMPUTER ANALYSIS
Multisim

FIG. 5.87
Applying
Multisim to a
series dc circuit.

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 The End.

The End!

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 13e Copyright © 2016 by Pearson Education

Robert L. Boylestad All Rights Reserved