MODULE: 04

Measuring instruments and Domestic Wiring

Measuring instruments

Electrical measuring instruments are all the devices used to measure the magnitude of an
electric current with different objectives. The values that are usually measured with this
equipment are current, voltage, resistance, and power. Each is expressed in different units:
amps, volts, ohms, and watts, respectively.

4.1 Construction and working principle of whetstone’s bridge

What is Wheatstone bridge?

Wheatstone bridge, also known as the resistance bridge,
calculates the unknown resistance by balancing two legs
of the bridge circuit. One leg includes the component of
unknown resistance.

The Wheatstone Bridge Circuit comprises two known

resistors, one unknown resistor and one variable resistor
connected in the form of a bridge. This bridge is very
reliable as it gives accurate measurements.

Construction of Wheatstone bridge

A Wheatstone bridge circuit consists of four arms, of
which two arms consist of known resistances while the other two arms consist of an unknown
resistance and a variable resistance. The circuit also consists of a galvanometer and
an electromotive force source. The emf source is attached between points a and b while the
galvanometer is connected between points c and d. The current that flows through the
galvanometer depends on its potential difference.

Wheatstone bridge working Principle

The Wheatstone bridge works on the principle of null deflection, i.e. the ratio of their
resistances is equal, and no current flows through the circuit. Under normal conditions, the
bridge is in an unbalanced condition where current flows through the galvanometer. The bridge
is said to be balanced when no current flows through the galvanometer. This condition can be
achieved by adjusting the known resistance and variable resistance.

The current enters the galvanometer and divides into two equal magnitude currents as I1 and
I2. The following condition exists when the current through a galvanometer is zero,
𝐼1 𝑃 = 𝐼2 𝑅 … … … (1)

The currents in the bridge, in a balanced condition, are expressed as follows:

 𝐸
𝐼1 = 𝐼3 =
𝑃+𝑄

𝐸
𝐼2 = 𝐼4 =
𝑅+𝑆

Here, E is the emf of the battery.

By substituting the value of I1 and I2 in equation (1), we get

𝑃𝐸 𝑅𝐸
=
𝑃+𝑄 𝑅+𝑆

𝑃 𝑅
=
𝑃+𝑄 𝑅+𝑆

𝑃(𝑅 + 𝑆) = 𝑅(𝑃 + 𝑄)

𝑃𝑅 + 𝑃𝑆 = 𝑅𝑃 + 𝑅𝑄

𝑃𝑆 = 𝑅𝑄. . (2)

𝑃
𝑅= × 𝑆. . (3)
𝑄

Equation (2) shows the balanced condition of the bridge, while (3) determines the value of
the unknown resistance.

In the figure, R is the unknown resistance, S is the standard arm of the bridge and P and Q are
the ratio arm of the bridge.
Wheatstone bridge Application
 The Wheatstone bridge is used for the precise measurement of low resistance.
 Wheatstone bridge and an operational amplifier are used to measure physical
parameters such as temperature, light, and strain.
 Quantities such as impedance, inductance, and capacitance can be measured using
variations on the Wheatstone bridge.
Wheatstone bridge Limitations
 For low resistance measurement, the resistance of the leads and contacts becomes
significant and introduces an error.
 For high resistance measurement, the measurement presented by the bridge is so large
that the galvanometer is insensitive to imbalance.
 The other drawback is the resistance change due to the current’s heating effect through
the resistance. Excessive current may even cause a permanent change in the value of
resistance.
4.2 Construction and working principle of Kelvin’s double bridge

What is Kelvin’s double bridge?

The Kelvin Bridge or Thompson Bridge is one of the methods of measuring the value of
unknown resistance less than 1Ω. It is the most accurate method of measuring low resistance
compared to other methods. Kelvin's double bridge method is the modified form of the
Wheatstone bridge.

Need for Kelvin's Double Bridge Circuit

For the measurement of low resistances, special types of construction and techniques are
required. This is because measurement of medium and high resistances involves the resistance
of their connecting leads and contacts which does not make any considerable errors in the
value. But, in the case of low resistances, the value of resistance will be less than or equal to
1Ω. Hence, the resistances of leads and contacts cannot be neglected.

Consider an example of measurement of a resistance of 50Ω which involves the connecting

leads and contact resistance of 0.025Ω. Hence this measurement involves an error of 0.05%. If
the measurement of 0.25Ω is done under similar conditions then the error will be 10% which
cannot be neglected under any circumstances.

Hence, it is necessary to make a special type of construction for low resistances which is shown
in the figure below.

It consists of 4 terminals in which a, b are to be connected in the circuit for the current flow
and c, d to measure the voltage drop across the low resistances. Hence, the lead and contact
resistances will not be involved in the measurement. But, this type of resistor cannot be used
for measurements in the ordinary bridge like the Wheatstone Bridge, which measures the value
of resistance low or high but not the exact.

Therefore, measurement of low-value resistance using Kelvin's bridge is superior to

Wheatstone bridge. The error introduced by the contact/lead resistance is quite large and hence,
will give an inaccurate reading. In order to avoid this problem, Kelvin's double bridge is used.

It is so constructed that the contact resistance will not come into the picture while measuring
the value of low resistance. Hence, Kelvin's double bridge greatly improves the accuracy of
measurement by eliminating the effect of contact resistance.
Principle and Working of Kelvin's Double Bridge Circuit
The arrangement of Kelvin's double bridge for the measurement of low-value resistance is
shown in the below figure.

Here, R is the unknown resistance to be measured, S is the standard resistance and 'r' is the
resistance of the connecting lead. G is the galvanometer and is connected in such a way that
the effect of r is eliminated. The circuit incorporates two sets of ratio arms i.e., X, Y, and x, y.

Under balanced condition,

𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉𝑎𝑐𝑑

From figure,
Substituting equation 2 in 1, we get,

Under balanced condition,

But,

Hence, the value of unknown resistance R is independent of the contact resistance 'r' even
though it is present in the circuit. This is possible only if the two sets of ratio arms have equal
values.

Thus by introducing another set of ratio arms (i.e., xy) into the bridge, the effect of contact
resistance and resistance of the connecting leads can be eliminated.

Kelvin's Double Bridge Advantages

 It can measure the resistance value in the range of 0.1µΩ to 1.0Ω.
 Power consumption is less.
 Simple in construction.
 Sensitivity is high.

Kelvin's Double Bridge Limitations

 For knowing whether the bridge is balanced or No, the sensitive galvanometer is used.
 To obtain good sensitivity of the device, a high current is required.
 Manual adjustments are to made periodically when required.

Kelvin's Double Bridge Applications

 It is used to measure unknown resistance of a wire.
4.3 Construction and working principle of Megger
What is a Megger?
The word “Megger” which is derived from the words “megohms” and “tester” is an exclusive
Trade Mark of Evershed & Vignola’s Ltd. The megohmmeter is generally called a “megger”.
Few questions may arise such as

 Why ohmmeters are not called megohmmeters?

 What is the difference between the typical ohmmeter and a megger?

An ohmmeter measures low values of resistance and a megohmmeter will measure a higher
range of several megohms by passing high voltage into it.

If we want to measure insulation resistance in the order of 1 Megaohm with a multimeter, it

has a 9v battery that powers the circuit when you set the knob to measure the resistance of the
circuit.

I = V/R, I = 9/1000000 = 0.000009 amps.

It is not possible to measure such a small current which will not be able to deflect the
galvanometer coil inside the multimeter. Thus it is impractical.

A megger is used to measure insulation resistance and it is powered by a inbuilt DC

generator or battery of a higher voltage range, it is called Megaohmmeter.

Principle of Megger

Megger works on the principle of electromagnetic attraction. When a primary coil that is
carrying current is placed under the vicinity of a magnetic field it experiences a force.

This kind of force generates a torque that is made to deflect the pointer of the device which
gives some reading.

What is Insulator?

In every electrical equipment or apparatus, “conductors” and “insulators” are used. The
conductor is meant to provide the path to carry the current of electricity, and the insulator for
preventing the current from leakage in that path.

The value of insulation is expressed in terms of its electrical resistance, the unit being the
megaohms.

Why perform an insulation resistance test?

The insulation resistance is a quality of an electrical system that reduces with time,
environmental conditions such as temperature, humidity, moisture, and dust particles.
So it becomes necessary to check the insulation resistance of the equipment at regular intervals
to avoid any major electrical shock, which could be deadly. This could be a symptom that the
insulation got damaged.

Construction of Megger

The megger consists of a DC generator, its armature is hand-driven to generate a voltage. A

clutch mechanism is used to slip after reaching a certain determined speed.

Resistance R1, R2 connected in series with two coils, Coil A and Coil B which constitute one
instrument to which an indicating pointer is attached.

Permanent magnets having North, South poles produce a magnetic field to deflect the pointer.
Test terminals at X and Y are used to measure insulation resistance.

Operation of Megger

The megger is designed in such a way that the needle floats freely till the generator is operated.
When the generator is not operating, the needle may come to rest at any point on its scale.

The megger is used to measure a high quantity of insulation resistance. The high resistance
may be between the windings of a transformer or motor or between the conductor in a cable
and the conduit or sheath enclosing the cable.

If the test leads connected to the line and earth terminals are open-circuited and a hand-cranked
generator is operated, the needle moves to infinity. Infinity resistance means that it is too high
for the instrument to measure.

If the test leads are connected to each other while the hand crank is turned, the pointer will
defect to zero, indicating no resistance between the test leads.

A zero deflection in the above-mentioned test can mean that the conductor under test is
touching the sheath or conduit surround it.

Types of Megger

 Hand operated
 Electronic with test button

Electronic megger is provided by a battery. Scale indication is available both in Analog and
Digital displays.
Applications of Megger
 The electrical resistance of insulator can also be measured
 Electrical systems and components can be tested
 Winding installation.
 Testing of battery, relay, ground connection…etc

Advantages of Megger
 Permanent magnet DC generator
 The resistance between the ranges zero to infinity can be measured.

Disadvantages of Megger
 There will be an error in reading value when the external resource has low battery,
 Error due to sensitivity
 Error due to a change in temperature.
4.4 Maxwell’s bridge for inductance
The bridge used for the measurement of self-inductance of the circuit is known as the
Maxwell bridge. It is the advanced form of the Wheatstone bridge. The Maxwell
bridge works on the principle of the comparison, i.e., the value of unknown inductance is
determined by comparing it with the known value or standard value.

In Maxwell’s inductance bridges, the value of unknown resistance is determined by comparing

it with the known value of the standard self-inductance. The connection diagram for the
balanced Maxwell bridge is shown in the figure below.

Let, L1 – unknown inductance of resistance R1.

L2 – Variable inductance of fixed resistance r1.
R2 – variable resistance connected in series with inductor L2.
R3, R4 – known non-inductance resistance

At balance

The value of the R3 and the R4 resistance varies from 10 to 1000 ohms with the help of the
resistance box. Sometimes for balancing the bridge, the additional resistance is also inserted
into the circuit.
Advantages of the Maxwell’s Bridges

The following are the advantages of the Maxwell bridges

 The balance equation of the circuit is free from frequency.

 Both the balance equations are independent of each other.

Disadvantages of the Maxwell’s Bridge

The main disadvantage of the bridge is

 The bridge is only used for the measurement of medium quality coils.

4.5 Schering’s bridge for capacitance

This bridge is used to measure to the capacitance of the capacitor, dissipation factor and
measurement of relative permittivity. Let us consider the circuit of Schering bridge as shown
below

The high voltage Schering bridge circuit diagram is shown in the below figure. The bridge
consists of four-arms, in the first arm, there are two unknown capacitances C1 and C2 which
we have to find and resistor R1 is connected and in the second arm, the variable capacitance
C4 and the resistors R3 and R4 are connected. In the center of the bridge ‘D’ detector is
connected.

In the figure, ‘C1’ is the capacitor whose capacitance has to be developed, ‘R1’ is a series
resistance representing the loss in the capacitor C1, C2 is s standard capacitor, ‘R3’ is a non-
inductive resistance, ‘C4’ is a variable capacitor, and ‘R4’ is a variable non-inductive resistance
in parallel with the variable capacitor ‘C4’.

By using the balance condition of the bridge, the ratio of impedance ‘Z1 & Z2’ are equal to the
impedance ‘Z3 & Z4’, it is expressed as

Z1* Z4 = Z3*Z2………………… (1)

Where
Z1 = R1 + 1/jwC1 ;
Z2 = 1/jwC2 ;
Z3 = R3 ;
Z4 = (R4 + 1/jwC4R4)/( R4 – 1/jwC4R4)
Now substitute the values of impedances Z1, Z2, Z3, and Z4 in equation 1, will get the values
of C1 and R1.

(R1 + 1/jw C1) [(R4 + 1/jwC4R4)/( R4 – 1/jwC4R4)] = R3 (1/jwC2) ……….. (2)

By simplifying the impedance Z4 will get

Z4 = (R4 + 1/jwC4R4)/( R4 – 1/jwC4R4)

Z4 = R4 /jwC4R4……………. (3)
Substitute eq (3) in eq (2) will get

(R1 + 1/jw C1) (R4 /jwC4R4) = R3 (1/jwC2)

(R1 R4) + (R4/jw C1) = (R3 /jwC2)(1+ jwC4R4)
By simplifying the above equation will get

(R1 R4) + (R4/jw C1) = (R3 /jwC2) + (R3*R4C4/C2)…………(4)

Compare real parts R1 R4 and R3*R4C4/2 in eq (4) will get unknown resistance R1 value

R1 R4 = R3*R4C4/ C2
R1 = R3*C4/ C2…………(5)
Similarly compare imaginary parts R4/jw C1 and R3 /jwC2 will get unknown capacitance
C1 value
R4/jw C1 = R3 /jwC2
R4/ C1 = R3 / C2
C1 = (R4 / R3)C2 …………(6)
An equation (5) and (6) are the unknown resistance and unknown capacitance

Advantages of the Schering Bridge:

1. High Accuracy: The Schering Bridge offers a high degree of accuracy in capacitance
measurement, making it suitable for applications where precision is essential.
2. Frequency Insensitivity: This bridge configuration is designed to be insensitive to
the frequency of the applied AC voltage, ensuring consistent measurements across
different frequency ranges.
3. Calibration Capability: By using a known standard capacitor, the Schering Bridge
can be calibrated, enhancing the reliability of measurements.
4.6 Current Transformers (CTs)
A current transformer (C.T.) is an instrument transformer which is used for the protection and
measurement purposes in a power system. The C.T. is primarily used to measure high
alternating currents in a power system.
Construction of Current Transformer
The magnetic core of the current transformers is made up of thin laminations of silicon steel.
The primary winding of a CT has a single turn (also called bar primary) and carries full-load
current whereas the secondary winding has large number of turns. Therefore, the current
transformer is a voltage step-up and current step-down transformer (see the figure).

The primary winding of the current transformer carries the current to be measured and the
secondary winding carries a current proportional to the current to be measured. The measuring
instrument (low range AC ammeter) is connected to the terminals of the secondary winding.
Both the primary and secondary windings are insulated from the core and from each other.
If high degree of accuracy is desired in the measurement, then the core of the CT should be
made up of high permeability nickel steel.
Working of Current Transformer
The primary winding of the current transformer is connected in series with the line whose
current is to be measured while the secondary winding connected to a low range (usually 0-5
A) AC ammeter (as shown in the figure).

The relationship between the line current or primary current (IP) of the CT and the ammeter
current or secondary current (IS) is given as follows,
 NPIP=NSIS
IP/IS=NS/NP…(1)
The equation (1) is known as the current transformation ratio or C.T. ratio i.e.
Therefore, the line current is given by,
C.T.ratio=IP/IS…(2)
Therefore, the line current is given by,
IP=C.T.ratio×IS…(3)
Hence, the line current is equal to the product of the CT ratio and the AC ammeter reading.
Applications of Current Transformers
Some of the important applications of current transformers are as follows −
 The current transformers are used in measurement of high alternating currents in the
power system.
 The current transformers are used in the power system protection applications such as
to activate the protection relays.

4.7 Potential Transformers (PTs)

A potential transformer (P.T.) is an instrument transformer which is used for the protection
and measurement purposes in the power systems. A potential transformer is mainly used to
measure high alternating voltage in a power system.
Potential transformers are step-down transformers, i.e., they have many turns in the primary
winding while the secondary has few turns. The figure shows a typical potential transformer
for the measurement of high alternating voltage. From the figure, it is clear that a P.T. is a well
designed step down transformer.

The stepped down voltage by the Potential transformer can be measure using a low range AC
voltmeter. The potential transformer has shell type construction of its magnetic core for better
accuracy. One end of the secondary winding of the potential transformer is grounded to
provide the proper protection to the operator.
The primary winding of the potential transformer is connected across the high voltage power
line whose voltage is to be measured and a low-range AC voltmeter (usually 0-110 V) is
connected across the secondary winding of the P.T.
The relationship between the line voltage (VP) and the AC voltmeter voltage (VS) is given by,
 VP/VS=NP/NS

Here, the ratio of primary voltage to the secondary voltage of a potential transformer is known
as the potential transformation ratio or P.T. ratio, i.e.

P.T.ratio=VP/VS

Therefore, the voltage of the power line (VP) is given by,

VP=P.T.ratio×VS

Hence, the voltage of the power line is given by the product of the AC voltmeter reading and
the P.T. ratio of the potential transformer.
 Domestic Wiring
A wiring system is a network of wires that connect various accessories for the distribution
of electrical energy from the supplier metre board to a variety of electrical energy consuming devices
such as lamps, fans, and other domestic appliances via regulating and safety devices. Various types of
wiring are used in homes, including Electrical wiring for lighting and power distribution, telephone,
heating etc. Appliances at our homes, draw electricity through wires and convert it to mechanical
energy.

Or

A wiring system is a network of wires that connect various accessories for the distribution of
electrical energy from the supplier metre board to a variety of electrical energy consuming
devices such as lamps, fans, and other domestic appliances via regulating and safety devices.

Factors affecting the choice of wiring system

The primary objective of wiring system is to distribute electrical energy to the various points
at which it is required, duly considering the following

1. Electrical safety: This is the most important aspects – there must be no danger of leakage
or of electric shock to persons using the supply.

2. Mechanical immunity: A wiring system which is suitable for one type of building may not
be suitable for another. The wiring selected for a particular type of building should be able to
withstand weather changes for a long period and should be protected from physical damage
during its usage.

3. Permanence: There should not be any undue deterioration in wiring due to action of
dampness, fumes, weather etc.

4. Appearance: In certain cases appearance or invisibility is important. However in case of

factory wiring, appearance apart from neatness is usually not important.

5. Cost: the cost of wiring installation is an important consideration. The system chosen should
depend upon the type of building and the purpose for which it is used, keeping economy in
view

Types of wiring
1. Cleat wiring:

In this type of wiring, insulated conductors (usually VIR, Vulcanized Indian Rubber) are supported on
porcelain or wooden cleats. The cleats have two halves one base and the other cap. The cables are placed
in the grooves provided in the base and then the cap is placed. Both are fixed securely on the walls by
40mm long screws. The cleats are easy to erect and are fixed 4.5 – 15 cms apart. This wiring is suitable
for temporary installations where cost is the main criteria but not the appearance.
 Fig: Cleat wiring

Advantages:
1. Easy installation
2. Materials can be retrieved for reuse
3. Flexibility provided for inspection, modifications and expansion.
4. Relatively economical
5. Skilled manpower not required.
Disadvantages:
1. Appearance is not good
2. Open system of wiring requiring regular cleaning.
3. Higher risk of mechanical injury

2. CTS ( Cable Tyre Sheathed) / TRS ( Tough Rubber Sheathed ) / Batten wiring:

In this wiring system, wires sheathed in tough rubber are used which are quite flexible. They
are clipped on wooden battens with brass clips (link or joint) and fixed on to the walls or
ceilings by flat head screws. These cables are moisture and chemical proof. They are suitable
for damp climate but not suitable for outdoor use in sunlight. TRS wiring is suitable for lighting
in low voltage installations.

Advantages:
1. Easy installation and is durable
2. Lower risk of short circuit.
3. Cheaper than casing and capping system of wiring
4. Gives a good appearance if properly erected.

Disadvantages:
1. Danger of mechanical injury.
2. Danger of fire hazard.
3. Should not be exposed to direct sunlight.
4. Skilled workmen are required

3. Casing and Capping:

It consists of insulated conductors laid inside rectangular, teakwood or PVC boxes having grooves
inside it. A rectangular strip of wood called capping having same width as that of casing is fixed
over it. Both the casing and the capping are screwed together at every 15 cms. Casing is attached
to the wall. Two or more wires of same polarity are drawn through different grooves. The system
is suitable for indoor and domestic installations.

Advantages:
1. Cheaper than lead sheathed and conduit wiring.
2. Provides good isolation as the conductors are placed apart reducing the risk of short circuit.
3. Easily accessible for inspection and repairs.
4. Since the wires are not exposed to atmosphere, insulation is less affected by dust, dirt and
climatic variations.

Disadvantages:
1. Highly inflammable.
2. Usage of unseasoned wood gets damaged by termites.
3. Skilled workmanship required.

4. Conduit wiring:
In this system PVC (polyvinyl chloride) or VIR cables are run through metallic or PVC pipes
providing good protection against mechanical injury and fire due to short circuit. They are either
embedded inside the walls or supported over the walls, and are known as concealed wiring or
surface conduit wiring (open conduit) respectively. The conduits are buried inside the walls on
wooden gutties and the wires are drawn through them with fish (steel) wires. The system is best
suited for public buildings, industries and workshops.
Advantages:
1. No risk of fire and good protection against mechanical injury.
2. The lead and return wires can be carried in the same tube.
3. Earthing and continuity is assured.
4. Water-proof and trouble shooting is easy.
5. Shock- proof with proper earthing and bonding
6. Durable and maintenance free
7. Aesthetic in appearance

Disadvantages:
1. Very expensive system of wiring.
2. Requires good skilled workmanship.
3. Erection is quiet complicated and is time consuming.
4. Risk of short circuit under wet conditions (due to condensation of water in tubes).

Two Way Control of Lamps:

The lamp circuits used for house wiring are quite simple and they are generally controlled
from one point, such as room lighting, bath room lighting etc., but in stair case wiring, it is
necessary to control the lamp circuit from two points i.e. one at the top of the stair case and the
other at the bottom of the stair case. Similarly in big halls, corridors or bedrooms, it may be
necessary to control the lamp from two points. In such cases, a two way control lamp circuit is
used for wiring.
Fig. 6.1 shows the way in which the connections are made to control a lamp from two
points. Two, two-way switches are used. The wires used between the switches are called strap
wires.

For the positions of the switches as shown in Fig.6.1, i.e. when switch 1 is in position A
and the switch 2 is in position D, the lamp circuit is not closed and hence the lamp is dark. Let
us say that the switch 1 is in the down stairs and switch 2 is in the upstairs. When switch 1 is
changed to position B, the lamp circuit is closed and hence the lamp glows. Walking on to the
upstairs, if the switch 2 is changed to position C, again the circuit continuity is broken and the
lamp is switched off. Thus, the lamp can be controlled from two points. The same switching
operations may be repeated while coming down stairs. Table 6.2 gives the positions of switches
and the lamp conditions, whether it is ON or OFF.
 S.No. Position of Switch 1 Position of Switch 2 Lamp ON or OFF
1 A D OFF
2 A C ON
3 B C OFF
4 B D ON

Three Way Control of Lamps:

Sometimes in very big corridors, godowns or workshops, it may be necessary to control a
lamp from three points. In such cases, the circuit connection requires two, two-way switches
and an intermediate switch as shown in Fig.6.2

An intermediate switch is a combination of two, two-way switches coupled together. It has

four terminals EFGH. For one position, it connects points EF and GH, which is called straight
connection. For another position, it connects points EH and GF, which is called cross
connection.
When the switches 1 and 2 are in positions A and C respectively, and the intermediate
switch is in the position of straight connection, i.e., when EF and GH are connected, the lamp
circuit is complete and hence the lamp glows. Now, if the intermediate switch is changed to
the position of cross connection i.e. when points EH and GF are connected, the lamp circuit is
open and hence the lamp is switched off. Now if the position of switch 2 is changed from C to
D, the lamp circuit is again closed and the lamp is switched ON. Thus, the lamp can be
controlled from three points. Table 6.2 gives the positions of the various switches and the
conditions of the lamp.
 Position of Position of Position of Lamp ON or
S.No.
switch 1 intermediate switch switch 2 OFF
1 A EF, GH C ON
2 A EF, GH D OFF
3 B EF, GH C OFF
4 B EF, GH D ON
5 A EH, GF C OFF
6 A EH, GF D ON
7 B EH, GF C ON
8 B EH, GF D OFF