Additive Manufacturing 21 (2018) 694–704

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Additive Manufacturing
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/addma

Sustainability of additive manufacturing: An overview on its energy demand T

and environmental impact
⁎
Tao Penga, , Karel Kellensb, Renzhong Tanga, Chao Chenc, Gang Chend
a
Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering, School of Mechanical Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, China
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, KU, Leuven, Belgium
c
State Key Laboratory of Powder Metallurgy, Central South University, Changsha, 410083, China
d
State Key Laboratory of Porous Metal Materials, Northwest Institute for Non-ferrous Metal Research, Xian, 710016, China

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Additive Manufacturing (AM) has been rapidly developing over the last decade. It shows great potential in
Additive manufacturing reducing the need for energy- and resource-intensive manufacturing processes, which in turn reduces the amount
Energy consumption of material required in the supply chain, and enables more environmentally benign practices. However, the
Environmental impact question of how to realize these potential benefits has received little attention. This paper aims to provide an
Resource consumption
overview of the Sustainability of Additive Manufacturing (SAM). The context of the SAM is introduced, with a
Sustainable manufacturing
focus on energy and environmental impacts. Resource consumption is identified as the most important aspect.
Examination from a life cycle perspective is also presented, with explicit discussions on opportunities to reduce
energy and material consumption through design, material preparation, manufacturing, usage, and end-of-life
treatment. Statistical data analysis provides an overview of impact forecasts, highlighting the importance of and
need for thorough research on sustainability. The eco-design concept enabled by AM is identified as the most
promising and effective technology, further extending and completing its design capability. This also determines
the opportunities for energy and environmental optimization in subsequent processes. Most existing research is
in process- and system-specific modeling, and few AM processes and systems have been studied, with generally
premature conclusions. General models for each type of AM process are still necessary. Lastly, five research
priorities are suggested: improve systematic data integration and management, correlate energy and quality,
develop intelligent machinery, focus on material preparation and recycling, and discover innovative applications
using AM.

1. Introduction heterogeneous compositions can be fabricated with relative ease using

AM technologies. The supply chain will be compressed and con-
Industrial metabolism, defined as the transformation of matter, siderably more flexible under the future decentralization of production
energy, and labor into goods, services, waste, and ambient emissions, subject to AM machines, and production may become less capital-in-
has generated high levels of value, while accounting for increasing tensive, more autonomous, and achievable in shorter production cycles
environmental impact [1]. The industrial sector represented 22% of [7,8]. Claimed as a green technology [9,10], AM holds great potential
global energy consumption in 2012 [2] and is considered a major sector in improving materials efficiency, reducing life cycle impacts, and en-
where transformative changes are needed toward sustainability [3]. abling greater engineering functionality compared to conventional
Additive Manufacturing (AM), also known as 3D printing or rapid methods, including less requirement for special tooling in part fabri-
manufacturing, has been rapidly developing recently. This is mainly cation, rapid tooling production, and reduced material waste. Conse-
due to the technical advantages offered by the construction of highly quently, time and cost can be potentially reduced for individualized and
complex and customized products that were previously impossible or small-volume parts manufacturing [11]. However, existing research
impractical using traditional methods [4,5]. AM processes have proven asserts that realizing such potentials remains beyond reach. As such,
to be compatible with actual production, beyond prototyping [6]. New this study addressed the issue of sustainability in AM, focusing on its
component design with complex geometries and structures and environmental impact, providing the latest developments on the

⁎
Corresponding author at: Room 228, Building 1, Yuquan Campus, Zhejiang University, No. 38 Zheda Road, Xihu District, Hangzhou, China.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (T. Peng), [email protected] (K. Kellens), [email protected] (R. Tang), [email protected] (C. Chen),
[email protected] (G. Chen).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2018.04.022
Received 22 June 2017; Received in revised form 13 April 2018; Accepted 20 April 2018
Available online 22 April 2018
2214-8604/ © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
T. Peng et al. Additive Manufacturing 21 (2018) 694–704

Sustainability of Additive Manufacturing (SAM). Further, this study Since 2014, Gartner has reported annually a detailed hype cycle for
motivates research towards more environmentally benign AM tech- different technologies in the AM industry, and Fig. 1 illustrates the
nology. The following abbreviations are used in this paper.- different evolving speeds of AM technologies [16]. The AM industry has
ABSAcrylonitrile Butadiene StyreneAMAdditive Manufactur- grown from $295 million to $5.1 billion over the past 25 years, with a
ingCMConventional ManufacturingCNCComputer Numerical compound annual revenue growth rate for all AM products and services
ControlCO2PE!Cooperative Effort on Process Emissions in Manu- worldwide of 25.4% [17]. This growth occurred in all segments, in-
facturingEBMElectron Beam MeltingEUEuropean UnionFDMFused De- cluding both the entry-level desktop 3D printer and industrial metal AM
position ModelingGHGGreenhouse GasLCALife Cycle AssessmentNC- systems. A more aggressive forecast is $230-550 billion by 2025 [18],
Numerical ControlPETPoly Ethylene TerephthalatePLAPoly Lactic where the primary markets identified are $100-300 billion in consumer
AcidSAMSustainability of Additive ManufacturingSECSpecific Energy products and $100-200 billion in direct part manufacturing of medical
ConsumptionSLAStereo Lithography ApparatusSLSSelective Laser Sin- and aerospace components.
teringSMSubtractive ManufacturingSTLStereolithographyUFPUltra- AM is anticipated to be incorporated and employed in industrial
Fine Particle production to significantly improve the flexibility and efficiency in
The remainder of this paper is organized into five sections. Section 2 mass personalization of complex parts. It can complete the manu-
presents the background and status of the AM industry, demonstrating facturing capability profile via incorporation with subtractive manu-
the need to conduct thorough research on its energy and environmental facturing (SM) processes, for instance, in emerging hybrid manu-
impacts. Section 3 provides an overview of SAM and introduces life facturing [19,20]. Moreover, it has been found that the economy-of-
cycle methodology to study its environmental aspect. Section 4 is a scale model in conventional manufacturing (CM) is not relevant in AM,
review of existing research on four key topics: high-level statistics, eco- leading to a model named economy-of-one [21]. Implementing strate-
design, process- and system-specific modeling, and multi-criteria opti- gies have also been suggested to assist companies in introducing AM
mization. Research gaps and priorities in improving energy and en- into businesses [22].
vironmental performance are summarized in Section 5. Finally, Section In the foreseeable future, the sustainable growth of the AM industry
6 presents some concluding remarks. is vital. Research on SAM, particularly, to quantify and minimize the
environmental impacts of AM, must be performed before the industry
develops further [23]. In a review on metal AM processes and powder
2. The AM industry metallurgy conducted by Frazier [24], the potential of AM in reducing
cost, energy, and resource consumption was recognized, but more work
AM processes were formally standardized in seven categories [12]. is required. Additionally, existing research in this arena lacks con-
More specifically, 18 different technologies, divided by the physical sistency and continuity, partially due to the variety of AM processes,
state of the printed matter as well as the application method, were but more importantly, the absence of a strategic plan. This paper,
described [13]. For each technology, a manufacturer may have multiple therefore, aims to provide an overview of research on the SAM. A fo-
models in terms of the build envelope, fabrication speed, materials cused review on the energy and environmental impact of AM is pre-
selection, accuracy/resolution, and layer thickness [11]. AM has been sented, and collaborative research efforts towards the development of
mainly used for rapid prototyping in the aerospace, automotive, and more environmentally benign AM technologies is motivated.
machine tool production sectors, as well as in medical and dental care,
and approximately 150 companies operate in these markets [14]. Even
though the rapid prototyping market is expected to exceed $20.2 billion 3. Sustainability of additive manufacturing
by 2020 [15], rapid manufacturing is anticipated to be an even more
promising market. The issue of sustainability was recognized in the manufacturing

Fig. 1. Evolution of AM technologies [based on Gartner report [16,119].

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Fig. 2. A timeline of sustainable manufacturing milestones.

industry around 100 years after industrialization. In numerical con- overhanging parts. These either produce material waste or introduce
trolled (NC) machining and mass production, an over 50-year gap can additional material consumption. For Fused Deposition Modeling
be observed before attention was given to sustainability. Although in- (FDM), limited research has been conducted to optimize the printing
tensive studies are being conducted to minimize the impacts of existing path and support structure for material reduction [29], and efforts to
manufacturing practices, many consequences are hard to measure, evaluate the metallic and ceramic wastes are rare. One reason that no
evaluate, or mitigate. Thus, research efforts on SAM should be made to actions have been taken to investigate waste management, even at the
guide better industrial adoption and implementation of AM. Fig. 2 de- frontline of promoting sustainable manufacturing, might be because the
picts a brief timeline of key events in sustainable manufacturing de- current AM industry still represents a comparatively small share [30].
velopment. The three sustainability dimensions (i.e., economic, social, Data is missing to showcase the total amount of waste generated
and environmental) were addressed via a 6R concept: reduce, recover, through AM technologies [31].
recycle, reuse, redesign, and remanufacture [25].

3.1. Environmental impact 3.1.3. Pollution control

The forms of pollution include gas, liquid, solid, and sound. Studies
As mentioned in Section 2, AM applications will continue to grow, on particulate matter formation during printing and the explosive ha-
particularly in niche markets, including their use in producing func- zard of material powders during handling and use should be conducted
tional parts. In this paper, therefore, the environmental impact of AM is for AM [32]. The toxicity and harmful effects of these materials have
studied principally in three aspects: resource consumption, waste been seldom studied [30]. Compared to SM, AM uses fewer harmful
management, and pollution control (see Fig. 3). chemicals, such as cutting fluids, casting release compounds, and for-
ging lubricants. For instance, FDM uses non-toxic thermoplastic mate-
3.1.1. Resource consumption rials such as Poly Lactic Acid (PLA), Poly Ethylene Terephthalate (PET),
The essential resources vary in different manufacturing industries. and Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS) [33], at a low melting point
In AM, energy and material consumption represent the main resource and noise level, demanding less heating energy for the nozzle and
consumption. Specifically, energy is consumed by the main AM worktable [34]. However, emissions of ultra-fine particles (UFPs) have
equipment and auxiliary sub-systems, and material consumption in- been reported, suggesting that caution should be taken when operating
cludes the primary materials (e.g. polymer filament, metal powders), in an unvented or unfiltered indoor environment [35]. The composition
secondary materials (e.g. support structures), protective gas (e.g. ni- and effects of UFPs need further investigation.
trogen, argon), and cooling water. Comparably, CM consumes more In summary, despite the limitations associated with AM, such as
types of material, such as coolant, lubricant, and tooling. Although AM material selection and characteristics, low process productivity, geo-
is theoretically 97% material-efficient [26,27], the material efficiency metrical dimension accuracy, surface quality, repeatability and unit
achieved is usually much less in practice. Energy consumption may be cost [36], five key environmental benefits can be expected from the
higher due to relatively low productivity, particularly for those AM adoption of AM [37]: (1) a reduced amount of raw material required in
processes that involve lengthy processing at elevated temperature. the supply chain; (2) a reduced need for energy-intensive, wasteful, and
polluting manufacturing processes; (3) more efficient and flexible pro-
3.1.2. Waste management duct design with better functional and operational performance; (4)
To produce an end product, SM produces a large quantity of waste, reduced weight of transport-related products and improved carbon
which may be reduced by as much as 90% using AM [28]. However, footprint; and (5) decentralized part manufacturing, closer to the point
this does not mean that AM generates no waste. Examples of AM waste of consumption.
include material powders that are no longer recyclable, scraps gener-
ated by unexpected defects, and support structures produced for

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Fig. 3. Three aspects of environmental impact in the context of SAM.

3.2. Life cycle perspective in a product life cycle consumes energy and generate emissions. Some
view AM positively, because the main transportation is anticipated to
Life cycle assessment (LCA), established in the 1990s, is an inter- shift from long-distance transport of finished products to customers to
nationally accepted method to systematically evaluate the environ- short-distance movement of materials to AM companies [52]. AM
mental impact of processes, products, and activities [38,39]. A sig- companies could be strategically scattered near customers to sig-
nificant number of life cycle analysis studies have been conducted for nificantly reduce lead time; likewise, the energy consumption and en-
SM (e.g., [40–45]). Conversely, very few have thus far been conducted vironmental impact of distribution may be reduced [37,53]. Such a
to evaluate AM. An early study by Luo et al. [46] considered multiple change in logistics is tremendous, because the raw materials for AM can
environmental impacts, such as material preparation, energy con- often be tightly packed, while the final products need more careful
sumption, material toxicity, recycling, and landfilling. Since then, the packaging, with unavoidable supporting or cushioning. Transportation
increasing number of studies indicate that a comprehensive analysis on could then be simplified. However, no AM process is yet capable of
AM assists not only in preventing negative environmental impacts, but creating ready-to-use parts. Therefore, post processing, such as surface
also in increasing the acceptability of the technology. However, being finish, heat treatment or assembling, in most cases, is required [22].
an interdisciplinary technological area, understanding the energy and This hinders the free-arrangement of AM manufacturing facilities close
environmental impact of AM from a life cycle perspective is challen- to their customers [10].
ging. Knowledge of materials, mechanics, physics, and chemistry, and To date, researchers have recognized the importance of life cycle
technologies in information, manufacturing, mechanical, and energy analysis [54], but such systematic analysis of AM is rather limited. No
engineering is required. If symbiotic, life cycle, and closed-loop links firm conclusion can readily be made that AM is more energy-efficient or
could be established, the negative impacts of AM-related industries environmentally-friendly than existing CM processes [32]. A number of
could be significantly reduced or even eliminated [47,48]. An EU- methodological difficulties in the application of LCA remain, such as
funded 4.5-year program entitled “Additive Manufacturing Aiming limited direct measurements on the AM environmental impacts and an
Towards Zero Waste and Efficient Production of High-Tech Metal Pro- insufficient data inventory.
ducts AMAZE” is making progress in this direction [49]. America Makes
in the U.S. has also developed an additive manufacturing energy as-
4. SAM studies
sessment model from a life cycle perspective, capable of comparing
energy consumption at various stages between AM and related CM
A handful of studies addressed AM energy consumption and en-
processes [50].
vironmental impact in the first 10 years following the early work of Luo
Taking metal products as an example, Fig. 4 depicts the impacts of
et al. [46]. Then, a sharp increase in the number of related studies
AM at various life cycle stages, design for premium performance and
occurred. This is mainly due to the increased public awareness of en-
functionality, metal powder and wire preparation, end product manu-
vironment wellbeing. Drizo and Pegna [30] presented a condensed re-
facturing, material recycling and treatment, new product service and
view of the environmental impact of existing AM technologies, rapid
maintenance, and managerial strategies for the entire supply chain.
prototyping and rapid tooling in particular. They concluded that the
Different sources of energy and material consumed across the life cycle
scarcity of research, combined with rapid technological advances, left
are also explicitly shown in Fig. 4 (on the right). It is challenging to
many unresolved issues. This greatly stimulated the research conducted
evaluate the energy and environmental impact of AM technologies, and
over the next 10 years. Many researchers believe that AM holds the
to give insightful interpretation of the long-term effects of their use
potential to significantly reduce energy and environmental impact per
from a life cycle perspective.
unit of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) [55–59]. Gebler et al. [23] pre-
Distribution logistics is excluded in the current literature survey, as
sented a comprehensive evaluation of AM-induced sustainability im-
it represents only a small fraction of life cycle environmental impact
plications and quantified changes in life cycle energy and environ-
[51]. However, its importance is briefly discussed here. The transport of
mental impact worldwide by 2025. Although the data were limited, the
raw materials, intermediate parts, final products, or after-use discards
model-based projection showed that AM may reduce the total primary

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Fig. 4. A life cycle perspective on metal AM and SM.

energy demand by 2.54–9.30 EJ and CO2 emissions by 130.5–525.5 4.1. High-level statistics and forecasts
million tons by 2025. The wide range of saving potentials was ex-
plained by the technological immaturity and the associated un- Research in this category adheres to the philosophy of life cycle
certainties in market prediction. Furthermore, they indicate that such analysis, covering multiple stages, processes, and/or systems. The data
huge potentials can be achieved only with careful and rigorous man- are usually exhaustive, but sometimes inaccurate. ‘Stage’ represents a
agement. When AM is applied to larger-volume production, e.g., con- certain period in a life cycle, such as design or recycling. ‘Process’
sumer products or automobiles, there is an opportunity to absolutely means different processes during an AM stage, such as setup or printing.
decouple energy and CO2 emission from economic development. Mo- ‘System’ means an independent functional unit, such as an AM machine
tivated by CM studies such as for machining [60–64], four categories or ventilation system. The aerospace industry features studies in this
are proposed to organize the existing AM studies. category, and efforts made in this industry have been recognized
worldwide [65]. An LCA methodology for AM was proposed by the Oak
Ridge National Laboratory [66]. It includes five stages: material

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preparation, manufacturing, distribution logistics, use, and disposal. environmental impacts of CM processes, such as welding, fastening,
The Microsoft Excel-based tool that was developed was demonstrated in joining, or assembly, can be eliminated, and the associated costs for
manufacturing four samples, including several aircraft components and part tracking and inventory, inspection, additional process planning,
a hat section mold. The calculation was inclusive but approximate; for labor, and consumables can be significantly reduced [5]. AM also plays
example, each process was labeled as having a constant energy intensity a critical role in design for remanufacturing [82]. A large amount of
in different production scenarios. A quantitative study on reductions in energy and material can be saved when a part is AM-repaired or -re-
life cycle energy and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions was reported for furbished, rather than replaced and disposed of [54].
lightweight metallic aircraft components produced using AM tech- Indeed, a huge opportunity lies in eco-design for AM to make the
nology [67]. Estimated primary energy savings in a rapid adoption best use of its improved design capabilities. However, design meth-
scenario reached 70–174 million GJ per year in 2050 fleet-wide, with odologies and guidelines, simulation systems, and evaluation tools are
cumulative savings of 1.2-2.8 EJ. The cumulative GHG emissions re- the missing links necessary for success.
duction was estimated at 92.8–217.4 million tons. Such a wide range
indicates dissimilar development and adoption progresses. 4.3. Process- and system-specific modeling
Some stages, such as protective gas production and compressed air
production, were often excluded, and powder, waste, and recycling Once a design is ready, the models can be transferred to an AM
were not included either, due to technological constraints and missing system for production. Model validation and processing are also in-
data. Le Bourhis et al. [68] studied multi-flow consumption, including volved, such as manufacturability validation, model slicing, and para-
materials, fluids, and energy. The methodology was developed based on meter configuration. AM process- and system-specific energy and en-
a predictive model of flow consumption, and then introduced into the vironmental impact modeling is a fundamental step that provides in-
design loop to assist in quantitative study [69]. These studies included depth information on influential factors. The majority of existing stu-
energy and material consumption from the atomization process (i.e., dies belongs to this category, but quantitative studies are relatively
powder preparation), an important consideration. We question whether limited among them.
the energy share in the atomization process is negligible compared to [83,84] developed a systematic model to analyze the manufacturing
traditional bunk material preparation. Clemon et al. [70] analyzed energy and material consumption in the Cooperative effort on process
energy consumption in several stages: standby, warm-up, printing, idle, emissions in manufacturing (CO2PE!) initiative. They also developed a
and transition, on different AM machines, but only simple features were parametric model to estimate the environmental impact of selective
tested. [71,72] presented a comparison of the environmental impacts of laser sintering (SLS) manufacturing stages [73]. The life cycle inventory
six AM machines using different materials, and their results show that data from CO2PE! was adopted, including energy, consumables, and
electrical energy dominated the environmental impacts for all AM process emissions. Fig. 5 depicts the parametric model developed for
machines. They also found that the energy consumption changes due to SLS processes. Based on the product design and available AM system,
different materials were not significant compared to the machine var- process time and resource consumption were determined to be a
iations. However, this observation was limited to prototyping, and may function of the applied parameters, such as laser power, build volume
differ in other types of AM systems. In addition, a complete assessment and height, layer thickness, printing speed, and material recycling rate.
should consider feedstock manufacture, supply chain energy, product The process time consisted of two parts: productive time (laser sin-
usage impacts, and end-of-life considerations [54,73]. tering, melting, and powder recoating) and non-productive time (ma-
Although the research needs in this category are recognized, the chine preheating, ventilating, and cleaning). The concept of developing
issues are not yet sufficiently addressed. With respect to the diversity of similar parametric models is evident in many studies.
AM processes, data are extremely lacking, and usually proprietary or Mognol et al. [85] presented a parameter selection study using the
shared only locally. Therefore, more collaborative efforts are required. design of experiments for energy consumption reduction. Layer thick-
ness, part orientation, and position in the build chamber were tested on
4.2. Eco-design for AM three AM systems. No applicable energy model was derived therein, and
no general optimization rules on how to reduce process time were de-
The additive nature of AM makes it a revolutionizing technique in veloped. Sreenivasan and Bourell [86] performed a quantitative cal-
product design [74,75]. This unique characteristic requires new design culation on an SLS system with energy breakdown, including laser
tools. Eco-design, a relatively mature approach, can be used for AM. system, heater, roller drives, piston control, and miscellaneous systems.
Contrary to early promises made by some researchers, there is no ab- They also concluded that the heating system was the largest energy
solute geometric freedom, and many considerations should be taken consumer, followed by drives and controls, and finally the laser system
into account [22]. Existing methods and guidelines created for CM, [54]. Average power was used, and a relationship with process para-
design for manufacturing, design for recycling and more, are no longer meters was not discovered. Besides, specific energy consumption (SEC)
suitable under AM [76]. Tang and Zhao [77] presented a survey of was adopted to simplify the calculation, and insensitive parameters
design methods for AM to further improve functional performance. were set to be independent from process parameters [87]. SEC re-
They designed an interesting framework, where the input was the presents a typical relationship between total energy and process pro-
functional description of a part rather than a particular part design ductivity. Higher productivity leads to less time and normally less en-
[78]. In a case study, a binder-jetting process was adopted to fabricate ergy, but merely improving productivity is not always feasible because
an engine bracket, and they found significantly less energy consump- of quality requirements.
tion to produce a topologically optimized part than the same Computer [55,56] conducted a comparative study on two SLS systems, where
Numerical Control (CNC) milled part. the total energy demand was classified into the job-dependent, time-
A predictive model that combines accuracy and practicability dependent, geometry-dependent, and Z-height-dependent components.
should be developed, to easily and consistently support energy-in- Telenko and Seepersad [88] adopted a similar approach to evaluate and
formed design practices. For example, one computation tool named compare the energy consumption of SLS and injection molding for the
Design for Environment was developed based on eco-design principles same part, where SLS consumed significantly more energy than injec-
[79]. This tool allows product designers to generate more sustainable tion molding, but such energy consumption could be offset by the en-
designs and minimize life cycle environmental impacts [80]. ergy consumed during the mold production stage. A study conducted by
AM-enabled design capability can enhance eco-design in return, Strano et al. [89] investigated the influential factors in the simulta-
redesigning multiple parts into a single piece, or designing more com- neous minimization of energy consumption and surface roughness;
plex geometries for better functionality [81]. The energy and build orientation and layer thickness were the focus. They also

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Fig. 5. A parametric impact estimation model for AM [based on [73]].

extended the methodology to include support structure design [90]. strategies in 36 distributed AM centers was presented by Munguía et al.
Meteyer et al. [91] presented an energy and material consumption [98]. How to compare and select the right one among distinct AM
model as a function of part geometry and process parameters for binder processes to successfully manufacture a high quality part is a non-trivial
jetting processes. Their research was later continued with a focus on the task [99]. Further, two additional criteria, maximum energy efficiency
printing stage, where part orientation and layer thickness was studied and minimum environmental impact, make it even more challenging.
[92]. Gutowski et al. [61] presented an empirical relationship between
A linear regression model of process time was proposed to correlate the energy consumption rate and process rate for several manufacturing
product design features (e.g. build height and volume) with process processes, suggesting that novel processes with process rates smaller
time [73]. A more detailed study by Paul and Anand [93] presented a than 0.1 kg/h tend to consume energy in excess of 100 MJ/kg. For AM
mathematical model for laser energy required for printing as a function processes, this was verified by some studies (e.g.,[55,56]), but contra-
of areal energy density and the total sintering area. Part geometry, layer dicted by others (e.g., [85,86]. This means that, as a niche technology,
thickness, and part orientation were examined. This work is a note- the remarkable advantages of AM in terms of energy reduction remain
worthy theoretical model, but it focused primarily on laser power and unexploited. Better capacity utilization could be an operative method
excluded other components, such as heating and recoating. In their [100]. Due to fixed energy and material consumption in non-productive
following work, total sintering volume, instead of area, was used in the states, and the fixed dimensions of the container and chamber, the build
calculation, derived from stereolithography (STL) voxel representation should have the highest capacity utilization rate, in-line with the
[94]. Again, layer thickness and part orientation were investigated to findings of [55,56]. Equally important, model-based optimization of
lower process energy and part errors, while obtaining higher part process parameters can result in lower height, shorter time, and cor-
strengths. Different forms of energy density were defined by Franco and respondingly less energy and material consumption [73].
Romoli [95], where laser power was also the focus. Some AM machines can only print a few parts at a time due to build
In summary, relatively intense research has been conducted in this space limits (e.g., FDM) or parameter limits (e.g., same layer thickness
category, but no firm conclusions have been readily drawn for a specific in SLS), but others can print more parts in almost the same time with
process or system, and inconsistent results have been reported, for ex- slightly more energy (Stereo Lithography Apparatus (SLA) or inkjet).
ample, on the effects of the energy consumption rate (kWh/kg) [96,97]. Perhaps even more parts may be printed simultaneously before the
Existing findings were only applicable for certain AM processes or additional time and energy use become appreciable, but such practices
systems, thus further generic and fundamental studies and data col- would create great environmental impact improvement. Therefore, ar-
lection are still required. ranging multiple parts and minimizing the interacting effects (e.g.
thermal melt pool effect, residual stress, and cooling rate) remains a
challenge. The risk of part failure should also be considered.
4.4. Multi-criteria optimization
In addition, the potential to reduce energy and environmental im-
pacts at the production/supply chain level remains untapped. While
Optimizing energy consumption and environmental impact is an
improving, or at least maintaining, a customer’s satisfaction level, AM
eventual goal, not just for a specific AM process or system, but for the
holds great potential by changing the supply chain structure [101,102],
entire AM-integrated supply chain. Few scattered studies exist in this
addressing the unpredictability of demand and stock-keeping inventory,
category. Researchers have tried different approaches, such as AM-in-
and reducing associated distribution logistics [103,8].
tegrated process planning, online monitoring and control, and supply
chain configuration. However, few studies have considered multiple
objectives and the complicated and sometimes conflicting relationships 5. Research gaps and priorities
between these objectives (for example, energy consumption and part
quality) have not been effectively tackled. An early survey on planning Based on the four categories of literature reviewed above, many

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gaps in the pilot chart towards SAM were revealed. For the moment, the The inability of current AM technology to guarantee part quality, such
entire life cycle of the AM-related industry is not considered, and the as mechanical properties and dimensional accuracy, for a certain pro-
largest relative influence on energy and environmental impacts in a cess is inhibiting its wide industry adoption. With FDM, for example,
market was identified for aerospace fuel demands (9–35%), followed by many parametric models to predict surface roughness have been de-
aerospace production (8-19%), medical components (5-19%), and veloped [106,107], but few have considered energy and environmental
tooling (3-10%). A higher buy-to-fly ratio of almost 1:1 using AM in the impacts concurrently. Smaller layer thickness and optimal part or-
aerospace industry is possible, increasing the current practical range ientation improves surface roughness [108,109], but increases process
from 12:1 to 25:1 [104], but AM parts in near-term adoption are still time, and thus, energy consumption. Otherwise, poor surface quality
limited to non-critical load profiles and less-heavy duty components for requires subsequent finishing processes, consuming additional energy
lightweight applications [67]. Once AM achieves higher confidence and resources, including hot cutter machining [110], chemical treat-
level in application, and achieves a greater shares in mass customiza- ment [111], and vapor smoothing [112]. In other AM processes, such as
tion markets, its influence on sustainability will be greater [23]. Op- SLS and Electron Beam Melting (EBM)., quality assurance is more cri-
portunities in energy-efficient and environmentally benign improve- tical but difficult. Most existing research is experimental, and on the
ments may be missed unless timely and comprehensive research is periphery of core knowledge, including heat transfer and radiation,
conducted. Based on this review, the identified research gaps and material transformation, melt pool evolution, and their effects on part
suggested directions are summarized in five points. quality. Mastering these core knowledge areas is quite challenging, and
radical advances in sensing and measuring techniques to capture see-
5.1. Data integration and management mingly imperceptible occurrences may be key. We therefore highlight
that energy and environmental studies must consider part quality to
To quantify and evaluate the sustainability of AM, insufficient data ensure that maximal life cycle impact saving opportunities are possible.
support in quantitative studies hampers the accuracy, reliability, and
practicability. Likewise, top-down calculation models were more fre- 5.3. Smart AM machinery
quent than bottom-up approaches, because the values for energy, costs,
and other environmental impacts for individual process are not yet Smart AM machinery should be able to facilitate product develop-
available [23]. The rapid development and growth of AM makes a ment from a manufacturability standpoint. The attributes of com-
bottom-up approach difficult, let alone comparing top-down and plexity, customization, and production volume should be considered in
bottom-up. Many assumptions were typically made in the data-driven decision making, together with the corresponding energy demand and
studies for AM, such as LCA, because the data were proprietary and environmental impacts. In many cases, AM is not used solely to make a
owned by different parties. For example, metal powder makers are final product, thus the combination of AM and SM processes and the
concerned about information disclosure of their core production pro- selection of an effective portfolio of production strategies is more im-
cesses, and machine manufacturers were not willing to share informa- portant [27]. Hybrid AM and SM systems require intelligent algorithms
tion on cycle time and resource consumption in making a machine to determine appropriate process parameter combinations. When mul-
[71,72]. Commercial LCA software, such as SimaPro and GaBi, should tiple AM systems are available, an intelligent factory with resource
pay attention to this issue. allocation and self-organization capabilities is preferred. More specifi-
From a holistic perspective, there is a lack of effective information cally, better design of AM machines to optimize worktable preheating,
flow management through a product’s life cycle and the corresponding flexible part support, printing paths, and adaptable build chambers is
distributed AM systems. Being an interdisciplinary research area, AM- useful to improve energy and material efficiency. Better sealing and in-
related knowledge and data integration, covering material, energy, process control is another effective tool [73]. In one study, AM was
industrial design, manufacturing, and environmental science, is pivotal combined with post-processing in an attempt to make use of heating
and demanding. This is in line with the integration in AM digital im- energy [113]. Tremendous variation in machine utilization should also
plementation [105]. As such, the following research works are sug- be taken into account for different applications, from once a month in
gested: design prototyping to 24/7 in final part manufacturing.

• Develop standardized test samples for AM that can demonstrate the 5.4. Material preparation and recycling
geometric complexity and microstructure impact on the build sam-
ples. This is useful to obtain basic reference and comparable sus- Material preparation and recycling is an ongoing research area for
tainability data. many materials used in AM, and it is mostly energy-consuming and
• Construct a unified and standardized life cycle inventory database environmentally impactful. This makes AM less cost-effective than ex-
structure for different AM technologies. This ensures that the es- pected, not to mention its technological difficulty. Practical methods to
sential data on material, production conditions, machinery, and recycle unused material powder have been proposed [31], as it has
applications are captured. been recognized that material recycling rates contributes significantly
• Encourage consistent and collaborative work among research to impact reduction. One study reported that over 40% of material-
groups. This is critical to accumulate authentic and complete life related waste can be avoided using AM and 95% of unused material can
cycle data and inventory, shareable at least within a community. be reused [114], but this finding has not yet been confirmed for all
materials. For example, unfused Ti-6Al-4V powders require a rigorous
The bound estimation technique is sometimes adopted when accu- recycling procedure before they can be reused, and the quality level of
rate data are absent, for example, estimate the environmental impact of the final part cannot be guaranteed after a certain number of reuse
a new AM material, but this simplification can be misleading. times [115]. In order to control the input material quality and to use
Continuous extension and revision of the life cycle data repository with fresh material more efficiently, a simple mixture is not ideal. We sug-
the development of AM is another important issue in providing solid gest using a grading method according to the melt flow rate of the re-
data support. cycled powder, and tracking reuse time. Alternatively, the recycled
material and waste can be jointly managed with other manufacturing
5.2. Energy, environment, and quality processes, such as smelting and forming, for reprocessing and reuse. In
most cases, extra energy and material consumption is needed. Ad-
Energy and the environment cannot stand alone in achieving more ditionally, information on energy and material demands and the related
sustainable AM, as quality assurance and repeatability are prerequisite. environmental impacts of these processes is not yet available.

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T. Peng et al. Additive Manufacturing 21 (2018) 694–704

5.5. AM-inspired applications important for a reliable estimation and evaluation of energy con-
sumption and environmental impact, especially for life cycle analysis.
AM holds the potential to lower life cycle energy and environmental Such complexity can only be addressed efficiently with coordinated
impact through newly-developed applications that were previously in- research efforts. Data and knowledge should be accumulated, con-
feasible. It can shorten product development cycles, reduce the need for solidated, and shared within some organizations, or perhaps an open
tooling and handling, and lower energy and material demands through and healthy sharing community should be established. Awareness and
remanufacturing and repairing. For example, a developed application collaborative efforts of experts from multidisciplinary fields, such as
directly enhancing mass production is rapid tooling for the optimal material, mechanical, chemistry, economics, management, are required
design of injection molds and key insert components [116,117], such as to create a sustainable future for the AM industry.
complex but efficient cooling channels. It also has the capability to
eliminate supply chain operations associated with the production of Acknowledgements
new tooling and component by remanufacturing. Turbine blade re-
manufacturing has been used to demonstrate energy and life cycle This research is sponsored by the National Natural Science
impact reduction compared to conventional approaches [118]. More Foundation of China (Nos. 51505423 and 51604228), the Education
excitingly, AM-inspired applications are growing with the development Department of Zhejiang Province (No. N20150229), Funds of the State
of new materials, processes, machinery, and systems, and could bring Key Laboratory of Fluid Power and Mechatronic Systems (No.
sustainability benefits to many more industries. SKLoFP_ZR_1603), the National Key Research and Development
Program of China (No. 2017YFB0305800), Fundamental Research
6. Conclusions Funds for the Central Universities (No. 2016QNA4002), and GOA
SUMMA project (Sustainable Materials Processing in
AM is a promising and unique technology to support future manu- Manufacturing3E140361).
facturing. It plays a significant role in producing highly personalized,
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