Class XII PHYSICS
SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS
INTRODUCTION
Semiconductor devices are fundamental components used in modern electronic
circuits. Semiconductors are materials with electrical conductivity between
conductors (like metals) and insulators (like rubber). They have a moderate
electrical conductivity that can be controlled and modified for various
applications.
CLASSIFICATION OF METALS INSULATORS AND SEMICONDUCTORS
On the basis of the relative values of electrical conductivity (σ) or resistivity
( ρ = 1/σ ), the solids are broadly classified as:
(i) Metals: They possess very low resistivity (or high conductivity).
ρ ~ 10-2 – 10-8 Ω m
σ ~ 10 2 – 108 S m–1
(ii) Semiconductors: They have resistivity or conductivity intermediate to
metals and insulators.
ρ ~ 10–5 – 106 Ω m
σ ~ 105 – 10–6 S m–1
(iii) Insulators: They have high resistivity (or low conductivity).
ρ ~ 1011 – 1019 Ω m
σ ~ 10–11 – 10–19 S m–1
ENERGY BANDS IN SEMICONDUCTORS
Energy bands represent the allowed energy levels for electrons in a solid.
These bands are formed due to the overlapping of atomic orbitals when
atoms come together to form a solid. These different energy levels with
continuous energy variation form what are called energy bands.
The energy band which includes the energy levels of the valence electrons is
called the valence band. Electrons in this band are tightly bound to atoms
and are not available for conduction.
The energy band above the valence band is called the conduction band.
Electrons in this band are free to move and contribute to electrical
conduction.
Forbidden Energy Gap (Energy Band Gap):
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• The energy gap between the valence band and the conduction band is known
as the forbidden energy gap.
• Electrons require a certain amount of energy to move from the valence band
to the conduction band
Differentiation of Materials based on Energy Bands:
Conductors (Metals)
• Materials with overlapping or nearly overlapping valence and conduction
bands.
• Electrons can move easily from the valence band to the conduction band,
resulting in high electrical conductivity.
• Examples: Metals like copper, aluminum.
SEMICONDUCTORS
• Materials with a moderate energy gap between the valence and
conduction bands.
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• Electrons can move to the conduction band at higher temperatures or with
the help of external energy, making them intermediate conductors.
• Examples: Silicon, germanium.( Energy gap 0.7 eV for Silicon and
1.1eV for Germanium)
INSULATORS
• Materials with a large energy gap (forbidden energy gap) between the
valence and conduction bands.
• Electrons need a significant amount of energy to move from the valence
band to the conduction band, making them poor conductors of electricity.
• Examples: Rubber, glass, diamond.
INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
Pure semiconductors without any impurities. Intrinsic semiconductors generate
electron-hole pairs when exposed to energy (e.g., light or heat). The
conductivity is low due to the equal number of electrons and holes.
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Si and Ge have four valence electrons. In its crystalline structure, every Si or Ge
atom tends to share one of its four valence electrons with each of its four nearest
neighbour atoms, and also to take share of one electron from each such
neighbour. These shared electron pairs are referred to as forming a covalent
bond. As the temperature increases, more thermal energy becomes available to
these electrons and some of these electrons may break–away (becoming free
electrons contributing to conduction). The thermal energy effectively ionises
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only a few atoms in the crystalline lattice and creates a vacancy in the bond as
shown in Fig. 14.5(a). The neighbourhood, from which the free electron (with
charge –q) has come out leaves a vacancy with an effective charge (+q). This
vacancy with the effective positive electronic charge is called a hole.
The total current, I is thus the sum of the electron current Ie and the hole current
Ih:
I=Ie+Ih
Energy Band Diagram of Intrinsic semiconductor
Doping in Semiconductors
Doping is the deliberate introduction of impurities into a pure
semiconductor crystal to modify its electrical properties. These impurities
are typically added in very controlled amounts.
Intrinsic semiconductor with added impurity atoms are known as extrinsic
semiconductor
Based on the type of impurity atoms added extrinsic semiconductors are
classified as N-Type and P-Type semiconductors
N Type Semiconductor
In an n-type semiconductor, silicon or germanium atoms are doped with a
small number of pentavalent impurities ( Phosphorus, Arsenic, Antimony ,
Bismuth )
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The four of the five valance electrons of the impurity atoms will form
covalent bond with the adjoining four semiconductor atoms ( Ge or Silicon),
while the fifth electron become free electron by providing a very small
amount of energy. Thus each impurity atom donates one free electron to the
crystal. Thus pentavalent impurity atoms are called donor atoms.
Conductivity of the semi conductor crystal increases due to excess number
of free electrons.
Electrons are the majority carriers, while holes (absence of electrons) are the
minority carriers.
Energy level diagram of N type Semiconductor
P Type Semiconductor
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In a p-type semiconductor, silicon or germanium atoms are doped with a
small number of trivalent impurities ( Boron, Galium, Aluminium , Indium)
The three valance electrons of the impurity atom will form covalent bonds with
the adjoining three semiconductor atoms ( Ge /Si) , while there is one
incomplete covalent bond with a deficiency of electron. This deficiency of
electron create a hole.
Thus the trivalent impurity atoms with holes in it are called acceptor atoms. The
conduction of of electricity is occurs due to motion of holes
In P Type semiconductors Holes are majority carriers, Electrons are the
minority carriers.
Energy level diagram of P type Semiconductor
Distinguish Between Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductor
Intrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor
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Pure Semiconductor Semiconductor with added impurities
Electrical conductivity is low Electrical conductivity is high
Conductivity depends only on Conductivity depends on temperature
temparature as well as quantity of impurity atoms
added
Number of Electrons in conduction Number of electrons and holes are not
band and hoes in valance band are equal.
equal In P type n e < nh
In N Type ne > n h
ne = nh
N Type Semiconductor P Type Semiconductor
Doped with pentavalent impurities Doped with trivalent impurities
Eg : Arsenic , Antimony , Phosphorus Eg : Boron , Gallium , Indium
Electrons are majority carriers and Holes are majority carriers and
holes are minority carriers Electrones are minority carriers
ne > nh ne < nh
Pentavalent impurities are called Trivalent impurities are called
Donors Acceptors
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PN Junction Formation
Explain the process involved in the formation of PN junction
(i) Diffusion of majority carriers
(ii) Recombination of electron -hole pairs ( Formation of depletion region
and Barrier potential)
(iii) Drift of minority carriers
Due to difference in carrier concentration in P side and N side holes diffuse
from p-side to n-side and electrons diffuse from n-side to p-side . This motion
of charge carries gives rise to diffusion current across the junction.
Due to the diffusion of electrons from N side to P side a layer of positively
charged donor atoms are formed in N side and due to diffusion of hoes from P
side to N side a layer of negatively charged acceptor atoms are formed in P side.
This space-charge region on either side of the junction together is known as
depletion region.( This region does not carry any charge carriers ,only immobile
ions).
Due to the layer of positively charged donors on N side and negatively charged
acceptor atoms on P side an electric field directed from N side to P side is
developed across the junction .This creates a potential difference known as
barrier potential .
Due to this field, an electron on p-side of the junction moves to n-side and a
hole on n-side of the junction moves to pside. The motion of charge carriers due
to the electric field is called drift. Thus a drift current, which is opposite in
direction to the diffusion current
Initially, diffusion current is large and drift current is small . Due to the
diffusion process the depletion region extends and increases the strength of
electric field and hence drift current. This process continues till diffusion current
= Drift current
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BIASING OF PN JUCTION DIODES
CIRCUIT SYMBOL OF PN JUNCTION DIODE
FORWARWARD BIASING :
Draw the circuit diagram to study the characteristic of PN junction diode in
forward bias and plot the V – I characteristic curve.
Positive terminal of the battery is connected to the P side and negative terminal
of the battery is connected to the N side
Circuit Diagram
V – I characteristic of PN junction in forward bias
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Knee Voltage for Germanium - 0.2 V -
Knee Voltage for Silicon - 0.7 V
When the diode is forward biased the width of depletion region and barrier
potential increases
REVERSE BIASING :
Draw the circuit diagram to study the characteristic of PN junction diode in
reverse bias and plot the V – I characteristic curve.
Positive terminal of the battery is connected to the N side and negative terminal
of the battery is connected to the P side
Circuit Diagram
V – I characteristic of PN junction in forward bias
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As the reverse bias voltage increases , at a particular voltage the current through
the pn junction diode increases exponentially. This voltage is called reverse
break down voltage
When the diode is reverse biased the width of depletion region and barrier
potential increases.
Note :
The forward bias resistance is low and reverse bias resistance is high for PN
junction diode
Application of PN Juction Diode
Diode as Rectifier : It’s a device which converts ac voltage in to dc voltage
(i) Halfwave Rectifier
Circuit Diagram
Input and Output Wave forms
Principle
When the PN junction diode is forward biased it conducts and in
reverse bias it will not conduct
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Working
During the positive half cycle of ac voltage, the terminal A is positive
and B is negative , diode is forward bias and it conduct . During
negative half cycles of ac voltage the terminal A is negative and B is
positive , diode is in reverse bias and it will not conduct.
Therefore, in the positive half-cycle of ac there is a current through the
load resistor RL and we get an output voltage, whereas there is no
current in the negative half cycle.
This process continues and an output is obtained as shown in the
figure.
Input frequency = Output frequency ( that is if input frequency is 50
Hz , output frequency also 50 Hz)
(ii) Full Wave Rectifier
Input and Output Wave forms
Principle
When the PN junction diode is forward biased it conducts and in
reverse bias it will not conduct
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Working
During the positive half cycle of ac voltage, the terminal A is positive
and B is negative with respect to the centre tapping of the
transformer , diode D1 forward bias and it conduct and diode D2
reverse bias and it will not conduct During negative half cycles of ac
voltage the terminal A is negative and B is positive with respect to
centre tapping , diode D2 forward bias and it conduct and diode D1
reverse bias and it will not conduct .
Therefore, in the positive half-cycle and negative half cycles of of ac
there is a current through the load resistor RL and we get an output
voltage. This process continues and an output is obtained as shown in
the figure.
Out put frequency = 2 x Input frequency ( eg : If input frequency is
50 Hz then out put is 100 Hz)
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. Differentiate between insulators, conductors and semiconductors on the
basis of energy band diagram .
2. Plot the variation of resistance of a semiconductor with temperature
3. Draw the energy band diagram of intrinsic semiconductor at (i) ) 0 K
(ii) T > 0 K
4. What is doping ?
5. Differntiate between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors
6. Differentiate between intrinsic and extrinsic semi conductors on the
basis of energy band diagram
7. A semiconductor material is doped with (i) phosphorus (ii) Boron .
Identify the type of semiconductor formed and draw its energy band
diagram
8. Explain the process involved the formation of PN junction with the help
of necessary diagram.
9. Draw the circuit diagram to study the characteristics of PN junction
diode in forward bias and reverse bias. Draw the V I characteristics in
both types of biasing .
10.What happens to the (i) depletion region (ii) barrier potential ( iii)
Diode resistance when the PN junction is (a) forward biased (b) reverse
biased.
11.With the help of a circuit diagram explain the working and principle of
PN junction diode as a(i) half wave rectifier (ii) full wave rectifier.
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12.Explain why a N type semiconductor is electrically neutral even though
nh < ne
13.Explain why a P type semiconductor is electrically neutral even though
nh > ne
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