CONCRETE AND STRUCTURES III : SEK306D

Compiled by: T Seabi

Elementary Structural Analysis – part 1

© COPYRIGHT: Tshwane University of Technology (2020)

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Let us begin

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Introduction (Understanding Structural Analysis: The Foundation of Architectural
Stability)
• Engagement: Imagine standing before a towering skyscraper or marveling at the intricate design
of a bridge. Have you ever wondered about the invisible forces that keep these architectural
wonders standing tall? Today, we delve into the world of structural analysis, a fundamental pillar
of architecture and engineering.
• Key Concept: At the heart of every sturdy structure lies elementary structural analysis. It serves
as the cornerstone, enabling building science practitioners to decipher how buildings withstand
the forces of nature and human use.

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Introduction (Understanding Structural Analysis: The Foundation of Architectural
Stability)
• the forces of nature and human use.

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Introduction (Understanding Structural Analysis: The Foundation of Architectural
Stability)

• "What do you believe is the most crucial aspect of building

design?"

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Fundamentals of Structural Analysis: Determinate Structures

• Definition and Importance:

– Definition: Determinate structures are systems where internal forces and
reactions can be precisely determined through equilibrium principles.
– Importance: They serve as the foundational concept in structural
engineering and design, allowing engineers to predict and analyze the
behavior of structures accurately.
• Context and Analogies:
– Jigsaw Puzzle Analogy: Just like a jigsaw puzzle where each piece fits
together perfectly to form a complete picture, determinate structures
rely on the precise arrangement of members and supports for clear
understanding of internal forces.
– Balanced Scale Analogy: Think of equilibrium equations as a balanced
scale, where the sum of forces and moments is akin to the balance point
of the scale, ensuring stability and structural integrity.

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Fundamentals of Structural Analysis: Determinate Structures

• "What are the primary load-bearing members in this

structure?"
• "How do you think the supports contribute to maintaining
equilibrium?"
• "Can you identify any redundant or unnecessary elements in
this structure?"

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Fundamentals of Structural Analysis: Determinate structures
Newton’s Second law
• Newton's Second Law, often expressed as F = ma (Force equals
mass times acceleration), is a cornerstone in physics and
engineering.
– In the context of structures, it governs how external loads cause changes
in the state of motion or deformation of a structure.
– Just as a conductor directs the flow of music within an orchestra,
Newton's Second Law orchestrates the distribution and magnitude of
forces within a structure.

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Fundamentals of Structural Analysis: Determinate structures
Newton’s Second law
• Contextualization:
– Newton's second law applies to everyday scenarios, such as the swaying
of a suspension bridge under wind gusts, Important to be able to
highlight its relevance in predicting structural responses to external
stimuli.
• Interaction with material:
– I encourage to brainstorm other situations where Newton's second law is
at play, to help foster critical thinking and deeper engagement with the
material.
• Analogies:
– Can you draw parallels between the acceleration of objects under
external forces and the momentum of a rolling boulder, illustrating the
interconnectedness of applied loads, structural elements, and dynamic
behavior?

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Fundamentals of Structural Analysis: Determinate structures
Newton’s Second law
• Contextualization:
– Newton's second law applies to everyday scenarios, such as the swaying
of a suspension bridge under wind gusts, Important to be able to
highlight its relevance in predicting structural responses to external
stimuli.
• Interaction with material:
– I encourage to brainstorm other situations where Newton's second law is
at play, to help foster critical thinking and deeper engagement with the
material.
• Analogies:
– Can you draw parallels between the acceleration of objects under
external forces and the momentum of a rolling boulder, illustrating the
interconnectedness of applied loads, structural elements, and dynamic
behavior?

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Fundamentals of Structural Analysis: Determinate structures
Calculation of internal forces
• Key Concept: Calculation of Internal Forces
– Equilibrium equations, rooted in Newton's laws of motion, provide a
fundamental framework for analyzing the balance of forces acting on a structure.
By applying these equations, engineers can unveil the internal forces exerted on
each component of the structure. Whether it's the tension in a cable, the
compression in a beam, or the shear forces along a support, equilibrium
equations serve as the guiding light, enabling engineers to decipher the intricate
web of forces within the system.
• Contextualization:
– Truss Analysis
• Consider a simple truss structure subjected to various loads. Through the method of joints and
sections, engineers can apply equilibrium equations to determine the internal forces within each
member of the truss. By systematically analyzing the forces at each joint and section, engineers can
unravel the distribution of forces, thereby ensuring the structural stability and safety of the truss.
– Beam Bending
• In the case of a loaded beam, equilibrium equations play a pivotal role in analyzing the internal
forces arising from bending moments and shear forces. Through finite element analysis (FEA)
simulations, engineers can visualize the distribution of internal forces along the length of the
beam. By meticulously applying equilibrium equations at different sections of the beam, engineers
can ascertain the magnitude and direction of internal forces, thereby optimizing the design for
maximum strength and efficiency.
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Fundamentals of Structural Analysis: Determinate structures
Calculation of internal forces
• Practical Insights:
– The application of equilibrium principles in calculating internal forces extends beyond
theoretical concepts, offering practical insights into real-world construction scenarios.
– By leveraging advanced computational tools and simulation techniques, practitioners can
simulate complex structural behaviors with unprecedented accuracy.
– This not only facilitates the design process but also enhances the overall safety and
reliability of structures in diverse applications ranging from bridges and buildings to
aerospace and automotive engineering.

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Fundamentals of Structural Analysis: Determinate structures
Ambiguity-Free Analysis and Predictability
• Key Concept: Ambiguity-Free Analysis and Predictability
– Determinate structures offer clarity and predictability in engineering solutions.
• This frames them as the cornerstone of reliable engineering solutions akin to a well-calibrated compass guiding
ships through turbulent seas.

• Contextualization:
– They serve as the cornerstone of reliability amidst uncertainty.
– Their fixed properties ensure stability and efficiency in performance.
– In contrast, indeterminate structures pose challenges due to their complex
interdependencies and unknown variables.
– Determinate structures provide a solid foundation for engineering endeavors, streamlining
processes and instilling confidence in functionality and longevity.

• "Which of the following is a characteristic of determinate structures?" a)

Clarity and predictability b) Complexity and uncertainty c) Flexibility and
adaptability d) Randomness and variability

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Fundamentals of Structural Analysis: Determinate structures
characteristics-The Science Behind Stability
• Key Concept: Equilibrium Equations
– Consider equilibrium equations as the guiding compass of structural analysis, enabling
practitioners to navigate the complex interplay of forces with confidence and clarity, akin to
solving a puzzle where every piece fits seamlessly into place.
• Contextualization:
– Simulations or visualizations demonstrating how equilibrium equations ensure that every
force and moment within a structure is meticulously balanced, guaranteeing stability and
safety under diverse loading scenarios. (Software like BIM help us simulate structures and
eventually the load on the structure)
• Attempt to draw parallels between the equilibrium of forces within a
structure and the delicate balance of nature, where every ecosystem
thrives on interconnected relationships and mutual support, highlighting
the beauty of structural stability. Consider the following:
– Interconnectedness
– Mutual Support
– Adaptation and Resilience
– Feedback Loops
– Diversity
– Dynamic Equilibrium 15
– Aesthetic Harmony:
Fundamentals of Structural Analysis: Determinate structures
characteristics-The Science Behind Stability
• Key Concept: Predictable Response
– Appreciate the inherent predictability of determinate structures as the cornerstone of
engineering reliability, likening it to the unwavering predictability of a well-tuned
instrument producing harmonious melodies under varying conditions.
• Contextualization:
– Consider how the predictable response of determinate structures simplifies design
optimization and risk assessment, lets look at the following examples from real-world
projects to showcase the practical implications of structural predictability.
• Bridge Design
• Skyscraper construction

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Fundamentals of Structural Analysis: Determinate structures
characteristics-Examples of determinate structures
• Trusses:
– Key Points:
• Definition: Trusses are efficient load-bearing structures composed of interconnected
beams forming triangular or polygonal patterns.
• Examples: Iconic structures like the Brooklyn Bridge showcase the versatility and
strength of truss designs.
• Interactive Element: Audience participation in analyzing truss structures using methods
like the method of joints or sections.

• Beams: Supporting Structures with Grace

– Key Points:
• Definition: Beams are fundamental components in construction, supporting loads
primarily through bending.
• Examples: Beams are ubiquitous in architecture, from skyscrapers to playground
structures.
• Interactive Element: Virtual simulation demonstrating the impact of beam dimensions
on structural performance.

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Fundamentals of Structural Analysis: Determinate structures
characteristics-Examples of determinate structures
• Framed Structures: Stability and Flexibility Combined
– Key Points:
• Definition: Frames with pinned connections provide robust support while allowing for
flexibility.
• Examples: Industrial facilities and architectural marvels utilize framed structures for
efficient load transfer.
• Interactive Element: Design scenario where the audience creates framed structures to
withstand varying loads.

• Simple Arches: Icons of Architectural Elegance

– Key Points:
• Definition: Arches exhibit timeless elegance and structural ingenuity, spanning
generations.
• Examples: Ancient Roman aqueducts and modern skyscrapers showcase the enduring
appeal of arch structures.
• Interactive Element: Hands-on activity exploring the geometric properties of arches.

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Fundamentals of Structural Analysis: Determinate structures
characteristics-Examples of determinate structures
• Framed Structures: Stability and Flexibility Combined
– Key Points:
• Definition: Frames with pinned connections provide robust support while allowing for
flexibility.
• Examples: Industrial facilities and architectural marvels utilize framed structures for
efficient load transfer.
• Interactive Element: Design scenario where the audience creates framed structures to
withstand varying loads.

• Simple Arches: Icons of Architectural Elegance

– Key Points:
• Definition: Arches exhibit timeless elegance and structural ingenuity, spanning
generations.
• Examples: Ancient Roman aqueducts and modern skyscrapers showcase the enduring
appeal of arch structures.
• Interactive Element: Hands-on activity exploring the geometric properties of arches.

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Fundamentals of Structural Analysis: Indeterminate structures

• Definition:
– Indeterminate structures are complex engineering systems where the
determination of internal forces and reactions cannot be achieved solely
through equilibrium equations. They possess redundant members or
support conditions, introducing uncertainty into their behavior.
• Characteristics:
– Complexity: Indeterminate structures present higher complexity in
analysis due to redundant elements and support conditions, requiring
additional considerations beyond equilibrium equations.
– Variability: The behavior of indeterminate structures may be less
predictable without proper accounting for redundancy, potentially
leading to inaccurate design outcomes.

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Fundamentals of Structural Analysis: Indeterminate structures

• Examples:
– Continuous beams, frames, trusses with extra supports, and complex
architectural structures are practical examples of indeterminate
structures.
– Analysis Techniques: Advanced engineering methods such as the slope-
deflection method, moment distribution method, finite element analysis,
and matrix structural analysis are employed for analyzing and designing
indeterminate structures.

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Fundamentals of Structural Analysis: Indeterminate structures
(Characteristics)
• 1. Exceeding Equilibrium Equations:
– In indeterminate structures, the number of unknown forces exceeds the
available equilibrium equations.
– This surplus of unknowns complicates structural analysis, requiring
additional equations or conditions beyond simple equilibrium.
• 2. Need for Additional Equations or Conditions:
– Practitioners must consider supplementary constraints like compatibility
equations or deformation considerations.
– These additional conditions resolve the excess of unknowns, providing a
complete understanding of the structure's response to external loads.
• 3. Redundancy and Stability:
– Indeterminate structures often feature redundant members enhancing
stability but complicating analysis.
– Redundant members introduce extra degrees of freedom, necessitating
consideration of compatibility conditions for structural integrity.
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Fundamentals of Structural Analysis: Indeterminate structures
(Examples)
• 1. Continuous Beams:
– Characteristics: Multiple support conditions introduce additional unknowns into equilibrium
analysis.
– Analysis: Practitioners must consider compatibility conditions and redistribution of
moments and shears along the span.
• Example: Continuous beams spanning multiple supports require advanced analytical techniques for accurate
prediction of behavior.

• 2. Rigid Frames with Fixed Connections:

– Characteristics: Fixed connections restrict rotational movement, leading to surplus
unknowns.
– Analysis: Practitioners must consider compatibility of deformations at connections in
addition to equilibrium conditions.
• Example: Rigid frame structures with fixed connections demand advanced computational methods for accurate
determination of internal forces.

• 3. Cable-Stayed Bridges:
– Characteristics: Complex interaction between bridge deck, cables, and supporting towers
introduces redundant support conditions.
– Analysis: Requires consideration of equilibrium equations, compatibility conditions, and
cable geometry.
• Example: Cable-stayed bridges necessitate sophisticated computational models for predicting structural response
accurately.
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Fundamentals of Structural Analysis: Why determinacy matters

1. Design Complexity: Indeterminate structures add complexity to design and analysis,

requiring practitioners to master advanced analytical techniques to address real-
world engineering challenges effectively.
– For example, designing complex bridges or high-rise buildings demands a deep understanding of
indeterminate structures.
2. Real-world Applications: Many structures in the real world exhibit indeterminate
behavior, necessitating practitioners to analyze and design them effectively. Mastery
of indeterminate structures enables practitioners to contribute meaningfully to the
built environment, ensuring stability, durability, and safety.
3. Optimization and Efficiency: Indeterminate structures offer opportunities for
optimization and efficiency improvements. By leveraging redundancies and
redistributing internal forces, practitioners can design lighter, cost-effective, and
sustainable structures.
4. Advanced Studies and Research: Knowledge of indeterminate structures paves the
way for advanced studies and research in structural engineering. Practitioners
equipped with this knowledge can explore areas like structural stability, finite
element analysis, and structural optimization, pushing the boundaries of structural
engineering.

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Fundamentals of Structural Analysis: Understanding Newton's
Laws for Structural Analysis
1. First Law of Motion (Law of Inertia): This law states that an object remains at rest or
moves at a constant velocity unless acted upon by an external force.
– In structural analysis, it implies that a structure will stay stationary or in motion unless subjected to
external forces such as loads or disturbances.
2. Second Law of Motion: According to this law, the acceleration of an object is directly
proportional to the net force acting on it and inversely proportional to its mass
(F=ma).
– In structural analysis, this law helps determine a structure's response to applied loads, enabling
practitioners to calculate forces within structural members and ascertain whether the structure is in
equilibrium.
3. Third Law of Motion (Action-Reaction): This law states that for every action, there is
an equal and opposite reaction.
– In structural analysis, it is crucial for understanding how forces are transmitted through interconnected
structural elements, guiding practitioners in analyzing force distribution and ensuring equilibrium within
complex structures.

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Fundamentals of Structural Analysis: Application of Newton's Laws
to Structural Analysis
1. Free Body Diagrams (FBD): The initial step involves creating free body diagrams to
identify all forces acting on a structure or component.
– Practitioners isolate the structure or component and represent external forces and reactions, including
applied loads and support reactions.
2. Equilibrium Equations: Equilibrium equations, derived from Newton's laws, are then
applied to sum forces and moments to ensure the structure is in equilibrium.
– These equations are expressed as the sum of forces and moments being zero in various directions,
guiding the analysis of individual components or the entire structure.
3. Solving for Unknowns: Practitioners algebraically manipulate equilibrium equations
to solve for unknown forces or reactions within the structure.
1. This step ensures that the structure can withstand applied loads and remains stable under different
conditions.

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Fundamentals of Structural Analysis: Calculating Reactions on
Supports
• Support Reactions Overview: Support reactions are forces and moments exerted by
supports on a structure to maintain equilibrium and stability. They counteract
external loads applied to the structure, ensuring static equilibrium. Support reactions
include vertical, horizontal forces, and moments:
• Vertical Reactions: Counteract downward forces like the structure's weight and
additional loads.
• Horizontal Reactions: Resist lateral loads, maintaining stability against horizontal
translation or rotation.
• Moments: Arise from rotational forces at supports, essential for understanding
bending and torsional behavior.

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Fundamentals of Structural Analysis: Calculating Reactions on
Supports
• Methods for Determining Reactions: Several approaches can calculate support
reactions:
– Equilibrium Equations: Sum forces and moments to ensure zero net force and moment, solving for
reactions.
– Virtual Work Method: Equate external and internal work done during virtual displacements to calculate
reactions.
– Method of Sections: Cut the structure and analyze internal forces and moments to determine nearby
support reactions.
• Step-by-Step Approach with Practical Examples:
1. Identify External Loads: Determine all external loads acting on the structure.
2. Draw Free Body Diagram (FBD): Isolate the structure and indicate all external loads and unknown
support reactions.
3. Apply Equilibrium Equations: Sum forces and moments to ensure static equilibrium.
4. Solve for Support Reactions: Determine unknown reactions through algebraic manipulation.
5. Check for Consistency: Verify reactions satisfy equilibrium conditions.

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Fundamentals of Structural Analysis: Calculating Reactions on
Supports
• Importance of Accurate Reaction Calculations:
– Structural Stability: Ensures structures withstand loads without failure or excessive deformations.
– Safety: Crucial for designing structures meeting safety standards, protecting occupants.
– Legal and Ethical Considerations: Fulfill professional obligations and uphold trust in the engineering
profession.

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Fundamentals of Structural Analysis: Deflection of Simply
Supported Beams: Understanding and Practical Applications

• Definition and Significance of Deflection: Deflection refers to the deformation of a

structural element under load, influencing serviceability, aesthetics, and structural
performance. Excessive deflection can lead to discomfort, functional issues, and even
failure.
• Beam Deflection Theory:
– Elastic Behavior: Beams deform elastically, returning to their original shape within the elastic limit.
– Hooke's Law: Deformation is directly proportional to the applied load within the elastic limit, forming
the basis for deflection analysis.
• Analytical Methods for Calculating Beam Deflection:
– Differential Equations: Derived from elasticity and equilibrium principles.
– Integration Techniques: Used to solve differential equations and determine the deflection equation.
– Boundary Conditions: Support conditions and applied loads provide constraints for solutions.
• Simplified Approaches:
– Double-Integration Method: Simplifies deflection calculation for simply supported beams, particularly
useful for uniform loads and simple support conditions.

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Fundamentals of Structural Analysis: Deflection of Simply
Supported Beams: Understanding and Practical Applications

• Practical Applications:
– Design Considerations: Deflection analysis aids in selecting appropriate beam sizes, materials, and
support configurations.
– Structural Performance: Identifies potential risks such as cracking or collapse due to excessive
deflection.
– Code Compliance: Ensures structures meet safety and serviceability standards outlined in building
codes.
• Practical Examples and Case Studies of Deflection:
1. Worked Examples on Reaction Calculations and Beam Deflection Analysis: Step-by-step solutions
illustrate theoretical concepts in practical applications, aiding in problem-solving skills development.
2. Analysis of Common Building Components: Detailed examination of floor beams, roof trusses, and
support columns under various loads provides insights into their behavior and performance.
3. Case Studies in Structural Design: Real-world projects offer insights into design complexities and
constraints, fostering critical thinking and problem-solving skills.
4. Emphasis on Interpreting Results and Making Informed Decisions: Interpretation of analysis results
enables informed decision-making in structural design, considering factors like cost, constructability, and
sustainability.

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Fundamentals of Structural Analysis: Safety and Ethical
Considerations in Building Design and Construction

1. Importance of Structural Integrity and Safety: Structural integrity and safety are paramount in
building design and construction to ensure the safety of occupants and the longevity of
structures. Building science practitioners must rigorously analyze and design buildings to
withstand various loads, including environmental factors like wind and earthquakes. Failure to
prioritize safety could lead to catastrophic consequences, endangering lives and causing
significant damage.
2. Ethical Responsibilities of Building Science Professionals: Building science professionals have
ethical responsibilities to prioritize structural stability, durability, and sustainability in their work.
This includes considering the impact on the environment and the community, adhering to
professional standards, and advocating for designs that prioritize safety and sustainability.
Practitioners should strive to minimize waste, reduce energy consumption, and mitigate
potential hazards to ecosystems.
3. Awareness of Codes, Regulations, and Standards: Practitioners must be familiar with codes,
regulations, and standards governing structural analysis and design practices. These guidelines
ensure that buildings meet minimum safety requirements and are constructed in compliance
with legal frameworks. Adhering to these regulations and standards is essential for producing
designs that are safe and legally permissible.
4. Promoting Continuous Learning and Professional Development: Building science is a dynamic
field that evolves with technological advancements and research findings. Practitioners should
embrace a culture of continuous learning and professional development to stay updated with
industry advancements. This includes attending seminars, workshops, and conferences, pursuing 32
further education, and engaging with industry professionals to exchange knowledge and ideas.