Introduction to research methodology

Lecture notes

Biruck Mulatu, (MSc)

Department of architecture
Institute of Technology,
University of Gondar
Dec 2019/2020
 Introduction to research methodology
Course contents
1. Research an introduction: Concept of research
2. Types of research
3. Research process
4. Research proposal developments
5. Report findings: writing research report
1. Research an introduction
1.1. Concept of research
 It is human nature to quest for knowledge. Research is emanated from
this natural interest.
 Two major approaches to acquire knowledge:
 Unscientific knowledge
 Scientific knowledge
1. Research an introduction
1.1. Concept of research: sources of knowledge
Unscientific Sources of knowledge
 Automatic acceptance of beliefs without exploring them.
 Accepting information we have been told by authority figure. It is
only useful and beneficial if the authority figure is knowledgeable in
the area.
 Commonsense - Knowledge acquired from past experience or from
our perceptions of the world. It is good for routines aspects of daily
life but hinders to widen our knowledge.
1. Research an introduction
1.1. Concept of research: sources of knowledge
 Scientific method as a Source of knowledge
 Knowledge acquired systematically. i.e. evaluate observation by our
bodily senses or measuring devices.
 It is sometimes seen as a controlled extension of commonsense
knowledge. Therefore, science relies on information that is
verifiable unlike commonsense.
 Science differs from commonsense:
 uses conceptual schemes and theoretical structures.
 Has the notion of control
 gives explanations or reasoning for different observed phenomena.
1. Research an introduction
1.1. Concept of research: sources of knowledge
Scientific Vs. Unscientific Research
 Scientific research: Focuses on solving problems and pursues a step-by-
step, logical, organized, and rigorous method. i.e.
 identify the problems, collect data, analyze and draw valid
conclusions
• Expectations from scientific research:
 General rules drawn, Objective evidences collected, Testable statements
made, A skeptical attitude to all claims, Creative, public and productive
Non-scientific research:
Based on experience and intuition
1. Research an introduction
1.1. Concept of research: sources of knowledge
Limitations of scientific research:
 Cannot have answer for all questions
 Results may not be applied everywhere
 Imperfection in the measurement devices, thus
 The scope and limitations of your work has to be clearly defined.
The work that will not be undertaken is described as the
delimitations of the research.
1. Research an introduction
1.2. Definition and purpose of research: What is research?..
 It is careful study or investigation to discover new facts or
information (crowther J. Et al, 1999)
 The deliberate study for the purposes of increasing understanding
or adding to knowledge (dawson, 2005)
 A more precise definition: “A systematic process of
collecting, analyzing and interpreting information (data) in
order to increase our understanding of the phenomenon
about which we are interested or concerned” ,(paul
D.Leedy).
1. Research an introduction
1.2. Definition and purpose of research: What Research Is Not
 Research isn’t information gathering:
 Gathering information from resources such as books or magazines
isn’t research.
 No contribution to new knowledge.
 Research isn’t the transportation of facts:
 Merely transporting facts from one resource to another doesn’t
constitute research.
 No contribution to new knowledge although this might make
existing knowledge more accessible.
1. Research an introduction
1.2. Definition and purpose of research: What is research?..
 Research is an attempt to achieve systematically and with the support
of data the answer to a question, the resolution to a problem, or the
greater understanding of a phenomenon
 ….a process of generation of new information and testing of ideas.
 The research process is systematic in terms of:
 defining the objective, managing the data, and communicating the
findings within established frameworks and in accordance with
existing guidelines.
1. Research an introduction
1.2. Definition and purpose of research: What is research?..
 All scientific research,…
 Has a goal – involves repeated and refined experimentation gradually
reaching an answer, its is impartial, objective, empirical and logical
 leads to the development of generalizations, principles or theories,
resulting in to some extent in prediction and control of events.
 Typical features of scientific research includes:
 Systematic – ordered, planned and disciplined. Controlled – confidence
in research outcomes
 Empirical – putting beliefs, ideas, or assumptions to a test. Critical –
many truths are tentative and are subject to change as a result of
subsequent research.
1. Research an introduction
1.2. Definition and purpose of research: purpose of research
 The purpose of research is to..
 Review or synthesize existing knowledge
 Investigate existing situations or problems
 Provide solutions to problems
 Explore and analyze more general issues
 Construct or create new procedures or systems
 Explain new phenomenon,
 Generate new knowledge or a combination of any of the above (Collis &
Hussey, 2003)
1. Research an introduction
1.2. Definition and purpose of research: purpose of research
 In general, The purpose of research is problem solving and acquiring
new knowledge, It also reduces the complexity of problems.
 In short, research is used for the purposes of:
 describing phenomena
 explaining phenomena
 predicting phenomena
 controlling phenomena
 comparing phenomena
1. Research an introduction
1.2. Definition and purpose of research: purpose of research
 Description – pictorial account of the phenomenon being studied. It is the first
step to do in scientific research.
 It find answers to the questions “what, who and where”.
 Explanation – exploring the causes of the occurrence of certain event.
 It find answers to the questions “why”.
 Prediction – generalizing about what will happen in the future.
 Control – intervene and subsequently observe an expected result.
 Comparison – explore whether two or more groups are similar or different on a
certain behavior or vice versa.
1. Research an introduction
1.3. Characteristics of scientific research
 Aim
 The purpose of scientific research is clear – problem solving.
 It is always directed towards the solution of a problem. Sources of problems:
Observation, literature reviews, professional conferences, etc
 Rigorous
 Based on good theoretical base and sound methodology, i.e. Follow carefully
designed procedures, always requires careful and painstaking analysis
1. Research an introduction
1.3. Characteristics of scientific research
 Testability
 Based upon observable experience or empirical evidence, Test theoretical
model by simulation or experiment
 Replicability
 The same relationship shall stand repeatedly under the same design parameters
 Demands accurate observation and description
 Precision and Confidence
 Precision refers to closeness of the findings to reality
 Confidence refers to the probability that our estimations are correct
1. Research an introduction
1.3. Characteristics of scientific research
 Objectivity
 Conclusions drawn from the analysis of data must be objective
 Proven from trend in data, supported by theoretical model
 Generalizability
 Emphasizes in the development of generalizations, principles and theories.
 Define scope of applicability
 Parsimony
 Simplicity in explaining the phenomena or problem
 Assumptions are critical, Minimize the dependent variable
1. Research an introduction
1.4. Research methodology
 The term methodology refers to the overall approaches &
perspectives to the research process as a whole.
 The frameworks and guidelines (methodology) in the systematic
process indicate:
 What to include in the research,
 How to perform the research, and
 What types of conclusions are possible based on the data collected.
 A research method refers only to the various specific tools or ways
data can be collected and analyzed, e.g. a questionnaire; interview
checklist; data analysis software etc..
1. Research an introduction
1.5. Research philosophies: major philosophical issues about knowledge
 There are essential two main research philosophies (or positions)
although there can be overlap between the two and both positions
may be identifiable in any research project.
 The research philosophy can impact on the methodology adopted for
the research project.
 Positivistic/ positivism
 can also be referred to 'Quantitative’, ‘Objectivist’, ‘Scientific’, ‘Experimentalist’ or
‘Traditionalist’
 Phenomenological
 can also be referred to ‘Qualitative’, ‘Subjectivist’, ‘Humanistic’ or ‘Interpretative.
1. Research an introduction
1.5. Research philosophies: major philosophical issues about knowledge
 Positivism – believing that the goal of knowledge is simply to describe
the phenomena that we experience.
 They are characterized by a detached approach to research that seeks
out the facts or causes of any social phenomena in a systematic way
 Three tenets of positivism:
Scientific attention should be restricted to observable facts.
The method of the physical sciences should also be applied to the social
sciences.
Science is objective and value free.
1. Research an introduction
1.5. Research philosophies: major philosophical issues about knowledge
 Phenomenological
 Phenomenological approaches however, approach research from the
perspective that human behavior is not as easily measured as
phenomena in the natural sciences.
 Phenomenological approaches are particularly concerned with
understanding behavior from the participants’ own subjective frames
of reference.
 Research methods are chosen therefore, to try and describe, translate
and explain and interpret events from the perspectives of the people
who are the subject of the research.
2. Types of research
2. Types of research

 Type of Research can be looked from different perspectives:

 Based on applications,(application of research findings)
 Basic and applied
 Based on objectives of the study
 exploratory, descriptive, analytical/explanatory, predictive,
etc.
 Based on mode of inquiry used/approach
 Qualitative and quantitative
 Deductive/inductive
2. Types of research
2.1. Type of Research based on application
 Research could be undertaken to solve:
 theoretical problems – basic research.
 practical problems – applied research.
 Basic Research
 The primary aim of Basic Research is to improve knowledge generally,
without any particular applied purpose in mind at the outset.
 Objective:
 Advancement of knowledge(formulating or expanding
theory),Understanding of theoretical relationship between variables
 Exploratory in nature (discovery of knowledge), E.g.
 What is the mind-body connection? Is computer important in everyday life?
2. Types of research
2.1. Type of Research based on application
 Applied Research
 Is designed from the start to apply its findings to a particular situation.
 Objective:
 Solve specific, practical questions,
 Can be exploratory, but descriptive
 Applied research employs methodology that is not as rigorous as that of
basic research.
 It yields findings that can be evaluated in terms of local applicability and
not in terms of universal validity.
2. Types of research
2.2. Type of Research Based on objective of the study
 Exploratory
 Exploratory research is undertaken when few or no previous
studies exist.
 The aim is to look for patterns, hypotheses or ideas that can be
tested and will form the basis for further research.
 Typical research techniques would includes;
 case studies, observation and reviews of previous related
studies and data.
2. Types of research
2.2. Type of Research Based on objective of the study
 Descriptive
 Descriptive research can be used to identify and classify the
elements or characteristics of the subject, e.g. number of days lost
because of industrial action.
 Quantitative techniques are most often used to collect, analyze and
summaries data.
 Analytical/explanatory
 Analytical research often extends the Descriptive approach to
suggest or explain why or how something is happening, e.g.
underlying causes of industrial action.
2. Types of research
2.2. Type of Research Based on objective of the study
 An important feature of this type of research is in locating and
identifying the different factors (or variables) involved.
 Predictive
 The aim of Predictive research is to speculate intelligently on future
possibilities, based on close analysis of available evidence of cause
and effect,
 e.g. predicting when and where future industrial action might take
place
2. Types of research
2.2. Type of Research Based on mode of inquiry used/approach
 Quantitative/Qualitative
 Many research projects combine a number of approaches, e.g. may use both
quantitative and qualitative approaches
 Quantitative
 The emphasis of Quantitative research is on collecting and
analyzing numerical data; it concentrates on measuring the scale,
range, frequency etc. of phenomena.
 This type of research, although harder to design initially, is usually
highly detailed and structured and results can be easily collated and
presented statistically.
2. Types of research
2.2. Type of Research Based on mode of inquiry used/approach
 Quantitative/Qualitative
 Qualitative
 Qualitative research is more subjective in nature than Quantitative
research and involves,
 examining and reflecting on the less tangible aspects of a
research subject, e.g. values, attitudes, perceptions.
 Although this type of research can be easier to start, it can be often
difficult to interpret and present the findings; the findings can also
be challenged more easily.
2. Types of research
2.2. Type of Research Based on mode of inquiry used/approach
 Deductive/inductive research
 Deductive research
 Deductive research moves from general ideas/theories to specific
particular & situations: the particular is deduced from the general,
e.g. broad theories.
 Inductive research
 Inductive research moves from particular situations to make or
infer broad general ideas/theories.
2. Types of research
2.2. Type of Research Based on mode of inquiry used/approach
3. Research process
3. Research process

 Research as a process has basic procedures or steps,

 Whatever academic discipline the general research procedure is
fundamentally the same,
 It starts with the research problem and ends with writing a research
report.
3. Research process
3.1. The research process
1. Question posed A question that has no known resolution arises
2. Problem statement and it is stated clearly as problem

3. Hypothesis/optional • optional

4. Literature review • Search for ideas that shed light on the

problem.
5.Data collection
• Data related to the problem
6.Data organization
• Depends on your methodology and methods
7.Data analysis & interpretation
8. Report the findings • Report the findings,
3. Research process
3.1. The research process
3. Research process
3.2. The research process: elements of research
 Document Research vs. Literature Review
• It is a searching the document for design data that shed light on the
design problem and for strategies that may help to address it.
 It’s function is to examine what others have done in the past in
response of design problems that are similar to the one being
investigated.
• The purpose is to enable defining the design problem and
formulating design theory in the light of past experience.
3. Research process
3.2. The research process: elements of research
 Types of Design Data: Sources of Design Data
 Design data resides, according to Cross (2007b) in people, documents,
and artifacts.
 However, document research is focused on documents’ data, which is
found in:
 Drawings; published designs in journals, books etc.; research work
publication; in addition to, Building by laws, codes and regulations,
3. Research process
3.2. The research process: elements of research
 Types of Design Data: Primary and Secondary data
 The researcher's only perceptions of Truth are various layers of truth
revealing facts.
 In the layer closest to the truth are primary data which are
 The most valid
 The most illuminating
 The most truth manifesting
 Are collected afresh and for the first time
3. Research process
3.2. The research process: elements of research
 Types of Design Data: Primary data
 Sources of primary data
 Census data
 Valid sample surveys
 Direct observations
 Budgets, bank statements, primary records
 First-hand reports of witnesses
3. Research process
3.2. The research process: elements of research
 Types of Design Data: Secondary data
 Farther away is a layer of secondary data
 Derived not from the truth itself but from the primary data
 Already have been collected by some one else and been used and
passed though (statistical) process
 Second-hand reports from first-hand observers, Newspapers, journals, books,
internet reports or articles, people’s hearsay reports from first-hand witnesses
or participants
The direct beam of the light
represents primary data,
although the beam of light is not
the source itself, it has come
directly from the source

The reflected beam of the

light represents secondary
data, distorted by the
imperfections of the floor and
the wall
3. Research process
3.3. Data collection and Analysis
 To collect data, choose the most suitable research method for your
study according to the type of research/approaches used.
 Quantitative research – involving numerical and statistical data. The
emphasis is on quantitative observations.
 Qualitative research – gathering non-numerical data. The emphasis
is on qualitative results.
3. Research process
3.3. Data collection and Analysis
 Design research/Study design – Common Types
 Survey
 Observational studies
 Questionnaires
 Interviews
 Focus groups
 Document analysis
 The experimental method
3. Research process
3.3. Data collection and Analysis
 Design research/Study design – Survey
 Observation studies - the process of observing and recording events.
 Especially useful for studying human or animal behavior
 Two types – participant (observer as participant) and non-participant
 Data collection:
 varies with the type of problem
 often through writing up of notes
 may also involve taping or filming
 graphs, charts
3. Research process
3.3. Data collection and Analysis
 Design research/Study design – Survey
 Questionnaires- a tool where respondents answers to questions.
 It could be open or closed/fixed.
 It is flexible and can be applied on almost any topic of research.
 Data collection:
 Questionnaire forms (hard copies), web based questionnaires
3. Research process
3.3. Data collection and Analysis
 Design research/Study design – Survey
 Interviews- tools where questions are delivered in a face to face
encounter.
 It is limited to cases where the subjects of study are human.
 It can be approached in pure quantitative (structured) and pure qualitative (not
structured) angle as of questionnaire.
 Mainly interviews are semi-structured
 Data collection:
 Structured one – ticking/writing on a form
 Less structured data – taping and taking notes
3. Research process
3.3. Data collection and Analysis
 Design research/Study design – Survey
 Focus groups - a type of interview but targeting only carefully selected
individuals usually who do not know each other.
 It is useful in providing qualitative data.
 Document analysis/content analysis - the process of using any kind of
document, films, photographs, books, etc, for analysis for a particular
research interest.
 It is an indirect form of research wherein original data is not generated.
 It is a non-reactive method.
 Reliability and validity are the central concerns
3. Research process
3.3. Data collection and Analysis
 Design research/Study design –The experimental method
 The experimental method - – involves setting up an experiment in
order to test a particular theory or hypothesis.
 Laboratory experiments – small scale study and subjects are studied in a
controlled environment.
E.g. building material & technology, behavioral & environmental studies
 Field experiments – research conducted outside the laboratory and researcher
control of the environment is reduced.
E.g. climate related studies
3. Research process
3.3.1 Types of surveying
 Census survey: is a survey in which every member of the population is
surveyed,
 Sample survey: covers < 100% of the population
• Usually used for socioeconomic survey
• Applied to gain information about the whole population from a
small group or sample
• Cheap
• Quick
3. Research process
3.3.1 Types of surveying
 Sample survey: Key words and Procedures
 Population: this is a group In statistical
enquiry from whom we usually need
information about a particular group of
people e.g. Population of a town, a
Kebele, project area…
 Sampling frame: It is differentiation
of the population by sampling
units. It could take a form of a
list/map
 Sampling units: these are items to be
sampled
3. Research process
3.3.1 Types of surveying
 Sample survey: Sampling methods
1. Random sampling: each member of the population has an equal chance of being
selected. There are three different types of random sampling
I. Simple Random Sampling
II. Systematic Random Sampling
III. Stratified Random Sampling
2. Non-random sampling: Members do not have equal chance of being
selected. There are two different types of non- random sampling
I. Cluster
II. Quota
3. Research process
3.3.1 Types of surveying
 Sample survey: Sampling methods

Sampling methods

Random sampling Non-random sampling

Systematic Stratified random

Simple Random Random sampling cluster Quota
Sampling Sampling
3. Research process
3.3.1 Types of surveying
 Sample survey: Sampling methods(Random sampling)
I. Simple Random Sampling:
 Each member of the sampling frame is given a number and the sample is
selected using random numbers generated using a computer, calculator, or
other machines,( e.g. lottery).
II. Systematic Random Sampling:
 uses list to choose every Nth person from the population
III. Stratified Random Sampling
 Used when population is split into distinguishable “layers” or “strata” which
together form the whole population. Further, used when researcher believes
the population has distinct subgroups.
 e.g. If population has 45% men, then we make sure sample is 45% men.
3. Research process
3.3.1 Types of surveying
 Sample survey: Sampling methods(Non-random sampling)
I. Cluster sampling:
 based on natural subgroups/ clusters. participants are selected because they
are willing and available to be studied.
 e.g. If population of a project area consists of all students attending
state secondary schools in the country, then local education authorities
form natural clusters.
 Steps in cluster sampling
 First, choose random sample of clusters
 Second, sample within each cluster. Clusters should be similar.
 Does not require complete sampling frame, cheaper but might not be
representative
3. Research process
3.3.1 Types of surveying
 Sample survey: Sampling methods(Non-random sampling)
II. Quota sampling:
 First population is divided into groups, then the interviewer is told how many
people to interview.
 The researcher asks participants to identify other participants to become
members of the sample.
 No sampling frame required
 Used usually in market research, Street, shopping centers…
 Quick to use
 Bias in selection of people to interview
 Location can exclude representative group
3. Research process
3.4. Data analysis(processing)
 Data Processing:
 Data after collection, has to be processed and analyzed.
 processing means making data ready for analysis
 Analyzing means Computation of certain measures to detect patterns
of relationships that exist among data groups
3. Research process
3.4. Data analysis(processing)
 Data Processing: Technically data processing includes
 Editing: examining the collected raw data (especially in surveys) to
detect errors and omissions and to correct these when possible
 Coding: process of assigning numerals and other symbols so that
responses can be put in to limited number of classes and
categories
 Classification: categorization of raw data in to groups of similar
characteristics
 Tabulation : summarizing raw data and displaying the same in
compact form of rows and columns
3. Research process
3.4. Data analysis(processing)
 Data analysis: data analysis includes
 Qualitative analysis: this is the analysis of data found from qualitative
research.
 It is the interpretation of data obtained by interviews, case studies and
observation
 Quantitative analysis (statistical): manipulating quantitative data
which includes
 Descriptive analysis: development of certain indices from the raw data to
reveal patterns
 Inferential analysis: make conclusions and predictions
4. Research Proposal Development
4. Research Proposal Development
4.1.Research proposal: What is a research proposal?

 Definition
 It is a detailed plan of your study.
 It is a document which sets out your ideas in an easily accessible way.
 Objective of writing a proposal:
 To present a focused and scholarly presentation of a research
problem and plan.
 To describe to research advisory committee what you will do, why it
should be done, how you will do it, and what you expect will result.
4. Research Proposal Development
4.1.Research proposal: What is a research proposal?

 What questions your proposal should answer?

 What do you want to do? – research question
 Why do you want to do it? – Any information gap
 Why is it important? – any practical importance or knowledge advancement.
 Who has done similar work? – background/literature review
 How are you going to do it? -methodology
 How long will it take? – plan of work
4. Research Proposal Development
4.2. Components of a Research proposal document
 The most logical order of a research proposal development is:
 Title/Research topic
 Summary/Synopsis/abstract
 Introduction/background
 Statement of the problem
 Objectives
 Questions or Hypothesis
 Literature review
 Materials and Methods/ Methodology
 Work plan
 References
4. Research Proposal Development
4.2. Components of a Research proposal document

 proposal Format – Recommendation

 In no more than 10 pages,
 Front page: Title, your name, name of advisor, department.
 Second page: content
 Third page: Summary/Abstract: Not more than 200/500 words.
 Fourth–seventh page: with bold headings: Introduction, objectives,
hypothesis, Literature review, materials and methods
 Eighth page: Work plan
 Last page: References.
4. Research Proposal Development
4.2. Components of a Research proposal

 Identifying a research topic – the first step for proposal development

 The criteria for selecting a research topic is:
 Relevance/significance
 Avoidance of duplication
 Feasibility of study
 Applicability of results
 Your Interest and knowledge to the area
 Ethical acceptability
4. Research Proposal Development
4.2. Components of a Research proposal

4.2.1. Title /Topic

 Title /Topic – the fewest possible words that adequately describe the
contents of the study.
 It is a label; not a sentence
 It shouldn’t contain any abbreviations
 It appears on the title page and on top of the abstract
 E.g.
 Quality assessment of low cost houses in Addis Ababa
4. Research Proposal Development
4.2. Components of a Research proposal

4.2.2. Summary/synopsis/Abstract
 Summary/synopsis/Abstract– a one page brief summary of the
thesis/research proposal.
 It shows that your work fits with the topic
 It shows what a contribution your work will make.
 It should specify the research question and how it is going to be answered.
 Do not put any information not stated in the main text.
 Never contain references, figures and tables.
 It comes first but written last.
 Should be written in future tense.
4. Research Proposal Development
4.2. Components of a Research proposal

4.2.3. Introduction/Background
 Introduction/Background – background information of the research
proposal.
 Introduce the problem, moving from the broader issues to your specific
problem,(at Global and national level),finishing the section with the precise
aims of the paper.
 It show what a contribution your work will make.
 Should site the most recent and relevant works, and should explain why work is
required.
 It should motivate the reader to read the whole paper.
4. Research Proposal Development
4.2. Components of a Research proposal

4.2.4. Statement of the problem

 Statement of the problem – the general issue that leads to a need for
the study. It is the foundation for everything to follow in the research
proposal.
 It answer the question ‘Why does this research be conducted?’
4. Research Proposal Development
4.2. Components of a Research proposal

4.2.5. Goal/Objective of the study

 Goal/Objective of the study – aim which the researcher seeks to
achieve as a result of completing the research.
 Objectives should be simple, stated in advance, stated using action
verbs.
 Objectives can be classified into:
 General objective – showing what exactly to be studied, and
states the desired outcomes from the study.
 Specific objectives – shows in greater detail the specific aims
of the research project.
4. Research Proposal Development
4.2. Components of a Research proposal

4.2.6. Research Questions and/or Hypothesis

 Research Questions and/or Hypothesis – the speculative proposition of
the problem statement.
 Question is an interrogative statement that can be answered by data.
 Hypothesis is a derivation of a particular assertion or prediction. It is
subject to test for confirmation or reject.
 Research Questions: What effects does daylighting strategy on office building
occupants performance ?
 Hypothesis: Office building daylighting strategy INFLUENCE occupants
performance ?
4. Research Proposal Development
4.2. Components of a Research proposal

4.2.7. Literature review

 Literature review – a description of the literature very relevant to your
study.
 Gives an overview of what has been said, who the key authors in the
area are, what the prevailing theories and hypothesis are, etc.
 Relevant materials could be from books, journal articles, theses and
dissertations, government reports, etc.
Note:
 Be very careful to check your sources when doing your literature review.
 Many trade magazines are not peer reviewed.
4. Research Proposal Development
4.2. Components of a Research proposal

4.2.7. Literature review

 Literature review – How do you collect a Literature Review?
 Identify key terms from your research problem/question
 Critically evaluate and select the literature
 Organize the literature
 Write a review
 E.g.
 The effect of daylighting strategy
on office building occupants  daylighting, office building,
performance occupant performance
4. Research Proposal Development
4.2. Components of a Research proposal

4.2.8. Materials and Methods/Methodology

Materials and Methods/Methodology – a detail description of the
materials, activities and the methodological steps you will take to achieve
your objectives.
 Depending upon the type of study, it includes:
 Description of study area, study design and study participants
 Sampling technique and sample size used
 Methods of data collection
 Method (s) of data analysis, etc.
4. Research Proposal Development
4.2. Components of a Research proposal

4.2.8. Materials and Methods/Methodology

 Study design – is a strategy used to address the research
problem/question. Depending upon the type of study, it could be:
 Survey :
 Observational studies – the researchers stand apart from events taking
place in the study
 Experimental/intervention studies:
 the investigator tests the effect of an intervention on the events taking
place in the study.
4. Research Proposal Development
4.2. Components of a Research proposal

4.2.9. Work plan

 Work plan – a schedule that summarizes the different components of
research proposal and how they implemented.,
 Different phase/components of the study should be stated
 Describe the activities in each phase.
 Indicate time frame to accomplish the various aspects of the study.
 Could be presented in table, chart (Gantt chart) or graph.
4. Research Proposal Development
4.2. Components of a Research proposal

4.2.10. References
 References– citation of all the information that you obtain as a support
for conducting your research.
 Aware of that, the style of writing list of references varies from one
discipline to another.
5. Report Writing: Reporting Research Findings
5. Report Writing: Reporting Research Findings
5.1. Writing a scientific report – General points
 A research report is a formal written document that present a research
findings.
 Aim
 The main purpose of a scientific report is to communicate
ideas – i.e. To convey essential information and ideas as
concisely and effectively as possible - A typical structure and
style
 Precise formats vary by discipline and scientific journal, but
they should always be guidelines that enable clear
communication.
5. Report Writing: Reporting Research Findings
5.1. Writing a scientific report – General points
 Audience
 Assume that your intended reader has a background similar
to yours.
 That is, a general understanding of the topic but no specific
knowledge of the details.
 The reader should be able to reproduce whatever you did by
following your report.
5. Report Writing: Reporting Research Findings
5.1. Writing a scientific report – General points
 Clarity of Writing
 When writing a research report, you must ponder over clarity,
organization, and content.
 To write is to think, so a paper that lays out ideas in a logical order will
facilitate the same kind of thinking.
 Make each sentence follows from the previous one, building an
argument piece by piece.
 Group related sentences into paragraphs, and group related paragraphs
into sections.
 Create a flow from beginning to end.
5. Report Writing: Reporting Research Findings
5.1. Writing a scientific report – General points
 Supporting Material
 Use figures, tables, data, equations, etc. to help tell the story as it
unfolds.
 Refer to them directly in the text, and integrate the points they make into
your writing.
 Number figures and tables sequentially as they are introduced (e.g.,
Figure 1, Figure 2, etc. with another sequence for Table 1, Table 2, etc.).
 Insert a figure or table after the paragraph in which it is first mentioned,
 And, gather all less important supporting materials put them together in
Appendices
5. Report Writing: Reporting Research Findings
5.1. Writing a scientific report – General points
 Language and Style
 The report should be grammatically sound, with correct spelling,
and generally free of errors. Avoid jargon or colloquial terms.
 Define acronyms and any abbreviations not used as standard
measurement units.
5. Report Writing: Reporting Research Findings
5.1. Writing a scientific report – General points
 Grammar tips - practical and helpful
 Use present tense: for generalizations and claims:
E.g. The sky is blue.
 for authors' statements of a theoretical nature, which can then be
compared on equal terms with others:
E.g. Smith (1988) suggests that ...
 in referring to components of your own document:
E.g. Table 2 shows ...
5. Report Writing: Reporting Research Findings
5.1. Writing a scientific report – General points
 Grammar tips - practical and helpful
 Use present perfect tense for: recent events or actions that are still
linked in an unresolved way to the present:
E.g. Several studies have attempted to ...
 Use simple past tense for: completed events or actions:
E.g. Smith (1988) discovered that ...
 Use past perfect tense for: events which occurred before a specified
past time:
E.g. Prior to these findings, it had been thought that ...
5. Report Writing: Reporting Research Findings
5.1. Writing a scientific report – General points
 Grammar tips - practical and helpful
 Use modals (may, might, could, would, should) to: convey degrees of
doubt
E.g. This may indicate that ... this would imply that ...
5. Report Writing: Reporting Research Findings
5.2. Components of scientific report
 There are four major sections to a scientific report.
 Introduction – structured to say “here's the problem”
 Methods – structured to say “here's how I studied it”
 Results – structured to say “here's what I found”
 Discussion – structured to say “here's what it means”
 There are additional minor sections that precede or follow the major sections:
 the title – appears on the title page/cover page
 Abstract - appears just before the Introduction
 Literature Review - appears after the Introduction (in a thesis or dissertation),
 Acknowledgements
 References,
 appendices.
5. Report Writing: Reporting Research Findings
5.2. suggested Thesis/research Writing Format:
 The title page
 Acknowledgement
 Table of contents
 List of Tables
 List of Figures
 Acronyms and Abbreviations
 Abstract
 Introduction: ( including, background, statement of problem, goal/objectives, research questions/hypothesis,
significance of the study, limitations and scope of the study, research plan or organizations).
 Literature Review
 Materials and Methods
 Results and Discussion
 Summary, Conclusion and Recommendation
 References,
 Appendices.
Thank you……..end