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Dijkstra's algorithm
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Dijkstra's algorithm, conceived by computer scientist Edsger Dijkstra

Dijkstra's algorithm
in 1956 and published in 1959,[1][2] is an algorithm for finding the
shortest paths between nodes in graph (which may represent, for
example, road networks). The algorithm exists in many variants;
Dijkstra's original variant found the shortest path between two
nodes,[2] but a more common variant fixes a single node as the
"source" node and finds shortest paths from the source to all other
nodes in the graph, producing a shortest path tree.

For a given source vertex (node) in the graph, the algorithm finds the
path with lowest cost (i.e. the shortest path) between that vertex and
every other vertex[3]:196–206 (although Dijkstra originally only
considered the shortest path between a given pair of nodes[4]). It can
also be used for finding costs of shortest paths from a single vertex to a Dijkstra's algorithm. It picks the unvisited vertex
single destination vertex by stopping the algorithm once the shortest with the lowest-distance, calculates the distance
path to the destination vertex has been determined. For example, if the through it to each unvisited neighbor, and updates
vertices of the graph represent cities and edge path costs represent the neighbor's distance if smaller. Mark visited (set
driving distances between pairs of cities connected by a direct road, to red) when done with neighbors.
Dijkstra's algorithm can be used to find the shortest route between one
city and all other cities. As a result, the shortest path algorithm is Class Search algorithm
widely used in network routing protocols, most notably IS-IS and Data structure Graph
OSPF (Open Shortest Path First). It is also employed as a subroutine in Worst case
other algorithms such as Johnson's.
performance
Dijkstra's original algorithm does not use a min-priority queue and runs
in time (where is the number of vertices). The idea of this algorithm is also given in (Leyzorek et al. 1957).
The implementation based on a min-priority queue implemented by a Fibonacci heap and running in
(where is the number of edges) is due to (Fredman & Tarjan 1984). This is asymptotically
the fastest known single-source shortest-path algorithm for arbitrary directed graphs with unbounded non-negative
weights.

In some fields, in particular artificial intelligence, Dijkstra's algorithm or a variant of it is known as uniform-cost search
and formulated as an instance of the more general idea of best-first search.[5]

Contents
1 History
2 Algorithm
3 Description
4 Pseudocode
4.1 Using a priority queue
5 Running time
5.1 Practical optimizations and infinite graphs
5.2 Specialized variants

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6 Related problems and algorithms

6.1 Dynamic programming perspective
7 See also
8 Notes
9 References
10 External links

History
Dijkstra thought about shortest path problem when working at Mathematical Center in Amsterdam in 1956 as a program
to demonstrate capabilities of the new computer called ARMAC. His objective was to choose both a problem as well as
answer (that will be produced by computer) that non-computing people can understand. He designed the shortest path
algorithm in about 20 minutes without aid of paper and pen and later implemented it for ARMAC for slightly simplified
transportation map of 64 cities in Netherland (ARMAC was 6-bit computer and hence could hold 64 cities
comfortably).[1] A year later, he came across another problem from hardware engineers working on the institute's next
computer: minimize the amount of wire needed to connect the pins on the back panel of the machine. As a solution, he
re-discovered the algorithm known as Prim's minimal spanning tree algorithm in the same year that Prim re-discovered it.
Dijkstra delayed publication of both algorithms until 1959.[6]

Algorithm
Let the node at which we are starting be called the initial node. Let the distance of
node Y be the distance from the initial node to Y. Dijkstra's algorithm will assign
some initial distance values and will try to improve them step by step.

1. Assign to every node a tentative distance value: set it to zero for our initial
node and to infinity for all other nodes.
2. Set the initial node as current. Mark all other nodes unvisited. Create a set of
all the unvisited nodes called the unvisited set.
3. For the current node, consider all of its unvisited neighbors and calculate
their tentative distances. Compare the newly calculated tentative distance to
the current assigned value and assign the smaller one. For example, if the Illustration of Dijkstra's algorithm
current node A is marked with a distance of 6, and the edge connecting it with search for finding path from a start
node (lower left, red) to a goal node
a neighbor B has length 2, then the distance to B (through A) will be 6 + 2 = (upper right, green) in a robot
8. If B was previously marked with a distance greater than 8 then change it to motion planning problem. Open
8. Otherwise, keep the current value. nodes represent the "tentative" set.
Filled nodes are visited ones, with
4. When we are done considering all of the neighbors of the current node, mark
color representing the distance: the
the current node as visited and remove it from the unvisited set. A visited greener, the farther. Nodes in all the
node will never be checked again. different directions are explored
uniformly, appearing as a more-or-
5. If the destination node has been marked visited (when planning a route
less circular wavefront as Dijkstra's
between two specific nodes) or if the smallest tentative distance among the algorithm uses a heuristic
nodes in the unvisited set is infinity (when planning a complete traversal; identically equal to 0.
occurs when there is no connection between the initial node and remaining
unvisited nodes), then stop. The algorithm has finished.
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6. Select the unvisited node that is marked with the smallest tentative distance, and set it as the new "current node"
then go back to step 3.

Description
Note: For ease of understanding, this discussion uses the terms intersection, road and map — however, in formal
notation these terms are vertex, edge and graph, respectively.

Suppose you would like to find the shortest path between two intersections on a city map, a starting point and a
destination. The order is conceptually simple: to start, mark the distance to every intersection on the map with infinity.
This is done not to imply there is an infinite distance, but to note that intersection has not yet been visited; some variants
of this method simply leave the intersection unlabeled. Now, at each iteration, select a current intersection. For the first
iteration, the current intersection will be the starting point and the distance to it (the intersection's label) will be zero. For
subsequent iterations (after the first), the current intersection will be the closest unvisited intersection to the starting point
—this will be easy to find.

From the current intersection, update the distance to every unvisited intersection that is directly connected to it. This is
done by determining the sum of the distance between an unvisited intersection and the value of the current intersection,
and relabeling the unvisited intersection with this value if it is less than its current value. In effect, the intersection is
relabeled if the path to it through the current intersection is shorter than the previously known paths. To facilitate shortest
path identification, in pencil, mark the road with an arrow pointing to the relabeled intersection if you label/relabel it, and
erase all others pointing to it. After you have updated the distances to each neighboring intersection, mark the current
intersection as visited and select the unvisited intersection with lowest distance (from the starting point) – or the lowest
label—as the current intersection. Nodes marked as visited are labeled with the shortest path from the starting point to it
and will not be revisited or returned to.

Continue this process of updating the neighboring intersections with the shortest distances, then marking the current
intersection as visited and moving onto the closest unvisited intersection until you have marked the destination as visited.
Once you have marked the destination as visited (as is the case with any visited intersection) you have determined the
shortest path to it, from the starting point, and can trace your way back, following the arrows in reverse.

Of note is the fact that this algorithm makes no attempt to direct "exploration" towards the destination as one might
expect. Rather, the sole consideration in determining the next "current" intersection is its distance from the starting point.
This algorithm, therefore "expands outward" from the starting point, interactively considering every node that is closer in
terms of shortest path distance until it reaches the destination. When understood in this way, it is clear how the algorithm
necessarily finds the shortest path, however, it may also reveal one of the algorithm's weaknesses: its relative slowness in
some topologies.

Pseudocode
In the following algorithm, the code u ← vertex in Q with min dist[u], searches for the vertex u in the vertex set Q
that has the least dist[u] value. length(u, v) returns the length of the edge joining (i.e. the distance between) the two
neighbor-nodes u and v. The variable alt on line 19 is the length of the path from the root node to the neighbor node v if
it were to go through u. If this path is shorter than the current shortest path recorded for v, that current path is replaced
with this alt path. The previous array is populated with a pointer to the "next-hop" node on the source graph to get the
shortest route to the source.

1 function Dijkstra(Graph, source):

2
3 dist[source] ← 0 // Distance from source to source
4 prev[source] ← undefined // Previous node in optimal path initialization
5
6 for each vertex v in Graph: // Initialization
7 if v ≠ source // Where v has not yet been removed from Q (unvisited nodes)
8 dist[v] ← infinity // Unknown distance function from source to v

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9 prev[v] ← undefined // Previous node in optimal path from source
10 end if
11 add v to Q // All nodes initially in Q (unvisited nodes)
12 end for
13
14 while Q is not empty:
15 u ← vertex in Q with min dist[u] // Source node in first case
16 remove u from Q
17
18 for each neighbor v of u: // where v is still in Q.
19 alt ← dist[u] + length(u, v)
20 if alt < dist[v]: // A shorter path to v has been found
21 dist[v] ← alt
22 prev[v] ← u
23 end if
24 end for
25 end while
26
27 return dist[], prev[]
28
29 end function

If we are only interested in a shortest path between vertices source and target, we can terminate the search after line 15
if u = target. Now we can read the shortest path from source to target by reverse iteration:

1 S ← empty sequence
2 u ← target
3 while prev[u] is defined: // Construct the shortest path with a stack S
4 insert u at the beginning of S // Push the vertex onto the stack
5 u ← prev[u] // Traverse from target to source
6 end while

Now sequence S is the list of vertices constituting one of the shortest paths from source to target, or the empty
sequence if no path exists.

A more general problem would be to find all the shortest paths between source and target (there might be several
different ones of the same length). Then instead of storing only a single node in each entry of previous[] we would store
all nodes satisfying the relaxation condition. For example, if both r and source connect to target and both of them lie
on different shortest paths through target (because the edge cost is the same in both cases), then we would add both r
and source to previous[target]. When the algorithm completes, previous[] data structure will actually describe a
graph that is a subset of the original graph with some edges removed. Its key property will be that if the algorithm was
run with some starting node, then every path from that node to any other node in the new graph will be the shortest path
between those nodes in the original graph, and all paths of that length from the original graph will be present in the new
graph. Then to actually find all these shortest paths between two given nodes we would use a path finding algorithm on
the new graph, such as depth-first search.

Using a priority queue

A min-priority queue is an abstract data structure that provides 3 basic operations : add_with_priority(),
decrease_priority() and extract_min(). As mentioned earlier, using such a data structure can lead to faster
computing times than using a basic queue. Notably, Fibonacci heap (Fredman & Tarjan 1984) or Brodal queue offer
optimal implementations for those 3 operations. As the algorithm is slightly different, we mention it here, in pseudo-code
as well :

1 function Dijkstra(Graph, source):

2 dist[source] ← 0 // Initialization
3 for each vertex v in Graph:
4 if v ≠ source
5 dist[v] ← infinity // Unknown distance from source to v
6 prev[v] ← undefined // Predecessor of v
7 end if
8 Q.add_with_priority(v, dist[v])
9 end for
10
11 while Q is not empty: // The main loop
12 u ← Q.extract_min() // Remove and return best vertex
13 for each neighbor v of u:
14 alt = dist[u] + length(u, v)

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15 if alt < dist[v]
16 dist[v] ← alt
17 prev[v] ← u
18 Q.decrease_priority(v, alt)
19 end if
20 end for
21 end while
21 return prev[]

Instead of filling the priority queue with all nodes in the initialization phase, it is also possible to initialize it to contain
only source; then, inside the if alt < dist[v] block, the node must be inserted if not already in the queue (instead of
performing a decrease_priority operation).[3]:198

It should be noted that other data structures can be used to achieve even faster computing times in practice.[7]

Running time
Bounds of the running time of Dijkstra's algorithm on a graph with edges and vertices can be expressed as a
function of the number of edges, denoted , and the number of vertices, denoted , using big-O notation. How tight a
bound is possible depends on the way the vertex set is implemented. In the following, note that upper bounds can be
simplified because for any graph, but that simplification disregards the fact that in some problems,
other upper bounds on may hold.

For any implementation of the vertex set , the running time is in

where and are the complexities of the decrease-key and extract-minimum operations in , respectively. The
simplest implementation of the Dijkstra's algorithm stores the vertex set as an ordinary linked list or array, and extract-
minimum is simply a linear search through all vertices in . In this case, the running time is
.

For sparse graphs, that is, graphs with far fewer than edges, Dijkstra's algorithm can be implemented more
efficiently by storing the graph in the form of adjacency lists and using a self-balancing binary search tree, binary heap,
pairing heap, or Fibonacci heap as a priority queue to implement extracting minimum efficiently. To perform decrease-
key steps in a binary heap efficiently, it is necessary to use an auxiliary data structure that maps each vertex to its position
in the heap, and to keep this structure up to date as the priority queue changes. With a self-balancing binary search tree
or binary heap, the algorithm requires

time in the worst case; for connected graphs this time bound can be simplified to . The Fibonacci heap
improves this to

When using binary heaps, the average case time complexity is lower than the worst-case: assuming edge costs are drawn
independently from a common probability distribution, the expected number of decrease-key operations is bounded by
, giving a total running time of[3]:199–200

Practical optimizations and infinite graphs

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In common presentations of Dijkstra's algorithm, initially all nodes are entered into the priority queue. This is, however,
not necessary: the algorithm can start with a priority queue that contains only one item, and insert new items as they are
discovered (instead of doing a decrease-key, check whether the key is in the queue; if it is, decrease its key, otherwise
insert it).[3]:198 This variant has the same worst-case bounds as the common variant, but maintains a smaller priority
queue in practice, speeding up the queue operations.[5]

Moreover, not inserting all nodes in a graph makes it possible to extend the algorithm to find the shortest path from a
single source to the closest of a set of target nodes on infinite graphs or those too large to represent in memory. The
resulting algorithm is called uniform-cost search (UCS) in the artificial intelligence literature[5][8] and can be expressed
in pseudocode as

procedure UniformCostSearch(Graph, start, goal)

node ← start
cost ← 0
frontier ← priority queue containing node only
explored ← empty set
do
if frontier is empty
return failure
node := frontier.pop()
if node is goal
return solution
explored.add(node)
for each of node's neighbors n
if n is not in explored
if n is not in frontier
frontier.add(n)
else if n is in frontier with higher cost
replace existing node with n

The complexity of this algorithm can be expressed in an alternative way for very large graphs: when C* is the length of
the shortest path from the start node to any node satisfying the "goal" predicate, and each edge has cost at least ε, then the
*
algorithm's worst-case time and space complexity are both in O(b⌈C ∕ ε⌉).[8]

Specialized variants
When arc weights are integers and bounded by a constant C, the usage of a special priority queue structure by Van Emde
Boas etal.(1977) (Ahuja et al. 1990) brings the complexity to . Another interesting implementation
based on a combination of a new radix heap and the well-known Fibonacci heap runs in time
(Ahuja et al. 1990). Finally, the best algorithms in this special case are as follows. The algorithm given by (Thorup 2000)
runs in time and the algorithm given by (Raman 1997) runs in
time.

Also, for directed acyclic graphs, it is possible to find shortest paths from a given starting vertex in linear
time, by processing the vertices in a topological order, and calculating the path length for each vertex to
be the minimum length obtained via any of its incoming edges.[9][10]

In the special case of integer weights and undirected graphs, the Dijkstra's algorithm can be completely countered with a
linear complexity algorithm, given by (Thorup 1999).

Related problems and algorithms

The functionality of Dijkstra's original algorithm can be extended with a variety of modifications. For example,
sometimes it is desirable to present solutions which are less than mathematically optimal. To obtain a ranked list of less-
than-optimal solutions, the optimal solution is first calculated. A single edge appearing in the optimal solution is removed

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from the graph, and the optimum solution to this new graph is calculated. Each edge of the original solution is suppressed
in turn and a new shortest-path calculated. The secondary solutions are then ranked and presented after the first optimal
solution.

Dijkstra's algorithm is usually the working principle behind link-state routing protocols, OSPF and IS-IS being the most
common ones.

Unlike Dijkstra's algorithm, the Bellman–Ford algorithm can be used on graphs with negative edge weights, as long as
the graph contains no negative cycle reachable from the source vertex s. The presence of such cycles means there is no
shortest path, since the total weight becomes lower each time the cycle is traversed. It is possible to adapt Dijkstra's
algorithm to handle negative weight edges by combining it with the Bellman-Ford algorithm (to remove negative edges
and detect negative cycles), such an algorithm is called Johnson's algorithm.

The A* algorithm is a generalization of Dijkstra's algorithm that cuts down on the size of the subgraph that must be
explored, if additional information is available that provides a lower bound on the "distance" to the target. This approach
can be viewed from the perspective of linear programming: there is a natural linear program for computing shortest paths,
and solutions to its dual linear program are feasible if and only if they form a consistent heuristic (speaking roughly, since
the sign conventions differ from place to place in the literature). This feasible dual / consistent heuristic defines a non-
negative reduced cost and A* is essentially running Dijkstra's algorithm with these reduced costs. If the dual satisfies the
weaker condition of admissibility, then A* is instead more akin to the Bellman–Ford algorithm.

The process that underlies Dijkstra's algorithm is similar to the greedy process used in Prim's algorithm. Prim's purpose is
to find a minimum spanning tree that connects all nodes in the graph; Dijkstra is concerned with only two nodes. Prim's
does not evaluate the total weight of the path from the starting node, only the individual path.

Breadth-first search can be viewed as a special-case of Dijkstra's algorithm on unweighted graphs, where the priority
queue degenerates into a FIFO queue.

Fast marching method can be viewed as a continuous version of Dijkstra's algorithm which computes the geodesic
distance on a triangle mesh.

Dynamic programming perspective

From a dynamic programming point of view, Dijkstra's algorithm is a successive approximation scheme that solves the
dynamic programming functional equation for the shortest path problem by the Reaching method.[11][12][13]

In fact, Dijkstra's explanation of the logic behind the algorithm,[14] namely

Problem 2. Find the path of minimum total length between two given nodes and .

We use the fact that, if is a node on the minimal path from to , knowledge of the latter implies the
knowledge of the minimal path from to .

is a paraphrasing of Bellman's famous Principle of Optimality in the context of the shortest path problem.

See also
A* search algorithm
Bellman–Ford algorithm
Euclidean shortest path
Flood fill

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Floyd–Warshall algorithm
Johnson's algorithm
Longest path problem

Notes
1. ^ a b Dijkstra, Edsger; Thomas J. Misa, Editor (August 2010). "An Interview with Edsger W. Dijkstra". Communications of the
ACM 53 (8): 41–47. doi:10.1145/1787234.1787249 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1145%2F1787234.1787249). "What is the shortest
way to travel from Rotterdam to Groningen? It is the algorithm for the shortest path which I designed in about 20 minutes. One
morning I was shopping with my young fiancée, and tired, we sat down on the café terrace to drink a cup of coffee and I was
just thinking about whether I could do this, and I then designed the algorithm for the shortest path."
2. ^ a b Dijkstra, E. W. (1959). "A note on two problems in connexion with graphs" (http://www-
m3.ma.tum.de/twiki/pub/MN0506/WebHome/dijkstra.pdf). Numerische Mathematik 1: 269–271. doi:10.1007/BF01386390
(https://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01386390).
3. ^ a b c d Mehlhorn, Kurt; Sanders, Peter (2008). Algorithms and Data Structures: The Basic Toolbox. Springer.
4. ^ Dijkstra 1959
5. ^ a b c Felner, Ariel (2011). Position Paper: Dijkstra's Algorithm versus Uniform Cost Search or a Case Against Dijkstra's
Algorithm (http://www.aaai.org/ocs/index.php/SOCS/SOCS11/paper/view/4017/4357). Proc. 4th Int'l Symp. on Combinatorial
Search. In a route-finding problem, Felner finds that the queue can be a factor 500–600 smaller, taking some 40% of the running
time.
6. ^ Dijkstra, Edward W., Reflections on "A note on two problems in connexion with graphs
(https://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/EWD/ewd08xx/EWD841a.PDF)
7. ^ Chen, M.; Chowdhury, R. A.; Ramachandran, V.; Roche, D. L.; Tong, L. (2007). Priority Queues and Dijkstra’s Algorithm —
UTCS Technical Report TR-07-54 — 12 October 2007 (http://www.cs.sunysb.edu/~rezaul/papers/TR-07-54.pdf). Austin, Texas:
The University of Texas at Austin, Department of Computer Sciences.
8. ^ a b Russell, Stuart; Norvig, Peter (2009) [1995]. Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (3rd ed.). Prentice Hall. pp. 75,
81. ISBN 978-0-13-604259-4.
9. ^ http://www.boost.org/doc/libs/1_44_0/libs/graph/doc/dag_shortest_paths.html
10. ^ Cormen etal, Introduction to Algorithms & 3ed,chapter-24 2009
11. ^ Sniedovich, M. (2006). "Dijkstra’s algorithm revisited: the dynamic programming connexion"
(http://matwbn.icm.edu.pl/ksiazki/cc/cc35/cc3536.pdf) (PDF). Journal of Control and Cybernetics 35 (3): 599–620. Online
version of the paper with interactive computational modules.
(http://www.ifors.ms.unimelb.edu.au/tutorial/dijkstra_new/index.html)
12. ^ Denardo, E.V. (2003). Dynamic Programming: Models and Applications. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-
486-42810-9.
13. ^ Sniedovich, M. (2010). Dynamic Programming: Foundations and Principles. Francis & Taylor. ISBN 978-0-8247-4099-3.
14. ^ Dijkstra 1959, p. 270

References
Cormen, Thomas H.; Leiserson, Charles E.; Rivest, Ronald L.; Stein, Clifford (2001). "Section 24.3: Dijkstra's
algorithm". Introduction to Algorithms (Second ed.). MIT Press and McGraw–Hill. pp. 595–601. ISBN 0-262-
03293-7.
Fredman, Michael Lawrence; Tarjan, Robert E. (1984). Fibonacci heaps and their uses in improved network
optimization algorithms. 25th Annual Symposium on Foundations of Computer Science. IEEE. pp. 338–346.
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doi:10.1109/SFCS.1984.715934 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1109%2FSFCS.1984.715934).
Fredman, Michael Lawrence; Tarjan, Robert E. (1987). "Fibonacci heaps and their uses in improved network
optimization algorithms" (http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=28874). Journal of the Association for Computing
Machinery 34 (3): 596–615. doi:10.1145/28869.28874 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1145%2F28869.28874).
Zhan, F. Benjamin; Noon, Charles E. (February 1998). "Shortest Path Algorithms: An Evaluation Using Real Road
Networks". Transportation Science 32 (1): 65–73. doi:10.1287/trsc.32.1.65
(https://dx.doi.org/10.1287%2Ftrsc.32.1.65).
Leyzorek, M.; Gray, R. S.; Johnson, A. A.; Ladew, W. C.; Meaker, Jr., S. R.; Petry, R. M.; Seitz, R. N. (1957).
Investigation of Model Techniques — First Annual Report — 6 June 1956 — 1 July 1957 — A Study of Model
Techniques for Communication Systems. Cleveland, Ohio: Case Institute of Technology.
Knuth, D.E. (1977). "A Generalization of Dijkstra's Algorithm". Information Processing Letters 6 (1): 1–5.
doi:10.1016/0020-0190(77)90002-3 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2F0020-0190%2877%2990002-3).
Ahuja, Ravindra K.; Mehlhorn, Kurt; Orlin, James B.; Tarjan, Robert E. (April 1990). "Faster Algorithms for the
Shortest Path Problem". Journal of Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) 37 (2): 213–223.
doi:10.1145/77600.77615 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1145%2F77600.77615).
Raman, Rajeev (1997). "Recent results on the single-source shortest paths problem". SIGACT News 28 (2): 81–87.
doi:10.1145/261342.261352 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1145%2F261342.261352).
Thorup, Mikkel (2000). "On RAM priority Queues". SIAM Journal on Computing 30 (1): 86–109.
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Thorup, Mikkel (1999). "Undirected single-source shortest paths with positive integer weights in linear time".
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External links
Applet by Carla Laffra of Pace University Wikimedia Commons has
media related to Dijkstra's
algorithm.

(http://www.dgp.toronto.edu/people/JamesStewart/270/9798s/Laffra/DijkstraApplet.html)
Dijkstra's Algorithm Applet (http://www.unf.edu/~wkloster/foundations/DijkstraApplet/DijkstraApplet.htm)
Shortest Path Problem: Dijkstra's Algorithm (http://www-b2.is.tokushima-
u.ac.jp/~ikeda/suuri/dijkstra/Dijkstra.shtml)
Dijkstra's Algorithm Simulation (http://optlab-server.sce.carleton.ca/POAnimations2007/DijkstrasAlgo.html)
Oral history interview with Edsger W. Dijkstra (http://purl.umn.edu/107247), Charles Babbage Institute University
of Minnesota, Minneapolis.
Animation of Dijkstra's algorithm (http://www.cs.sunysb.edu/~skiena/combinatorica/animations/dijkstra.html)

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