Atomic Structure

everything you see around you

is made out of tiny particles called atoms

1. A cotton ball
3. An image of 4. Atomic -level
2. A single cotton cotton fibre obtained
fibre viewed under with an electron
models of the
an optical microscope cotton fibre
microscope (40X)

At the beginning of the 19th

century, in 1808, John Dalton
developed an atomic model but
this time with scientific bases.
He regarded atom as the
ultimate particle of matter
which cannot be further
sub-divided.

A History of Atom
In 5th century BC, Democritus
argued that all matter was
Later investigations proved that
composed of small, finite atom is not the ultimate particle
particles that they called atomos, of matter. It was found that
a term derived from the Greek atom can be further broken into
word for “indivisible.” electrons, protons and
neutrons

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1. Discovery of electrons
★ Electrons were discovered by J.J. Thomson in the cathode ray-discharge tube
experiment.

Thomson's Cathode Ray Experiment:

● In this experiment, he used a special hard, cylindrical
glass tube known as a discharge tube that consists of two,
metal plates called electrodes, each sealed at the two
ends of the tube.
● These metal plates; cathode and anode are connected to
the terminals of a high-voltage battery.
● A vacuum pump is connected to one side of the tube to
lower the pressure inside the tube.
● Very high voltage electricity through the discharge tube
was passed at very low pressure.

Observation
● On passing a high voltage current, some rays are
produced by the cathode and move towards the anode.
● These were called cathode rays which were later
identified as electrons.
Properties of Cathode Rays
1. Cathode rays travel in a straight line. (Speed 3 x 108m/s)
It cast shadow of the object which comes in their path.
2. Cathode rays consist of materials particles.
It rotates a light paddle wheel placed in the path of the rays.
3. Cathode rays are negatively charged as it is deflected towards the
positively charged field.
4. Cathode rays ionise gases through which they pass due to its high
kinetic energy.
5. Other properties: Heating effect, produce fluorescence on
substances like ZnS, produce X-rays
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 Charge on electron (e/m ratio)
★ Ratio of charge to mass (e/m ratio) was determined by Thomson by studying the deflection of
rays under the influence of electric and magnetic fields.
● Experiment: Thomson subjected a beam of cathode rays
(electron particles) to see the effects of electric and magnetic
fields.
● In the beginning, in absence of any electric or magnetic field,
the electrons from cathode rays struck the fluorescent screen
at B.
● Then under the effect of electric field, they strike at point A.
● Similarly, they strike at point C under the influence of magnetic field only.
● Now electric and magnetic fields were adjusted in such a way that the electron again strike at
point B.
● In this way, comparing the strength of the two fields, he determined the e/m value of an electron is
1.76×108 C/g.
● e/m ratio was independent of the nature of the gas taken and the nature of the cathode. 7

Millikan’s Oil Drop Experiment: .

● Millikan’s determination of value of e involves spraying of
droplets of oil between two charged plates.
● Oil drops lose electrons and become positively charged.
● Oil drops are under the influence of gravitational field
because of which they fall.
● They are also under the influence of electric field because of
which they rise upwards.
● By adjustment of the electric field, they can be made to
suspend in air.
● Value of e can thus be calculated out.
● The movement of the oil drops can be viewed through a side
window.
● Millikan determined the charge of the electrons as 1.6 x 10-19C.
● Thus, the value of mass of the electron can be calculated

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 2. Discovery of Protons
● Protons were noticed by Eugene Goldstein

Canal ray experiment:

● During the passage of electricity through a gas, positively charged particles are emanated from
the anode and they move towards the perforated cathode.
● Canal rays/ anode rays are produced as a result
of the knock out of the electrons from the
gaseous atoms by the bombardment of high
speed electrons of the cathode rays on them.
● Thus, anode rays are not emitted from the
anode but are produced in the space between
anode and cathode.
● Goldstein studied the properties of these rays
and inferred that these are the nuclei of the
atoms, after electrons have been removed from
them.
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Properties of Anode Rays/ Protons

1. Anode rays travel in a straight line. Speed less than cathode rays
2. Anode rays consist of materials particles.
3. Anode rays are positively charged as it is deflected towards the negatively charged field.
4. Ratio of charge to mass (e/m ratio) is found to be different for the particles constituting anode
rays when different gases are taken inside the discharge tube. Value of e/m ratio is determined
by the nature of the gas taken inside the discharge tube.
5. Charge (e) of protons found to depend upon the nature of the gas taken inside the discharge
tube. Relative charge of proton may be one, two or three units of positive charge, depending
upon the number of electrons knocked out.
6. Mass (m) of the proton is found to be different for different gases taken in the discharge tube.
Its value is found to be nearly equal to that of the atom of the gas.

Proton is that fundamental particle which carries one unit positive charge and has a mass nearly
equal to that of the hydrogen atom
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3. Discovery of Neutrons
● In 1932, Sir James Chadwick discovered neutrons
Chadwick’s experiment:
● When beryllium or boron element is bombarded by α-particles from the polonium source, some new
particles are emitted which carry no electrical charge but have mass equal to that of a proton. These
particles are called neutrons.

Polonium

2
He4 + 4Be9 6
C12 + 0n1

● Neutron is present in the nuclei of all the elements except Hydrogen

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Compare the charge (e), mass and e/m ratio of electron, proton and neutron

Sub-atomic particle Charge (e) Mass e

/m ratio
Electron - 1.6 x 10-19C 9.1 x 10-28g 1.76 x 108 C/g

Proton 1.6 x 10-19C 1.6 x 10-24g 9.55 x 104 C/g

Neutron 0 1.6 x 10-24g 0

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1. Thomson model of atom

In Thomson’s plum pudding model, atom is a sphere of positive charge, with electrons
embedded in it.
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2. Rutherford’s atomic model

As per Rutherford Nuclear Model of
Atom
● Every atom has a nucleus at the
centre
● This nucleus is positively charged
● The size of the nucleus is very small
but nearly all the mass of the atom
resides in the nucleus.
● Around the nucleus, electrons revolve
in a circular path.

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 Rutherford’s Alpha Particle Scattering Experiment on a gold foil:

● In this experiment, Rutherford bombarded alpha (α) particles emitted from a radioactive source (e.g.,
polonium or radium) on a piece of thin gold foil (0.00004 cm thick)

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Observations
1. Most of the α- particles (nearly 90%) passed through the gold
foil undeflected and produced bright spots on the screen.
2. Some of them got deflected through small angles
3. Very few, i.e., about 1 in 100000 did not pass through the foil
at all but suffered large deflections (more than 900) or even
bounced back in the direction from which they came.

Main features of Rutherford’s hypothesis

1. Atom consists predominantly of empty space.
2. Nucleus is positively charged body
3. Volume occupied by the nucleus is only a small fraction of the volume of the atom
4. Positive charge on the nucleus is different from different atoms
5. Electrons are not stationary but revolve around the nucleus at high speed in circular
paths called orbits

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 Question
1. Describe the contributions of Rutherford’s model in establishing a picture of the atom.
2. Rutherford’s experiment which established the nuclear model of the atom, used a beam of
a) B-particles, which impinged on a metal foil and got absorbed
b) Y-rays, which impinged on a metal foil and ejected electrons.
c) Helium atoms, which impinged on a metal foil and got scattered
d) Helium nuclei, which impinged on a metal foil and got scattered.

Failure of Rutherford's atomic model

● Rutherford's atomic model failed to explain the stability of electrons in a
circular path. He stated that electrons revolve around the nucleus in a circular
path, but particles in motion would undergo acceleration and cause energy
radiation.

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3. Bohr’s atomic model

Important postulates of Bohr’s Atom model are
1. An atom consists of a dense nucleus surrounded by
electrons moving in circular orbits.
2. The electrons continue revolving in their respective orbits
without losing energy. This is because energy in fractions of
a quantum cannot be lost. The energy of an electron remains
constant as long as it stays in the same orbit. Each orbit is
associated with a definite energy, i.e., with a definite whole
number of quantas of energy.
3. The farther the energy level from the nucleus the greater is
the energy associated with it. As long as the electron
remains in a particular orbit, it neither emits nor absorbs
energy.

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4. The electron revolves around the nucleus only in those orbits for which its angular momentum is
h
some integer multiple of / where h is Planck’s constant, i.e.,
2π
mvr = nh/2π where n = 1,2,3,4….., The number n is generally known as the principal
quantum number. This postulate signifies the quantization of angular momentum.
5. Energy is emitted or absorbed by an atom only when an electron moves from one energy level to
another. For a change of electronic energy, the electron has to jump and not ‘flow’ from one energy
level to another. When the electron jumps from a higher level to a lower energy level, the energy is
emitted. Energy is absorbed when the electrons jumps from a lower energy level to some higher
energy level.
ΔE = Ei - Ef = hv = hc/λ
Where Ei= energy of initial states, Ef = energy of final
states, v = frequency of radiation, λ= wavelength of
radiation, c = speed of light
● If Ei > Ef, then energy is emitted in the process
● If Ei < Ef, then the electron must absorb energy to go
to higher energy level
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Drawbacks of Bohr’s Atomic Model

1. Bohr’s model was unable to explain the line spectra of multi-electron atom. It
explains the line spectra of hydrogen containing single electron.
2. Bohr’s model could not explain splitting of spectral lines in magnetic field
(Zeeman effect) and in electric field (Stark effect)
3. According to Bohr, electron revolve around the nucleus in circular paths in one
plane, which is a flat model of atom. But atom is a three dimensional structure and
not flat.
4. Bohr’s model could not explain de Broglie concept of dual nature of matter and
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.

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