Chemical - Bonding Ed Brown Et Al

Basic Concepts of Chemical
Bonding
ppt from Chemistry by Brown

et al
Chemical Bonds, Lewis Symbols, and
the Octet Rule
• Chemical bond: attractive force holding two or more
atoms together.
• Covalent bond results from sharing electrons between
the atoms. Usually found between nonmetals.
• Ionic bond results from the transfer of electrons from a
metal to a nonmetal.
• Metallic bond: attractive force holding pure metals
together.
Lewis Symbols
• As a pictorial understanding of where the electrons are in
an atom, we represent the electrons as dots around the
symbol for the element.
• The number of electrons available for bonding are
indicated by unpaired dots.
• These symbols are called Lewis symbols.
• We generally place the electrons one four sides of a
square around the element symbol.
Lewis Symbols
The Octet Rule
• All noble gases except He has an s2p6 configuration.
• Octet rule: atoms tend to gain, lose, or share electrons
until they are surrounded by 8 valence electrons (4
electron pairs).
• Caution: there are many exceptions to the octet rule.
Exceptions to the Octet Rule
• There are three classes of exceptions to the octet rule:

– Molecules with an odd number of electrons;
– Molecules in which one atom has less than an octet;
– Molecules in which one atom has more than an octet.
Odd Number of Electrons
• Few examples. Generally molecules such as ClO2, NO,
and NO2 have an odd number of electrons.
N O N O
Less than an Octet
• Relatively rare.
• Molecules with less than an octet are typical for
compounds of Groups 1A, 2A, and 3A.
• Most typical example is BF3.
• Formal charges indicate that the Lewis structure with an
incomplete octet is more important than the ones with
double bonds.
More than an Octet
• This is the largest class of exceptions.

• Atoms from the 3rd period onwards can accommodate
more than an octet.
• Beyond the third period, the d-orbitals are low enough in
energy to participate in bonding and accept the extra
electron density.
Ionic Bonding
• The reaction is violently exothermic.
• We infer that the NaCl is more stable than its
constituent elements. Why?
• Na has lost an electron to become Na+ and chlorine has
gained the electron to become Cl-. Note: Na+ has an Ne
electron configuration and Cl- has an Ar configuration.
• That is, both Na+ and Cl- have an octet of electrons
surrounding the central ion.
Ionic Bonding Arrangement
Energetics of Ionic Bond Formation
• Lattice energy: the energy required to completely

separate an ionic solid into its gaseous ions.
Electron Configurations of Ions of the
Representative Elements
• These are derived from the electron configuration of
elements with the required number of electrons added or
removed from the most accessible orbital.
• Electron configurations can predict stable ion formation:
• Mg: [Ne]3s2
• Mg+: [Ne]3s1 not stable
• Mg2+: [Ne] stable
• Cl: [Ne]3s23p5
• Cl-: [Ne]3s23p6 = [Ar] stable
Transition Metal Ions and Polyatomic Ions
Transition Metal Ions

• Lattice energies compensate for the loss of up to three
electrons.
• In general, electrons are removed from orbitals in order
of decreasing n (i.e. electrons are removed from 4s
before the 3d).
Polyatomic Ions
• Polyatomic ions are formed when there is an overall
charge on a compound containing covalent bonds. E.g.
SO42-, NO3-.
Covalent Bonding
• When two similar atoms bond, none of them wants to
lose or gain an electron to form an octet.
• When similar atoms bond, they share pairs of electrons to
each obtain an octet.
• Each pair of shared electrons constitutes one chemical
bond.
• Example: H + H → H2 has electrons on a line connecting
the two H nuclei.
Covalent Bonding
Lewis Structures
• Covalent bonds can be represented by the Lewis symbols
of the elements:
Cl + Cl Cl Cl
• In Lewis structures, each pair of electrons in a bond is
represented by a single line:
H
H O H N H
Cl Cl H F H C H
H H
H
Multiple Bonds
• It is possible for more than one pair of electrons to be
shared between two atoms (multiple bonds):
• One shared pair of electrons = single bond (e.g. H2);
• Two shared pairs of electrons = double bond (e.g. O2);
• Three shared pairs of electrons = triple bond (e.g. N2).
H H O O N N
• Generally, bond distances decrease as we move from
single through double to triple bonds.
Bond Polarity and Electronegativity
• In a covalent bond, electrons are shared.

• Sharing of electrons to form a covalent bond does not
imply equal sharing of those electrons.
• There are some covalent bonds in which the electrons are
located closer to one atom than the other.
• Unequal sharing of electrons results in polar bonds.
Electronegativity
• Electronegativity: The ability of one atom in a molecule
to attract electrons to itself.
• Pauling set electronegativities on a scale from 0.7 (Cs) to
4.0 (F).
• Electronegativity increases
• across a period and
• down a group.
Electronegativity
• Difference in electronegativity is a gauge of bond
polarity:
• electronegativity differences around 0 result in non-polar
covalent bonds (equal or almost equal sharing of electrons);
• electronegativity differences around 2 result in polar covalent
bonds (unequal sharing of electrons);
• electronegativity differences around 3 result in ionic bonds
(transfer of electrons).
• There is no sharp distinction between bonding types.

• The positive end (or pole) in a polar bond is represented
+ and the negative pole -.
Dipole Moments
• Consider HF:
• The difference in electronegativity leads to a polar bond.
• There is more electron density on F than on H.
• Since there are two different “ends” of the molecule, we call HF
a dipole.
• Dipole moment, m, is the magnitude of the dipole:
m = Qr
where Q is the magnitude of the charges.
• Dipole moments are measured in debyes, D.
Bond Types and Nomenclature
• In general, the least electronegative element is named

first.
• The name of the more electronegative element ends in
–ide.
• Ionic compounds are named according to their ions,
including the charge on the cation if it is variable.
• Molecular compounds are named with prefixes.
Bond Types and Nomenclature
Ionic Molecular
MgH2 Magnesium hydride H2S Hydrogen sulfide
FeF2 Iron(II) fluoride OF2 Oxygen difluoride
Mn2O3 Manganese(III) Cl2O3 Dichlorine trioxide
oxide
Drawing Lewis Structures
1. Add the valence electrons of all atoms.
2. Write symbols for the atoms and show which atoms are
connected to which.
3. Complete the octet for all atoms bounded to the central
atom.
4. Place leftover electrons on the central atom even if it
results in more than an octet of electrons around the
atoms.
5. If there are not enough electrons to give the central atom
an octet, try multiple bonds.
Formal Charge
• It is possible to draw more than one Lewis structure with

the octet rule obeyed for all the atoms.
• To determine which structure is most reasonable, we use
formal charge.
• Formal charge is the charge on an atom that it would
have if all the atoms had the same electronegativity (i.e.,
if the electrons are shared equally between atoms).
Formal Charge
• To calculate formal charge:
• All nonbonding electrons are assigned to the atom on which
they are found.
• Half the bonding electrons are assigned to each atom in a
bond.
• Formal charge is:
valence electrons - number of bonds - lone pair electrons
Formal Charge
• Consider:
C N
• For C:
• There are 4 valence electrons (from periodic table).
• In the Lewis structure there are 2 nonbonding electrons and 3
from the triple bond. There are 5 electrons from the Lewis
structure.
• Formal charge: 4 - 5 = -1.
Formal Charge
• Consider:
C N
• For N:
• There are 5 valence electrons.
• In the Lewis structure there are 2 nonbonding electrons and 3
from the triple bond. There are 5 electrons from the Lewis
structure.
• Formal charge = 5 - 5 = 0.
• We write:
C N
Formal Charge
• The most stable structure has:

• the lowest formal charge on each atom (i.e., closest to zero),
• the most negative formal charge on the most electronegative
atoms.
• Remember, formal charges are a way of bookkeeping and do not
represent the real charges on atoms. The actual charge
distributions in molecules and ions are determined by a variety of
factors including the electronegativity difference in atoms.

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Basic Concepts of Chemical

ppt from Chemistry by Brown

• There are three classes of exceptions to the octet rule:

• This is the largest class of exceptions.

• Lattice energy: the energy required to completely

Transition Metal Ions

• In a covalent bond, electrons are shared.

• There is no sharp distinction between bonding types.

• In general, the least electronegative element is named

• It is possible to draw more than one Lewis structure with

• The most stable structure has:

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