CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION
The use of chemicals in modern agriculture has significantly increased productivity. But

it has also significantly increased the concentration of pesticides in food and in our environment,

with associated negative effects on human health. Annually there are dozens of million cases of

pesticide poisonings worldwide (Richter, 2002). Moreover, it is now better understood that

pesticides have significant chronic health effects, including cancer, neurological effects,

diabetes, respiratory diseases, fetal diseases, and genetic disorders. These health effects are

different depending on the degree, and the type of exposure. Typically, the effects are different

for farmers who are directly exposed to pesticides, compared to those for farmers’ relatives or

people living in rural areas who are less directly exposed. There are also effects on consumers

through pesticide residues in food.

The researchers conducted this research about agrochemicals used in the Philippines and

its outcome to the environment to contribute to the understanding of the health effects of

pesticides exposure and of how pesticides have been and should be regulated.

BACKGROUND OF STUDY

Agriculture has been the traditional backbone of the Philippines’ economy and farming is

still by far the most common form of employment in the country. Only about one-third of the

total land area in the country is classified as arable, and all of it is currently in production. Soils

are generally fertile, but 30% of the agricultural land is suffering erosion. Roughly half the

cultivated land is devoted to the two principal subsistence crops, palay (unhusked rice) and corn.

Agriculture in the Philippines has experienced a great transformation in the last 50 to 60

years. Agriculture productivity started to increase in the 1960s as a consequence of improved

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agricultural infrastructure, especially irrigation, a massive increase in the application of chemical

fertilizers and pesticides, and the introduction of new crop varieties known as high-yielding

varieties (HYVs) (Figure 1). The Masagana 99 project, initiated by President Ferdinand Marcos

in 1972 to promote the Green Revolution principles, produced a massive increase in

agrochemical use and HYVs adoption by farmers. Ten rice HYVs were encouraged, and

consequently indigenous rice was almost eradicated. As a result of this and the other industrial

techniques adopted, biodiversity was severely threatened and soil started to degrade rapidly. By

1982, 93% of the irrigated lowlands were planted with HYVs (Mariano, 1999).

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STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The researchers formulated this statement of the problem as the basis for the subject of
environmental problem specifically in the concern of agrochemicals.

General Problem

The general problem of the researchers is to formulate a formal research regarding

environmental chemistry problems in the Philippines and to provide tangible solutions
and effective ways to eliminate the use of agrochemicals in the Philippines.

Specific Problems

 To forecast the future of the problem of agrochemicals if left uncontrolled.

 To propose a two ways or methods to regulate the agrochemicals.
 To proposed solutions that are currently available in the Philippines.
 To eliminate the use of agrochemicals.

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DEFINITION OF TERMS

The researchers formulated the definition of terms to be able to understand and for better

comprehension of the study regarding the subject and focused topic of the study.

Agrochemicals –is a chemical product used in agriculture. In most cases, agrichemical refers to

pesticides including insecticides, herbicides, fungicides and nematicides. It

may also include synthetic fertilizers, hormones and other chemical growth

agents, and concentrated stores of raw animal manure.

Pesticides - a substance used for destroying insects or other organisms harmful to cultivated

plants or to animals.

Chemicals - is a form of matter that consists of molecules of the same composition and

structure.

Emulsifiable- are a blend of active ingredient, organic solvent, and surfactants.

Genotoxicity- is a word in genetics defined as a destructive effect on a cell's genetic material

(DNA, RNA) affecting its integrity.

Intoxication - is the condition of having physical or mental control markedly diminished by the

effects of alcohol or drugs.

Nematicides - is a type of chemical pesticide used to kill plant-parasitic nematodes. Nematicides

have tended to be broad-spectrum toxicants possessing high volatility or other

properties promoting migration through the soil.

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SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The researchers’ objective is to help in providing decent information about the negative

effects of the agrochemicals used in the Philippines. It aims in determining the list of commonly

used harmful chemicals in Philippines and how these chemicals pollute the environment. These

will aid in helping the community to be more aware and responsible on these current ecological/

environmental concern.

This formal research specifically points out the harmful contents of this agrochemical in a

simplified and easy to read manner, thus the community will better understand why these

chemicals are harming our environment.

The researchers’ aim in giving information to the following recipients:

Farmers - They realize the harmful effects of using agro chemicals they are using,

thus they will find other methods of keeping their crops healthy

and pest- free.

Researchers - This formal research would be of great help in giving information to other

researchers who wants to conduct similar studies.

Society - Make them realize the bad effects that agro chemicals produce to not only

the environment but also towards typical human concerns like health.

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SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS

There is a wealth of literature about agrochemicals and the information base is spreading

as a result of their wide use. This pertains to agricultural economics; the technology of

manufacture; standards on transport, distribution, sale and application; and a variety of other

aspects including harmful effects on workers who use agrochemicals, as well as their impact on

the general environment. Despite this, both confirmed and unconfirmed reports have revealed

that many workers, particularly in developing countries, continue to be poisoned or killed mainly

on account of unsafe practices in the use of agrochemicals. In spite of the existing information,

including that dealing with safety and health aspects, the evidence points to the difficulty of

providing safe working conditions for persons handling agrochemicals. Safety and health

concerns deserve closer attention because agricultural production is increasing in most parts of

the world. Food supplies will have to be more than doubled in the next 30 years to meet even the

minimum requirements of the world population. The use of agrochemicals will also necessarily

increase.

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 CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter presents the related literature and studies after the thorough and in-depth

search done by the researchers.

Related Literature

Pesticides are designed to kill and because their mode of action is not specific to one

species, they often kill or harm organisms other than pests, including humans. The WHO

estimates that there are 3 million cases of pesticide poisoning each year and up to 220,000

deaths, primarily in developing countries. The application of pesticides is often not very precise.

As the contribution of agro-chemicals towards increasing agricultural production is well

established, however, it may causes damage to the environment; the ecosystem including the

mankind. Pesticides are known to control insect pests, weeds, diseases, rodents and pests in the

storage. Though the pesticide industry in the developed world has made good progress in the

field of development and production of low risk/low volume user and environment friendly

pesticides formulation, pesticides in the developing countries still now are mainly available in

conventional formulations such as dust, wettable powder, emulsifiable concentrates and solutions

etc. The chemical pesticides and fertilizers (agrochemicals) are commonly used in Indian

agriculture. Farm productivity is directly proportional to use of agrochemicals observed from the

first green revolution. Improper and unsafe use is quite common in India. Pesticides have been

considered potential chemical mutagens several experimental data has revealed that various

agrochemical ingredients possess mutagenic properties. The genotoxic potential for

agrochemical ingredients is generally low, as they yield positive results in few genotoxicity tests.

The lowest effective dose in single test is generally very high. Toxic effect, mainly genotoxic

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potential is a primary risk factor for short and long-term effects such as carcinogenic and

reproductive toxicology.

However, most of the chemicals in use as pesticides are not completely selective. The lack of

highly selective pesticidal action represents a risk both for man and other desirable forms of life

present in the environment, thus concern has been raised about the effects on the environment

and human health caused by pesticide use, particularly in those countries where surveillance,

control and management activities are weak or poorly developed. Unlike other man-made

chemicals, exposure to pesticides may affect a large part of the human population, including

workers and that part of the general population who may experience exposure through domestic

use, proximity to agricultural settings and consumption of contaminated food. Moreover, a few

subjects may be exposed to pesticides through their use for public health purposes, as is the case

for people living in treated dwellings.

In agricultural settings, exposure may also involve other agricultural workers who enter

treated fields (WHO, 1986b). Pesticides have long been considered potential chemical mutagens

(Vogel and Rohrborn, 1970; Fishbein et al., 1970; Hollaender, 1971). Suspicion first arose

regarding their mechanism of action. Indeed, their gene mutagenicity has been verified in simple

systems and even their injurious effects on chromosomes were demonstrated in mammalian cells

cultivated in vitro (Shaw, 1970; Durham and Clara, 1972; Seiler, 1973). The mutagenic effects of

pesticides were also studied on human tissue culture cells (Dubinin et al., 1967; Chang and

Klassen, 1968). Recently the mutagenicity of some pesticides has also been proven in mammals

in vivo (Epstein et al., 1970; Dikshith, 1973). All of these studies have attracted attention

especially because pesticides, due to their extensive use, have considerable polluting effects on

the environment; thus several possibilities for human contamination also exist. As pesticides are

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responsible for several adverse effects on human health other than acute intoxications. Many

studies have reported associations between exposure to agricultural chemicals and various health

outcomes, including different kinds of cancer (Daniels et al., 1997; Khuder and Mutgi, 1997;

Zahm and Ward, 1998) and degenerative diseases (Engel et al., 2001; Gauthier et al., 2001;

Jenner, 2001). Effects in immune, hematological, nervous, endocrine and reproductive systems

have been reported (Ojajarvi et al., 2000; Ritz and Yu, 2000; Figa-Talamanca and Petrelli, 2001;

Mourad, 2005), and these compounds have been also associated with DNA damage in human

populations (Gomez-Arroyo et al., 2000; Undeger and Basaran, 2002; Costa et al., 2007; Ergene

et al., 2007; Muniz et al., 2008; Ali et al., 2008). Exposure to low-level of pesticides is known to

produce a variety of biochemical changes, some of which may be responsible for the adverse

biological effects reported in human and experimental studies (Gupta et al., 1998; Banerjee et al.,

1999; Panemangalore et al., 1999; Hernández et al., 2005). Conversely, some biochemical

alterations may not necessarily lead to clinically recognizable symptoms, although all the

biochemical responses can be used as markers of exposure or effect (Panemangalore et al., 1999;

López et al., 2007).

CLASSIFICATION OF PESTICIDES

Pesticides may be classified in several ways. They may be classified according to the

target pests they destroy, for example, insecticides, herbicide, rodenticide and others they may

also be classified according to the chemical class they belong to for example organochlorines,

organophosphates, carbamates, pyrethriods, nitrophenols, nicotinoides etc (David and

Jeyaratnam 1996). Another system of classification may be according to the degree or type of

damage caused such as that developed by the World Health Organisation.

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PESTICIDES AND TOXICITY

Biological monitoring is the measurement of workplace agents or their metabolites either

in tissues, secreta, excreta, expired air or any combination of these, in order to evaluate exposure

and health risk compared to an appropriate reference (Berlin et al., 1984; WHO, 1986b). A

presently unresolved problem is how to consider tests pointing out early effects attributable to

the exposure (Hoet, 1996). If these changes are ‘non adverse’ and reversible, and if a dose–effect

relationship is known, these indicators of sub-critical effects could be used in the biological

monitoring of exposure as markers of internal dose rather than markers of potentially adverse

effect. However, the distinction between early, reversible health effects and adverse health

effects, and hence between biological monitoring of exposure and medical surveillance, is not

always clear-cut. Biological monitoring offers several advantages over ambient monitoring

because a biological parameter reflecting the internal dose is necessarily more closely related to

the systemic adverse effect(s) than any environmental measurement can be. Biological

monitoring provides an integrated estimate of exposure by all routes of absorption into the body

(respiratory, dermal and oral route) and evaluates the overall exposure as the sum of different

sources of contamination. It informs about long-term exposure in some cases and helps to assess

exposure of an individual subject as a result of individual movement within the working

environment and the individual factors influencing the pharmacokinetics of the exogenous

substance (Maroni, 1983.). However, when routes of exposure are integrated or combined,

environmental monitoring could be helpful either to clarify which route is more significant or to

identify the compounds that have to be taken into account in the biological monitoring practice.

Regardless of the difficulties in assessing risks of pesticide use on human health, the

authorization for pesticide commercialization in Europe currently requires data of potential

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negative effects of the active substances on human health. These data are usually obtained from

several tests focused on e.g., metabolism patterns, acute toxicity, sub-chronic or sub-acute

toxicity, chronic toxicity, carcinogenicity, genotoxicity, teratogenicity, generation study, and also

irritancy trials using rat as a model mammal or in some cases dogs and rabbits (Matthews, 2006).

The respective toxicity tests for human health risk assessments required by EPA (2009) are (1)

the acute toxicity test, which assesses the effects of shortterm exposure to a single dose of

pesticide (oral, dermal, and inhalation exposure, eye irritation, skin irritation, skin sensitization,

neurotoxicity), (2) the sub-chronic toxicity test, which assesses the effects of intermediate

repeated exposure (oral, dermal, inhalation, nerve system damage) over a longer period of time

(30–90 days), (3) the chronic toxicity test, which assesses the effects of long-term repeated

exposure lasting for most of the test animal’s life span and intended to determine the effects of a

pesticide product after prolonged and repeated exposures (e.g., chronic non-cancer and cancer

effects), (4) the developmental and reproductive tests, which assess any potential effects in the

fetus of an exposed pregnant female (i.e., birth defects) and how pesticide exposure may

influence the ability of a test animal to reproduce successfully, (5) the mutagenicity test which

assesses the potential of a pesticide to affect the genetic components of the cell, and (6) the

hormone disruption test, which measures the pesticide potential to disrupt the endocrine system

(consists of a set of glands and the hormones they produce that regulate the development,

growth, reproduction, and behaviour of animals including humans). The acute toxicity

experiments are required for the calculation of the median lethal dose (LD50), which is the

pesticide dose that is required to kill half of the tested animals when entering the body by a

particular route.

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 CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY

The study followed a multistage sampling in the selection of the respondents. Purposive

sampling technique was used to select Philippines due to its environmental advantage and

relatively high density in maize production. The municipality was randomly selected among the

many maize producing districts or municipality in the region. We randomly selected four

communities from the list of producing communities within the municipality.

The main source of information on agrochemicals use was media and manuals. Other

sources of information include extension and farmer group membership. It was revealed from the

ordered log it regression that five out of ten explanatory variables, years of education, the

number of children in school, ownership of TV/radio, experience in agrochemicals application,

and farm size, were significant variables that influence farmers’ levels of awareness of health

implications of agrochemicals use in the study area. Other variables that were significant in

output model include household size, years of education, the number of extension contacts, farm

size, marital status, and quantity of pesticides applied.

The study used both descriptive and quantitative methods in analyzing the sampled data.

Descriptive statistics such as percentages were used while ordered logit model was used to

identify factors influencing farmers’ awareness level of health implications of agrochemical use.

To estimate the effect of awareness level on farm output, multiple linear regression model was

used where awareness level is an additional explanatory variable measuring the effect on output.

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 CHAPTER IV
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The empirical results from the study indicate that most of the farmers (66.2%) do not read

the labels on the containers/packages of agrochemicals, while 33.8% read the labels before use.

About 25% of those who cannot read seek help from others who can read. It was also revealed

that 31% of the farmers understand the labels after reading. About 68% of the farmers stated that

they do not eat, drink, or smoke during chemical application and 32.5% admitted that they do.

From the results, about 83% of said they wash their hands with soap after agrochemical

application.

In the area of reuse of empty containers of agrochemicals, 53.2% said they dispose of

them while 46.8% said they use the containers for buying of oil and drinking of water in the

farm. Out of 154 respondents, 13% of the responded indicated that they wash the spraying

machine in water bodies like rivers and streams. From the results, 77.3% of the farmers study the

direction of the wind and sprayed accordingly. Additionally, 52.6% of the respondents adhere to

the recommended dosage while 47.4% do not. According to the results obtained, only 26% of the

farmers use personal protective clothes and this confirms the findings of Okoffo et al. that less

than half of cocoa farmers (35%) in Brong-Ahafo region of Ghana put on full PPE (costume)

during pesticide application. Mattah et al. in their research on “pesticide application among

farmers in the catchment of Ashaiman Irrigation Scheme of Ghana: health implications” revealed

that out of 74 farmers observed spraying pesticides on their farms, 36.5% used nose guards,

45.9% used boots, 31% used hand gloves, and 25.7% wore dresses that covered the whole body

except the eyes.

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 Farmers’ awareness levels of health implications of agrochemicals use, household size,

years of education, the number of extension contacts, farm size (acres), and quantity of pesticides

(liters) significantly and positively influence maize output.

It is important to know whether farmers who are aware of health implications of

agrochemical use and adhere to the safety standards are able to obtain higher or lower maize

output. This explanatory variable is found to be significant at 10%. It has a positive effect on

output and hence meets the a priori expectation. Awareness of health implications of

agrochemical use increases output by 309 kg (3.09 bags) per acre. This means that if a farmer

moves from low to moderate levels of awareness of health implications of agrochemical use, his

or her maize output will increase by 309 kg (3.09 bags) per acre. Likewise, if a farmer moves

from moderate to high levels of awareness of health implications of agrochemical use, his or her

maize output will increase by 309 kg (3.09 bags) per acre. Farmers who are aware of health

implications of agrochemical use will adhere to the recommended practices and application rate

and this has a great implication for the crops yield and health of the farmers. This will lead to the

avoidance of over/under application of agrochemicals and reduce the loss of time due to an

illness of the farmer thereby increasing the efficiency and productivity of the crops and farmers.

According to Glover-Amengor and Tetteh apart from agrochemicals affecting the environment

as poisons, most pesticides used in agriculture in Ghana also affect the crops directly by causing

increases in yield at optimum rates and decreases in yield with increasing concentrations.

The results show a positive relationship between farm size and output with 1%

significance level. The increase in area under cultivation by one acre leads to an increase in

maize output by 584 kg (5.84 bags) ceteris paribus. This could be as a result of the fact that large

farm owners have easy access to credit and enjoy economies of scale in resource use. This result

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is consistent with Awunyo-Vitor et al. who also found out in their study that farm size was

positively significant in explaining variation in output, in the same study area. The quantity of

pesticide applied significantly influences maize output (1% significant level). The result shows

that an increase in the quantity of pesticides by one liter leads to an increase in maize output by

221 kg (2.21 bags) holding other factors constant. Meanwhile, overuse can also cause loss. The

use of pesticides prevents pest attack and control of weeds which consequently increases output.

The result is consistent with Awunyo-Vitor et al. findings in cowpea production. Marital status

was significant at 10% and had a positive effect on output. Marriage increases maize output by

231 kg (2.31 bags). The reason could be that marriage partners work on the farm as a source of

labor which reduces the cost of hired labor thereby providing adequate financial resources for the

purchase of other productive inputs.

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 CHAPTER V
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Conclusion

The study sought to identify factors that influence farmers’ awareness of health

implications of agrochemicals used and its impact to human life. Awareness of health

implications of agrochemical use significantly increases output. The use of chemicals in

agriculture is almost as old as farming itself, but in the last fifty years it has been an explosion in

the range of chemicals and mixtures available to the end user. This has in turn been accompanied

by rising public concerns about the use of these products within the food chain and the hazards

posed by industry waste and pollution.

Therefore, the researchers concluded that if these agrochemicals left uncontrolled within

five years, through the lungs, digestive system or skin in such that long-term effects of diseases

include skin disorders, damage to internal organs (liver, kidneys, lungs), increased sensitivity to

pesticides and effects on the progeny.

The researchers come up of solutions, though these chemicals in farming are unstoppable,

however it can be eliminated assuredly. We Filipinos are cognizant in these problems; Filipino

farmers should plant biotech crops which is feasible to the Philippines. Agrochemicals can be a

huge boon to the farmer, but can also be the root cause of value destructions. Regulation plays a

very great role in this sector, but so too do price premiums and innovative production methods,

from hydroponics to precision farming. Using the right combination of chemicals, at the right

time, in the right way and in full compliance with all the prevailing regulations can be a strong

agent for a better farming industry.

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 Another thing is community leaders, teachers and primary health-care workers should ask

the retailer or the supplier to supply chemical safety data sheets and information sheets on

agrochemicals used in the locality. They should take a leading role in creating awareness among

the members of the community about the hazards involved in the use of agrochemicals and in

giving necessary instructions to users on their safe use. Community leaders could arrange for

regular discussions and group meetings in schools, places of worship or community centres,

providing for exchange of information on safe practices.

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Recommendations
Based on the findings of this study, four policy recommendations are relatable. The study

recognizes that education is important for improving farmers’ awareness regarding health

implications of agrochemicals use. It is therefore recommended that field training and practical

educational programs on good and safety use of agrochemicals should be adopted by agencies to

raise farmer’s awareness level of the risk associated with agrochemical use. The use of the mass

media has shown to be effective in educating and creating awareness. Intervention to increase

farmer’s awareness of health implication of agrochemicals used in the study area should consider

interactive radio programs in local languages. Also, health implications of agrochemical use

should be incorporated into our educational curriculum. Lastly, farmers should be educated on

the importance of adhering to safety standards of agrochemical use as it increases output.

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