1

MAGNETISM end B will become the South pole. If the rod was stroked
Properties of Magnets; with the north pole then end B will become the North pole.
1. All magnets have a north pole ( N pole) and a south The poles can also be identified using the law of magnetic
pole ( S pole).These two poles can NOT exist poles.
independently.
2. Similar poles of a magnet repel while unlike poles Electricity method
attract.
3. All magnets attract magnetic materials. @@@@10 lines for diagram@@@@
4. A freely suspended magnet always comes to rest with
A steel rod is placed inside a solenoid (a coil wound with
its north pole pointing towards the earth’s north pole
500 or more turns of insulated wire) which is connected to
and its south pole pointing towards the south pole.
a direct current(dc) supply. The switch is then closed for a
Magnetic And Non-Magnetic Materials
few seconds. The rod will be found to be magnetized. The
Magnetic materials are those which can be attracted by
polarity of the magnet is given by the right hand grip rule
magnets while non-magnetic materials can not.
[if the fingers grip the solenoid in the direction of the
Magnetic materials are used to make magnets because they
current, the thumb points to the North Pole].
can acquire magnetism. They can be divided into two
In the diagram above P is the _______________ pole while
groups. These are Hard Magnetic materials and Soft
Q is the ______________ pole
Magnetic materials.

Hard magnetic materials are difficult to magnetise and Demagnetisation

demagnetize. They are used to make permanent magnets. 1 Electrical Method
Examples include steel, alcomax, alnico etc. The magnet is placed inside a solenoid which is
connected to an alternating current supply. While the
Soft magnetic materials are easy to magnetise and current is on, the magnet is slowly removed from the
solenoid to some 2-3 metres away from solenoid.
demagnetize. They are used to make temporary magnets.
Examples include iron, cobalt and nickel. 2 heating
3 hammering
Induced magnetism
When a piece of an iron bar is brought very close to some Magnetic Saturation
iron filings, there is no attraction between them. All magnetic materials are assumed to be made up of tiny
magnets called magnetic domains. When the domains are
@@@@10 lines for diagram@@@@ haphazardly aligned then the material does not exhibit the
properties of a magnet.
However if a magnet is brought close to the iron bar it is seen
to immediately attract the iron filings. @@@@5 lines for diagram@@@@

The iron bar behaves like a magnet if and only if it is still If some of the the domains are aligned in the same
attached to a permanent magnet. This is called induced direction, then the magnetic material starts acting like a
magnetism. magnet. If all domains are aligned in the same direction
When the magnet is removed the iron fillings quickly drop then Magnetic Saturation has been acquired as shown
away. This is because iron is a soft magnetic material. If a below.
steel bar is used the iron filings will stay attached to the steel @@@@5 lines for diagram@@@@
bar for a little longer after removing the permanent magnet.
Magnetic saturation is the point beyond which the strength
Magnetisation of the magnet can NOT be increased.
There are two methods of magnetisation. These are
Stroking and use of Electricity. Magnetic Fields
A magnetic field is the region within which a magnet exerts
its magnetic force.
Stroking method
The steel rod is stroked from end to end about 20-30 times
Magnetic field lines
in the same direction by the same pole of the magnet.
Magnetic filed lines or lines of force are used to illustrate
@@@@10 lines for diagram@@@@ the magnetic field around a magnet.
 They begin at the N-pole and end at the S-pole
The pole induced at the end of the rod where stroking begins  They do not cross
is the same pole as the stroking pole. In the diagram above  They are concentrated at the poles.
 2

Field around a single magnet switch. A relay has at least two circuits: One
works with small current and the other with the
@@@@5 lines for diagram@@@@ larger current.
In the diagram below, a relay is used to operate
Field between unlike poles an electric motor.

@@@@5 lines for diagram@@@@ @@@@10 lines for diagram@@@@

Field between similar poles When the switch is closed,

 current flows through the coil.
@@@@5 lines for diagram@@@@  The core of the relay is then magnetised.
 The relay core then attracts the top part of
X refers to a point where the net field is zero. This point is the armature.
called the neutral point.  The armature pivots and then pushes
contacts close. A current flows through the
The magnetic field around a magnet can be detected using
motor, making it work.
using a plotting campus as well as iron filings.
4 Electric bell
Using a plotting campus
Lay a bar of magnet on a sheet of paper. Place a plotting @@@@12 lines for diagram@@@@
compass at a point near one of the poles of the magnet.
When the switch is closed,
@@@@12 lines for diagram@@@@  current flows through the solenoids.
 The soft iron cores are then magnetized.
Mark the position pointed by the arrow of the plotting  The electromagnets then attract the soft-iron
compass. Move the compass so that the beginning of the armature.
arrow is exactly over the position you marked. Mark the  The hammer hits the gong and a sound is
new position pointed by the compass arrow. Continue the produced.
process until the south pole of the magnet is reached .Join The movement of the soft-iron armature breaks
the dots to give one line of force and show the direction of the contacts and the circuit is cut off. The
the field or force by putting arrows on it. electromagnets lose their magnetism and no
longer attracts the soft-iron armature. The spring
Iron filling method pulls the soft-iron armature back, which
A plain paper is placed above a magnet and iron fillings are closes the contacts and as such completes the
sprinkled on top of the paper. The iron fillings should form circuit again. This cycle will repeat for so long as
a pattern of the field lines of force. the switch is closed, thus the bell will ring.

Electromagnets 5 Reed relay switches

An electromagnet is a solenoid connected to a power A reed relay switch uses the same principle as an
supply. An electromagnet is a temporary magnet. Its ordinary relay switch in that one circuit controls
magnetism can be switched on and off. Its polarity can be another. In a reed relay, strips of wires are placed
determined using the right hand grip rule. inside a solenoid. These strips are called reeds
and are made of soft magnetic materials.
The electromagnet’s magnetism can be enhanced by
inserting a soft iron core in the coil. In the diagram below, a relay reed is used to
The strength of the electromagnet can be increased by control a motor M. WX and YZ are reeds placed
either inside a solenoid.
 increasing the current in the coil
@@@@10 lines for diagram@@@@
 increasing the number of turns in the coil
 bringing the poles closer to each other. When the switch is closed,
 the magnetic field produced magnetizes the
Electromagnets are used for; reeds.
1 Lifting scrap metal  Ends Z and X become opposite poles and as
2 Tape recording a consequence, the two reeds attract each
other.
3 Relay switch
 The other circuit is then closed. See diagram
A relay is a switching device where a smaller below.
current is used to switch a larger current on(or
off). @@@@12 lines for diagram@@@@
It consists of an electromagnet which operates the
 3

Magnetic shielding /screening

When a short iron bar is placed in a magnet field, the field
ELECTROSTATICS [Static
appears to be drawn towards the bar and concentrated
through it. Most of the magnetic field seems to pass
Electricity].
through the bar since iron is a soft magnetic material. If an Static electricity refers to charge that is not moving i.e.
iron ring is placed in a magnetic field, the field does not stationary charge.
pass inside the ring,
Types Of Charge
Thus iron rings and iron boxes can be used to protect  There are two types of charge. These are Positive
equipment that can be affected by magnetic fields. This is [+] and Negative [-].
known as magnetic shielding/screening.  All charges obey The Law Of Electric Charges
which states that “like charges repel and unlike
charges attract”
 Electric charges can exist independent of each
other.
 The SI unit of charge is the Coulomb (C)

Electrostatic Charging
An insulator can be charged electrically by rubbing it while
a conductor cannot. This is because conductors have free
electrons on their surface while insulators have fixed
electrons.
 Negative charge is acquired if excess electrons
are gained and positive charge is gained if
electrons are lost.
 NB: Positive charge arises as a result of a
deficiency of electrons.
Methods of electrostatic charging include
(i) Charging through contact
(ii) Charging through induction
Charging Through Contact
When a polythene rod is rubbed with a cloth it becomes
negatively charged. Electrons flow from the piece of cloth
into the polythene rod. As a result the cloth attains a
positive charge.
On the other hand an acetate rod becomes positively
charged when rubbed with a piece of cloth. Electrons flow
out of the acetate rod into the cloth which then becomes
negatively charged.
The rods and cloths described above became charged
through contact.

Charging through induction

Charging through induction can be achieved in two ways-
by earthing as well as through separation of charges.

Charging through separation of charge.

This can be illustrated by placing two metal spheres A and
B next to each other so that they are in contact.

@@@@8 lines for diagram@@@@

A charged strip is then brought close to the metal spheres,

but not touching them.
 4

@@@@8 lines for diagram@@@@ @@@@12 lines for diagram@@@@

This causes a separation of charges in the two spheres. All The lightning conductor should be made from a good
negative charges are attracted from sphere A to B. conductor of electricity and it should be taller than the
structure it is protecting. When clouds move through the
On being separated, the two spheres are found to be ; sky they acquire a negative charge. As they pass above the
A- Positively charged lightning conductor they induce a positive charge in the
B- Negatively charged spikes at the tip of the lightning conductor.
Since charge accumulates at sharp points, the positive
@@@@8 lines for diagram@@@@ charge at the tip of the spikes is large enough to ionize the
air molecules around them by attracting electrons from
them. These electrons are repelled down the lightning
Charging through earthing
A charged strip is brought close to a neutrally charged conductor to the ground.. The resulting positive ions are
metal sphere. See (a) below. attracted by the negatively charged cloud.

This causes a separation of charge within the sphere itself.

Thus an electric wind of positively charged particles moves
See (b) below.
from the spikes to the cloud where they neutralize its
@@@@8 lines for diagram@@@@ negative charged.

Earthing the sphere causes the negative charge to be

Electric Fields
repelled by the strip to the ground. See (c) above.
The electric field is a region in which a charged particle
This leaves the sphere with a net positive charge. See (d )
exerts its electric force. Electric fields are illustrated with
above.
the help of electric field lines which begin at the positive
charge and end at the negative charge.
Detecting Charge
Charge can be detected through the use of a Gold Leaf
Field around single charges.
Electroscope.
positive charge negative charge
@@@@10 lines for diagram@@@@

When a charged object is brought close to the metal cap, @@@@6 lines for diagram@@@@
the gold leaf deflects upwards. This happens because both
the stem and the leaf have the same charge and as such
Field between simmilar charges.
repel each other.

To find out the nature of the charge on the object; the

@@@@8 lines for diagram@@@@
electroscope has to be charged first.i.e only a charged
electroscope can be used to detect the type of charge in an
object.
Field between 2 unlike charges.
Discharging
@@@@8 lines for diagram@@@@
Discharging refers to the loss of excess charge.
It takes place through contact or ionization. Dangers of
ionization are minimized by earthing. Field between 2 positively charged plates.

Lightning Conductor @@@@6 lines for diagram@@@@

As clouds move overhead they gain a negative charge.
When excess charge has been accumulated in the cloud it is
discharged to the ground through ionization. This is called
lightning. Lightning is dangerous and its effects can be
minimized through the use of a Lightning Conductor. A
lightning conductor discharges a cloud before it discharges
on its own.
 5

ELECTRICITY Resistivity
The resistance of a conductor is
Common Circuit Symbols  indirectly proportional to the cross sectional
1
area(A) of the conductor . R α
@@@@12 lines for diagram@@@@ A
 directly proportional to the length (l) of the
conductor. R  l

Electric Current, I Combining the two

Current is the rate of flow of electric charge. Conventional
current flows from positive to negative but the flow of
l
electric charges is from negative to positive.
R α
current 
charge A
time

l
I
Q
t
 R  ρ
A
The SI units of current are Amperes (A) or Coulomb per
second (C/s). Where
R = Resistanceof the conductor
Current is measured with an ammeter. An ammeter is
always connected in series with other circuit components. l = length of the conductor

Potential Difference (pd) or Voltage,V  = resistivity of the conductor

This refers to the electrical energy needed to drive a charge
between two points in a circuit. A = cross-sectional area of the conductor.

Resistivity of any material is constant.

electrical energy For example the resistivity of copper is 1.8 x 10 -8 m and
voltage 
charge nichrome 9an alloy) has a resistivity of 110 x 10-8 m.

E Ohm’s Law
V
Q The current (I) through a conductor is directly proportional
to the voltage
h (V) across the conductor, provided
temperature
r and other conditions remain constant.
The SI units of voltage are Volts(V) or Joules per Coulomb
(J/C). V = IR
NB: One volt is the energy needed to drive a coulomb of .
charge around a circuit. V/I Characteristic Graphs

Voltage is measured with a voltmeter. A voltmeter is @@@@6 lines for diagram@@@@

always connected in parallel with other circuit components.
Ohmic Conductor

Electromotive force(emf) @@@@6 lines for diagram@@@@

This is the electrical energy required to drive a charge
round a circuit by a power supply. A voltmeter is connected
across the power supply in order to measure the emf. Filament bulb

@@@@8 lines for diagram@@@@ @@@@6 lines for diagram@@@@

Resistance, R Thermistor
Resistance is the opposition to flow of current. SI units of @@@@8 lines for diagram@@@@
resistance are Ohms (Ω). An ohmmeter can be used to
measure resistance.
 6

Electrical Energy Current in parallel circuits

Current divides among the several pathways in a parallel
E  IVt circuit.
@@@@8 lines for diagram@@@@
Where E = electrical energy

I = electrical current
AT = A1 + A2

IT = I1 + I2 + …
V = voltage
Voltage in parallel circuits
t = time
The voltages across parallel circuit components are equal.
Electrical Power, P
@@@@8 lines for diagram@@@@
Power = current × voltage
VT = V1 = V2
P = IV

Series Circuits
Resistance in parallel circuits
In a series circuit there is only one pathway for current.
@@@@8 lines for diagram@@@@
Current in Series circuits
The current is the same at all points in a series circuit
The total resistance, RT for resistors R1, R2, R3, etc which are
parallel is given by

1 1 1 1
    ...
A1 = A2 = A3 and therefore I1 = I2 = I3
RT R1 R2 R3
Voltage in a Series Circuit.
In a series circuit there is a potential drop across the circuit
components. Thus the sum of the voltages across the circuit PRACTICAL ELECTRIC
components should give the emf.
CIRCUITRY
USES OF ELECTRICITY
Electricity is used in
 Lighting
 Machines
 Security
 Communication
 Heating

VT = V1 + V2 + … COST OF ELECTRICITY
Resistance in a series circuit.
Cost of electricity = cost per unit X no of units

The total resistance, RT for resistors R1, R2, R3,etc which are No of units = time in hours X power in kilowatts. [ 1 unit is
in series is given by equal to 1 kilowatt-hour.(kWh)]

Example.
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + … If BPC sells electricity at P0.55 per unit, calculate the cost
of using two 100 W bulbs for ten hours.
Parallel Circuits
This is a circuit in which there is more than one pathway for No of units = 2 x 100W x 10 hrs
current.
= 2 x 0.1 kW x 10 hrs
 7

= 2 kWh
Double Insulation
Cost = 20 kWh x P0.55 Appliances that are made from non-metal outer case are
= P1.10 usually double-insulated using a tough, stiff non-
conducting material. This prevents electric current to flow
DANGERS OF ELECTRICITY to the user in case there is a fault. Devices that are double
(a) Damaged Insulation insulated carry the sign below.
An electric shock can occur if a current flows
from the electric circuit through a person’s body @@@@4 lines for diagram@@@@
to the Earth. This can happen when someone
touches the exposed part of the wire carrying
current (live wire). 3 Pin Mains Plug
(b) Overheating Of Cables
When current increases through a conductor, the
amount of heat energy lost due to the resistance
of the wire increases. This can lead to explosion, @@@@10 lines for diagram@@@@
fire or the cables overheating.
(c) Damp Conditions
Water can conduct electricity. When the body is Earth wire (green or/and yellow). This is connected to the
wet, the resistance of the body decreases hence earth pin.
more current can flow through the body. One can Live wire (brown). This is connected to the live pin. It
get a shock if s/he operates an appliance with wet carries live current to the circuit.
hands since water can conduct electricity. Neutral wire (blue). This is connected to the neutral pin. It
(d) Overloading A Socket is earthed at the power station.
When a socket is overloaded with many
appliances, the current from the mains increases RING MAIN CIRCUIT
which will lead to increased heat produced by The electricity sockets in a house are connected by means
cables. This can cause the insulating material to of a circuit called the ring main. In a ring main circuit the
melt or cause an explosion or fire. live, neutral and earth wires form a loop of cable going
from the consumer unit to all of the sockets in turn and
back to the consumer unit.
SAFE USE OF ELECTRICITY
Fuses
This is a safety device made from tin coated-copper wire. It
has a low melting point such that it melts and breaks the
circuit when current through it exceeds a certain value
called the fuse rating. This could be due to short circuits or
overheating of cables. A fuse ensures that the current
carrying capacity of the wire is not exceeded.

To calculate the fuse rating one has to know the power

rating of the device. For example, a 3kW 240V electric fire
needs a current of about
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒

3000 𝑊
𝑃= = 12.5 𝐴
240𝑉

Therefore a 13A fuse is recommended.

Fuses and switches are always connected to the live wire so

as to isolate the appliance from the current source when
the appliance is not in use or in case of a short circuit
.
Earthing
Appliances that are made of metal on the outer case must
be earthed as a safety precaution. This connects the body of
the appliance to the ground. When the device is faulty or
the ‘live’ wire breaks and touches the metal case, the earth
wire will channel the charge to the ground to prevent any
electric shocks.