Basic Electronics & Communication [21ELN14/24] Module-4

SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Rajanukunte, Bangalore-560064
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

SUBJECT: BASIC ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION

SUBJECT CODE--[21ELN14/24]

MODULE - 4
Syllabus:

Analog and Digital Communication – Modern communication system scheme, Information

source, and input transducer, Transmitter, Channel or Medium – Hardwired and Soft wired, Noise,
Receiver, Multiplexing, Types of communication systems.

Types of modulation (only concepts) – AM, FM, Phase Modulation, Pulse Modulation, PAM,

PWM, PPM, PCM.

Concept of Radio wave propagation (Ground, space, sky) Concepts of Sampling theorem, Nyquist
rate, Digital Modulation Schemes– ASK, FSK, PSK

Radio signal transmission Multiple access techniques, Multipath and fading, Error Management

Antenna, Types of antennas (only definition and antenna model, exclude radiation patterns).

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 Basic Electronics & Communication [21ELN14/24] Module-4

MODERN COMMUNICATION SYSTEM SCHEME:

 Communication engineering deals with the techniques of transmitting information.

 Communication engineering means electrical communication, in which information is transmitted
through electrical signals.
 Electrical communication is a process by which the information message is transmitted from one
point to another, from one person to another, or from one place to another in the form of electrical
signals, through some communication link.
 Basic communication system provides a link between the information source and its destination.
The process of electrical communication involves sending, receiving, and processing information in
electrical form.
 The information to be transmitted passes through a number of stages of the communication system
prior it reaches its destination.
Figure 4.1 shows a block schematic diagram of the most general form of basic communication system.


Fig 4.1 Schematic diagram of the most general form of basic communication system.
The main constituents of basic communication system are:
(i) Information source and input transducer
(ii) Transmitter
(iii) Channel or medium
(iv) Noise
(v) Receiver
(vi) Output transducer and final destination.
(i) Information source:
 A communication system transmits information from an information source to a destination and
hence the first stage of a communication system is the information source.
 Ex: A sentence or paragraph spoken by a person is a message that contains some information. The

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person, in this case, acts as information source. Few other familiar examples of messages are
voice, live scenes, music, written text, and e-mail.
 A communication system transmits information in the form of electrical signal or signals.
(i) Input transducer:
 A transducer is a device that converts a non-electrical energy into its corresponding electrical
energy called signal and vice versa, e.g., during a telephone conversation, the words spoken by a
person are in the form of sound energy.
 An example of a transducer is a microphone. Microphone converts sound signals into the
corresponding electrical signals.
 Similarly, a television (TV) picture tube converts electrical signals into its corresponding
pictures. Some other examples of transducers are movie cameras, Video Cassette, Recorder
(VCR) heads, tape recorder heads, and loudspeakers.
 The information produced by the information source is applied to the next stage, termed the
information or input /transducer. This in turn, produces an electrical signal corresponding to the
information as output. This electrical signal is called the baseband signal. It is also called a
message signal s(t).
 There are two types of signals. (a) analog signal, and (b) digital signal.
(a) Analog Signal
 An analog signal is a function of time, and has a continuous range of values. However, there is a
definite function value of the analog signal at each point of time.
 A familiar example of analog signal or analog wave form is a pure sine wave form. A practical
example of an analog signal is a voice signal. When a voice signal is converted to electrical for
by a microphone, one gets a corresponding electrical analog signal.

Fig 4.2: Analog signals (a) Pure sine wave (b) Typical speech signal

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(b) Digital signal

 A digital signal does not have continuous function values on a time scale. It is discrete in nature,
i.e., it has some values at discrete timings.
 A familiar example of a digital signal is the sound signal produced by drumbeats.

Fig 4.3: Digital signal

 Digital signals in their true sense correspond to a binary digital signal, where the discrete
amplitude of the signal is coded into binary digits represented by ‘0’ and ‘1’.
 The analog signal, which is continuous in time, is converted to discrete time, using a procedure
calling sampling. The continuous amplitude of the analog signal is converted to discrete
amplitude using a process called quantization. Sampling and quantization are together termed as
analog-to- digital conversion (ADC) and the circuitry that performs this operation is called an
analog to- digital converter.
(ii) Transmitter:
The transmitter section processes the signal prior transmission. There are two following options for
processing signals prior transmission:
(i) The baseband signal, which lies in the low frequency spectrum, is translated to a higher
frequency spectrum.
(ii) The baseband signal is transmitted without translating it to a higher frequency spectrum.
• The baseband signal is converted into a corresponding series of sine waves of two different
frequencies prior to transmission. Figure 4.4 illustrates this processing.
• The carrier communication system is based on the principle of translating a low frequency
baseband signal to higher frequency spectrum. This process is termed as modulation.
• If the baseband signal is a digital signal, the carrier communication system is called a digital
communication system. The digital modulation methods are employed for this.
• If the baseband signal is an analog signal, the carrier communication system is called as an
analog communication system and for processing the analog modulation techniques are used.

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Fig: 4.4 The processing of a baseband signal

Fig. 4.5 Block diagram representing schematic of an analog transmitter section

 Figure 4.5 shows the baseband signal, s(t) applied to the modulated stage. This stage translates
the baseband signal from its low frequency spectrum to high frequency spectrum. This stage also
receives another input called the carrier signal, c(t), which is generated by a high frequency
carrier oscillator.
 Modulation takes place at this stage with the baseband and the carrier signals as two inputs after
modulation, the baseband signal is translated to a high frequency spectrum and the carrier signal
is said to be modulated by the baseband signal.
 The output of the modulated stage is called the modulated signal, and is designated as x(t). The
voltage of the modulated signal is then amplified to drive the last stage of the transmitter, called
the power amplifier stage (Fig. 4.5).

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 This stage amplifies the power of the modulated signal and thus it carries enough power to reach
the receiver stage of the communication system. Finally, the signal is passed to the transmission
medium or channel.
 Radio signals are transmitted through electromagnetic (em) waves, also referred as radio waves,
in a radio communication system.
 The radio waves have a wide frequency range starting from a few ten kilo Hertz (Hz) to several
thousand Mega Hertz (MHz). This wide range of frequencies is referred as the radio frequency
(RF) spectrum.
(iii) Channel or Medium:
 After the required processing, the transmitter section passes the signal to the transmission
medium. The signal propagates through the transmission medium and is received at the other
side by the receiver section. The transmission medium between the transmitter and the receiver
is called a channel.
 Channel is a very important part of a communication system as its characteristics add many
constraints to the design of the communication system, e.g., most of the noise is added to the
signal during its transmission through the channel.
 Depending on the physical implementations, one can classify the channels in the following two
groups:
Hardware Channels:
These channels are manmade structure which can be used as transmission medium. There are
following three possible implementations of the hardware channels.
1. Transmission lines
2. Waveguides
3. Optical Fiber Cables (OFC)
• The examples of transmission lines are Twisted-pair cables used in landline telephony and
coaxial cables used for cable TV transmission. However, transmission lines are not suitable for
ultra-high frequency (UHF) transmission.
• To transmit signals at UHF range, Waveguides are employed as medium. Waveguides are
hollow, circular, or rectangular metallic structures. The signals enter the waveguide, are
reflected at the metallic walls, and propagate towards the other end of the waveguide.
• Optical fiber cables are highly sophisticated transmission media, in the form of extremely thin
circular pipes. e.g., landline telephony and cable TV network.
Software Channels:
There are certain natural resources which can be used as the transmission medium for signals.

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Such transmission media are called software channels.

• The possible natural resources that can be used as software channels are: air or open space and
sea water.
• The most widely used software channel is air or open space. The signals are transmitted in the
form of electromagnetic (em) waves, also called radio waves.
• Systems that use radio waves to transmit signals through open space are called radio
communication systems, e.g., radio broad cast, television transmission, satellite
communication, and cellular mobile communication.
(iv) Noise:
 In electronics and communication engineering, noise is defined as unwanted electrical energy of
random and unpredictable nature present in the system due to any cause.
 Obviously, noise is an electrical disturbance, which does not contain any useful information.
Thus, noise is a highly undesirable part of a communication system, and have to be minimized.
SNR and Noise Figure (F):
 One can define the SNR as the ratio of the signal power to the noise power at a point in the
circuit. Now, if Ps, is signal power and Pn, is noise power, then SNR expressed as S/N, is given
as
𝑆
( ) = ( 𝑃𝑠 )
𝑁 𝑃𝑛
If Ps = V 2R
s
and Pn = Vn2R,
then 𝑆 𝑉2𝑅
𝑃𝑠 = �
= 𝑉2𝑅
�
𝑅
𝑃𝑛
where Vs, is signal voltage and Vn, is noise voltage.
 In addition, it is assumed that both the signal and noise powers are dissipated in the same resistor
R. Therefore, SNR can be expressed in terms of decibels (dB) as
𝑆
( ) 𝑑𝐵 = 10 log10 𝑉 2
𝑁 ( 2�)
𝑆 �
𝑛
𝑉𝑠
( ) 𝑑𝐵 = 20 log ( )
𝑉𝑛
𝑁
 For example, if, at a particular point in a circuit, the signal and noise voltages are given as 3.5
mV and 0.75 mV, respectively, SNR in dB is calculated as:
𝑆 3.5
( ) 𝑑𝐵 = 20 log10 ( )
𝑁 0.75
𝑆
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 ( ) 𝑑𝐵 = 20 log10(4.66)
𝑁
𝑆
( ) 𝑑𝐵 = 13.38 𝑑𝐵
𝑁

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Clearly, the SNR of the circuit at the point is 13.38 dB.

 The Noise figure (F) is the measure of the noise introduced by the circuit. It is defined as the ratio
of the signal-to-noise power at the input of the circuit and the signal-to-noise power at the output of
the circuit. Noise figure (r) can be expressed as
𝑆
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑜𝑓𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡
𝐹= 𝑁
𝑆
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑜𝑓𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡
�
Receiver:
 The task of the receiver is to provide the original information to the user. This information is altered
due to the processing at the transmitter side.
 The signal received by the receiver, thus does not contain information in its original form. The
receiver system receives the transmitted signal and performs some processing on it to the original
baseband signal.
 The function of the receiver section is to separate the noise from the received signal, and then
recover the original baseband signal by performing some processing on it.
 The receiver performs an operation known as demodulation, which brings the baseband signal from
the higher frequency spectrum to its original low-frequency spectrum. The demodulation process
removes the high frequency carrier from the received signal and retrieves the original baseband.

Fig: 4.6 Detailed block diagram of a typical receive section

 From Fig. 4.6 it is evident that the received signal, r(t), is first amplified by the front-end voltage
amplifier. This is done to strengthen the received signal, which is weak and to facilitate easy
processing. Next, this signal is given to the demodulator, which in turn, demodulates the received
signal to recover the original baseband signal. After recovering the original baseband signal, its
voltage and power is amplified prior it to final destination block.

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MULTIPLEXING
 This is a technique that is most widely used in nearly all types of communication systems, radio and
line communication systems.
 Basically, multiplexing is a process which allows more than one signal to transmit through a single
channel.
 The use of multiplexing also makes the communication system economical because more than one
signal can be transmitted through a single channel.
 Multiplexing is possible in communication system only through modulation.
 To consider multiplexing, let us consider the following example. If many people speak loudly and
simultaneously, then it becomes nearly impossible to understand their conversion because the
overall result is noise. This noise is the result of mixing of all the speeches. The human ear is not
capable of separating these intermingled speeches and therefore no intelligent words are
communicated to brain. The same situation is now applied to the transmission of audio signals.
These audio signals may come from, say ten different persons. While the speech frequency of
different persons will be different, all the ten signals will lie in the same audio range of 20 Hz to 20
kHz.
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
One may categorize communication systems based on:
 The physical infrastructure pertains to the type of the channel used and the hardware
design of the transmitting and receiving equipment.
 The signal specifications signify the nature and type of the transmitted signal

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

Based on their physical infrastructure

Based on their signal specifications

Line/Radio Communication
Simplex/Duplex Communication
Nature of baseband signal Nature of Transmitted signal

Analog communication system

Digital communication system

Baseband communicationCarrier
systemcommunication system

Fig 4.7: Types of Communication Systems

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MODULATION
Modulation is the process of changing the parameters of the carrier signal, in accordance with the
instantaneous values of the modulating signal.
TYPES OF MODULATION:
 Continuous-wave Modulation
 Amplitude Modulation
 Frequency Modulation
 Phase Modulation
 Pulse modulation
 PAM
 PWM
 PPM
 PCM
1. Amplitude modulation (AM)
 AM is defined as the modulation technique in which the instantaneous amplitude of the
carrier signal is varied in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the analog
modulating signal to be transmitted while the frequency and the phase of the carrier signal
remain unchanged.
 Figure 4.8 shows the high frequency carrier signal, modulating signal and the modulated signal.

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 Fig: 4.8 Waveforms of Amplitude modulation

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 It can be clearly seen from the figure 4.8 that the modulating signal seems to be superimposed
on the carrier signal. The amplitude variations in the peak values of the carrier signal exactly
replicate the modulating signal at different points in time which is known as an envelope.
2. Frequency Modulation:
 A modulating signal may vary the frequency of the carrier keeping the amplitude and phase
constant. This type of modulation is called Frequency modulation. Broadly speaking, the
frequency modulation is the process of changing the frequency of the carrier voltage in
accordance with the instantaneous value of the modulating voltage.
 The original frequency of the carrier signal is called Centre or resting frequency and denoted
by fc. The amount by which the frequency of the carrier wave changes or shifts above or
below the resting frequency is termed as frequency deviation (Δf). This means Δf 𝖺 m(t).
 The total variation is frequency of F.M. wave from the lowest to the highest is termed as
carrier saving (CS), i.e., US = 2 x frequency deviation in Centre frequency or CS=2 Δf.
 Modulation index in F.M. is the ratio of frequency deviation to the modulating frequency,
i.e. µ
𝑓= 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝐷𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 Δ𝑓
𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 =𝑓𝑚
𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦

Fig: 4.9 Waveforms of Frequency modulation

3. Phase modulation:
 PM is another form of angle modulation. Phase modulation is the process in which the
instantaneous phase of the carrier signal is varied in accordance with the instantaneous
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amplitude of the modulating signal.

 In this type of modulation, the amplitude and frequency of the carrier signal remains
unaltered after pulse modulation.

Fig: 4.10 Waveforms of Phase modulation

Pulse modulation:
 It may be used to transmit analog information, such as continuous speech or data. It is system in
which continuous waveforms are sampled at regular intervals. Pulse modulation may be
subdivided into two categories, analog and digital.
 Pulse-amplitude and pulse-time modulation are both analog, while the pulse code and delta
modulation system are both digital.
4.1 Phase-amplitude modulation (PAM):
 PAM is the simplest form of pulse modulation. PAM is a pulse modulation system in
which the signal is sampled at regular intervals, and each sample is made proportional to
the amplitude of the signal at the instant of sampling. The pulses are then sent by either
wire or cable, or else are used to modulate a carrier.
 The ability to use constant-amplitude pulses is a major advantage of pulse modulation, and
since PAM does not use constant- amplitude pulses, it is infrequently used. When it is
used, the pulses frequency- modulate the carrier.
4.2 Pulse width or pulse-duration modulation (PWM or PDM):
 In this system, the starting time and amplitude of each pulse are constant but the width or
duration of each pulse is made proportional to the instantaneous value of analog signal.

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 PDM has the disadvantage, when compared with pulse-position modulation (PPM), that its
pulses are of varying width and therefore of varying power content. This means that the
transmitter must be powerful enough to handle the maximum- width pulses, although the
average power transmitted is perhaps only half of the peak power. PWM still works if
synchronization between transmitter and receiver fails, whereas PPM does not.
4.3 Pulse position-modulation (PPM):
In this system, the amplitude and width of the pulses is kept constant, while the
position of each pulse, in relation to the position of a recurrent reference pulse is varied by
instantaneous sampled value of the modulating wave. As compared to PWM, PPM has the
advantage of requiring constant transmitter power output, but the disadvantage of
depending on transmitter receiver synchronization.
Pulse-code modulation (PCM):
PCM is a digital process in which the message signal is sampled is rounded off to the nearest value of a finite s

Fig 4.11: Waveforms of PAM, PWM & PPM

Radio wave propagation (Ground, space, sky):

 In space communication electromagnetic waves of different frequencies are used to carry
information through the physical space acting as the transmission medium. Electromagnetic
waves with frequencies extending from about 10 kHz to 300 GHz are classed as radio waves.

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 Depending primarily on the frequency a radio wave travels from the transmitting to the
receiving antenna in several ways. On the basis of the mode of propagation, radio waves can be
broadly classified as:
(a)ground or surface wave. (b) space or tropospheric wave. (c) sky way.
(a). Ground wave propagation:
 In ground wave propagation, radio waves are guided by the earth and move along its curved
surface from the transmitter to the receiver.
 As the waves moves over the ground, they are strongly influenced by the electrical properties
of the ground. As high frequency waves are strongly absorbed by ground; ground wave
propagation is useful only at low frequencies.
 Below 500 kHz, ground waves can be used for communication within distances of about
1500 km from the transmitter.
 AM radio broadcast in the medium frequency band cover local areas and take place primarily
by the ground wave. Ground wave transmission is very reliable whatever the atmospheric
conditions be.
(b). Space or tropospheric wave propagation:
 When a radio wave transmitted from an antenna, travelling in a straight line directly reaches
the receiving antenna, it is termed as space or tropospheric wave.
 In space wave or line of sight propagation, radio waves move in the earth's troposphere within
about 15 km over the surface of the earth.
 The space wave is made up of two components:
(a) a direct or line-of- sight MGVE form the transmitting to the receiving antenna.
(b)the ground-reflected urine traversing forms the transmitting antenna to ground and
reflected to the receiving antenna.
 Television frequencies in the range 100-220 MHz are transmitted through this mode.
(c). Sky wave propagation:
 In this mode of propagation, radio waves transmitted from the transmitting antenna reach the
receiving antenna after reflection form the ionosphere, i.e., the ionized layers lying in the
earth's upper atmosphere.
 Short wave transmission around the globe is possible through sky wave via successive
reflections at the ionosphere and the earth's surface.

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Fig 4.12: Mode of Propagation

Sampling
theorem:
 There are two types of signals, continuous-time and discrete-time signals. The processing of
discrete-time signals is more flexible and is also preferable than the continuous-time signals.
 The sampling theorem governs the conversion of continuous-time signal into discrete- time signal.
 The concept of sampling provides a widely used method for using discrete-time system
technology to implement continuous-time systems and process the continuous-time signals.
 A continuous-time signal may be completely represented in its samples and recovered back if the
sampling frequency is 𝑓𝑠 ≥ 2𝑓𝑚. Here, fs is the sampling frequency and fm is the maximum
frequency present in the signal.

Fig 4.13: Sampling Waveform

Nyquist Rate:

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 When the sampling rate becomes exactly equal to 2fm samples per second, then it is called Nyquist
rate. Nyquist rate is the minimum sampling rate.

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 A low pass filter is used to recover the original signal from its samples.
 The process of reconstructing the continuous-time signal from its samples is known as interpolation.
 When the sampling frequency is less than the Nyquist rate, aliasing problem is said to occur.
 Aliasing is the phenomenon in which a high frequency component in the frequency spectrum of
the signal takes the identity of a lower frequency component in the spectrum of the sampled
signal.
 To avoid aliasing:
•
Pre-alias filter must be used to limit the band of frequencies of the signal to fm Hz.
•
Sampling frequency must be selected such that 𝑓𝑠 ≥ 2𝑓𝑚.
Digital Modulation Schemes:
 In digital communications, the modulating signal consists of binary data. When it is required to
transmit digital signals on a bandpass channel, the amplitude, frequency or phase of the sinusoidal
carrier is varied in accordance with the incoming digital data.
 Since, the digital data is in discrete steps, the modulation of the bandpass sinusoidal carrier is also
done in discrete steps. Due to this reason, this type of modulation is known as digital modulation.
 Digital modulation schemes as classified as under:
•
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
•
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
•
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
 Because of constant amplitude of FSK or PSK, the effect of non-linearities, noise interference is
minimum on signal detection. However, these effects are more pronounced on ASK. Therefore,
FSK and PSK are preferred over ASK.
 Coherent digital modulation techniques are those techniques which employ coherent detection. In
coherent detection, the local carrier generated at the receiver is phase locked with the carrier at the
transmitter. Thus, the detection is done by correlating the received noisy signal and locally
generated carrier. The coherent detection is also called synchronous detection.
 ASK signal may be generated by simply applying the incoming binary data and the sinusoidal
carrier to the two inputs of a product modulator.
 The demodulation of binary ASK waveform can be achieved with the help of coherent detector.

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Radio Signal Transmission

 Fig 4.14 shows the architecture of a wireless communication transmitter. In the figure, the
transmitter usually processes the information in two stages. In the first stage, a modulator accepts
the incoming bits, and computes symbols that represent the amplitude and phase of the outgoing
wave. It then passes these to the analogue transmitter, which generates the radio wave itself.
 The modulation scheme used in Fig. 4.14 is known as quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK).
 A QPSK modulator takes the incoming bits two at a time and transmits them using a radio wave
that can have four different states. These have phases of 45°, 135°, 225° and 315°.

Fig 4.14: Architecture of a wireless communication transmitter

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4.15: Quadrature phase shift keying (a) Example QPSK waveform (b) QPSK constellation diagram
 Fig. 4.15 (a), which correspond to bit combinations of 00, 10, 11 and 01 respectively. We can
represent the four states of QPSK using the constellation diagram shown in Fig. 4.15 (b).
 In this diagram, the distance of each state from the origin represents the amplitude of the
transmitted wave, while the angle (measured anti-clockwise from the x-axis) represents its phase.
Usually, it is more convenient to represent each symbol using two other numbers, which are known
as the in-phase
(I) and quadrature (Q) components. These are computed as follows:
I = a cos ɸ
Q = a sin ɸ
where a is the amplitude of the transmitted wave and ɸ is its phase.
 Mathematicians will recognize the in-phase and quadrature components as the real and imaginary
parts of a complex number.
 As shown in Fig. 4.16, LTE uses four modulation schemes altogether. Binary phase shift keying
(BPSK) sends bits one at a time, using two states that can be interpreted as starting phases of 0° and
180°, or as signal amplitudes of +1 and -1.
 LTE uses this scheme for a limited number of control streams, but does not use it for normal data
transmissions.
 16 quadrature amplitude modulation (16-QAM) sends bits four at a time, using 16 states that have
different amplitudes and phases.
 Similarly, 64-QAM sends bits six at a time using 64 different states, so it has a data rate six times
greater than that of BPSK.

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Fig 4.16: Modulation schemes used by LTE

Multiple Access Techniques:
 The techniques described so far work well for one-to-one communications. In a cellular network,
however, a base station has to transmit to many different mobiles at once. It does this by sharing
the resources of the air interface, in a technique known as multiple access.
 Mobile communication systems use a new different multiple access techniques, two of which are
shown in Fig. 4.17 frequency division multiple access (FDMA) was used by the first-
generation analogue systems. In this technique, each mobile receives on its own carrier
frequency, which it distinguishes from the others by the use of analogue filters.
 In time division multiple access (TDMA), mobiles receive information on the same carrier
frequency but at different times.
 GSM uses a mix of frequency and time division multiple access, in which every cell has several
carrier frequencies that are each shared amongst eight different mobiles.
 LTE uses another mixed technique known as orthogonal frequency division multiple access
(OFDMA).

Fig 4.17: Example multiple access techniques

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 Third generation communication systems used a different technique altogether, known as code
division multiple access (CDMA).
 In this technique, mobiles receive on the same carrier frequency and at the same time, but the
signals are labelled by the use of codes, which allow a mobile to separate its own signal from
those of the others.
 LTE uses a few of the concepts from CDMA for some of its control signals, but does not
implement the technique otherwise. Multiple access is actually a generalization of a simpler
technique known as multiplexing.
FDD and TDD Modes
 A mobile communication system can operate in the transmission modes as shown in Fig. 4.18.
 When using frequency division duplex (FDD), the base station and mobile transmit and receive
at the same time, but using different carrier frequencies.
 Using time division duplex (TDD), they transmit and receive on the same carrier frequency but
at different times. FDD and TDD modes have different advantages and disadvantages.
 In FDD mode, the bandwidths of the uplink and downlink are fixed and are usually the same.
This makes it suitable for voice communications, in which the uplink and downlink data rates
are very similar.
 In TDD mode, the system can adjust how much time is allocated to the uplink and downlink.
This makes it suitable for applications such as web browsing.
 TDD mode can be badly affected by interference if, for example, one base station is transmitting
while a nearby base station is receiving.
 To avoid this, nearby base stations must be carefully time synchronized and must use the same
allocations for the uplink and downlink, so that they all transmit and receive at the same time.
 This makes TDD suitable for networks that are made from isolated hotspots, because each
hotspot can have a different timing and resource allocation. In contrast, FDD is often preferred
for wide- area networks that have no isolated regions.

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Fig 4.18: Operation of FDD and TDD modes

 When operating in FDD mode, the mobile usually has to contain a high attenuation duplex filter
that isolates the uplink transmitter from the downlink receiver.
 LTE supports each of the modes described above. A cell can use either FDD or TDD mode.
MULTIPATH AND FADING
 Propagation loss and noise are not the only problem. As a result of reflections, rays can take
several different paths from the transmitter to the receiver. This phenomenon is known as
multipath.
 At the receiver, the incoming rays can add together in different ways, which are shown in Fig.
4.19. If the peaks of the incoming rays coincide then they reinforce each other, a situation
known as constructive interference.
 If, however, the peaks of one ray coincide with the troughs of another, then the result is
destructive interference, in which the rays cancel.
 Destructive interference can make the received signal power drop to a very low level, a
situation known as fading. The resulting increase in the error rate makes fading a serious
problem for any mobile communication system.

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Fig 4.19: Generation of constructive interference, destructive interference and fading in a

multipath environment

Fig 4.20: Fading as a function of (a) time and (b) frequency

 If the mobile moves from one place to another, then the ray geometry changes, so the
interference pattern changes between constructive and destructive.
 Fading is therefore a function of time, as shown in Fig. 4.20 (a). The amplitude and phase of the
received signal vary over a timescale called the coherence time, Tc which can be estimated as
follows:
𝑇𝑐 1
≈ 𝑓𝐷
Here 𝑓𝐷 is the mobile's Doppler frequency:
𝑓 =𝑣𝑓
𝐷 𝑐 𝑐
where fc is the carrier frequency, v is the speed of the mobile and c is the speed of light (3 x 108
m/s).
 For example, a pedestrian might walk with a speed of l ms-1 (3.6 km hr-1). At a carrier frequency
of 1500 MHz, the resulting Doppler shift is 5 Hz, giving a coherence time of about 200

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milliseconds. Faster mobiles move through the interference pattern more quickly, so their
coherence time is correspondingly less.
 If the carrier frequency changes, then the wavelength of the radio signal changes. This also
makes the interference pattern change between constructive and destructive, so fading is a
function of frequency as well 4.20 (b).
Error Management
Forward Error Correction:
 We know that noise and interference lead to errors in a wireless communication receiver. These
are bad enough during voice calls, but are even more damaging to important information such as
web pages and emails. Fortunately, there are several ways to solve the problem. The most
important technique is forward error correction.
 In this technique, the transmitted information is represented using a codeword that is typically
two or three times as long. The extra bits supply additional, redundant data that allow the
receiver to recover the original information sequence.
 For example, a transmitter might represent the information sequence 101 using the codeword
110010111. After an error in the second bit, the receiver might recover the codeword
100010111.
 If the coding scheme has been well designed, then the receiver can conclude that this is not a
valid codeword, and that the most likely transmitted codeword was 110010111.
 The receiver has therefore corrected the bit error and can recover the original information. The
effect is very like written English, which contains redundant letters that allow the reader to
understand the underlying information, even in the presence of spelling mistakes.
 The coding rate is the number of information bits divided by the number of transmitted bits (1/3
in the example above). Usually, forward error correction algorithms operate with a fixed coding
rate.
 Despite this, a wireless transmitter can still adjust the coding rate using the two- stage process
shown in Fig. 4.21.
 In the first stage, the information bits are passed through at fixed-rate coder. The main algorithm
used by LTE is known as Turbo coding and has a fixed coding rate of 1/3.
 In the second stage, called rule matching, some of the coded bits are selected for transmission,
while the others are discarded in a process known as puncturing.
 The receiver has a copy of the puncturing algorithm, so it can insert dummy bits at the points
where information was discarded. It can then pass the result through a turbo decoder for error
correction.

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 Changes in the coding rate have a similar effect to changes in the modulation scheme. If the
coding rate is low, then the transmitted data contain many redundant bits.
 This allows the receiver to correct a large number of errors and to operate successfully at a low
SINR, but at the expense of a low information rate.
 If the coding rate is close to 1, then the information rate is higher but the system is more
vulnerable to errors.
 LTE exploits this with a similar trade-off to the one we saw earlier, by transmitting with a high
coding rate if the received SINR is high and vice versa.

Fig 4.21: Block diagram of a transmitter and receiver using forward error correction and rate
Matching
Automatic Repeat Request:
 Automatic repeat request (ARQ) is another error management technique, which is illustrated in
Fig 4.22. Here, the transmitter takes a block of information bits and uses them to compute some
extra bits that are known as a cyclic redundancy check (CRC).
 It appends these io the information block and then transmits the two sets of data in the usual way.

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Fig 4.22: Block diagram of a transmitter and receiver using automatic repeat request
 The receiver separates the two fields and uses the information bits to compute the expected CRC
bits. If the observed and expected CRC bits are the same, then it concludes that the information
has been received correctly and sends a positive acknowledgement back to the transmitter.
 If the CRC bits are different, it concludes that an error has occurred and sends a negative
acknowledgement to request a re-transmission.
 Positive and negative acknowledgements are often abbreviated to ACK and NACK respectively.
 A wireless communication system often combines the two error management techniques that we
have
been describing. Such a system corrects most of the bit errors by the use of forward error
correction and then uses automatic repeat requests to handle the remaining errors that leak
through.
 Normally, ARQ uses a technique called selective re-transmission Fig 4.23 in which the receiver
waits for several blocks of data to arrive before acknowledging them all.
 This allows the transmitter to continue sending data without waiting for an acknowledgement,
but it means that any re-transmitted data can take a long time to arrive.
 Consequently, this technique is only suitable for non-real-time streams such as web-pages and
emails.

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Fig 4.23: Operation of a selective re-transmission ARQ scheme

Antenna:
 An antenna is a device for converting electromagnetic radiation in space into electrical currents
in conductors or vice-versa, depending on whether it is being used for receiving or for
transmitting, respectively.
 Antennas transform wire propagated waves into space propagated waves. They receive
electromagnetic waves and pass them onto a receiver or they transmit electromagnetic waves
which have been produced by a transmitter.
 The requirements on the antennas needed for the ever-expanding networks are becoming
continually
higher. An antenna must have the following features:
• Strictly defined radiation patterns for a most accurate network planning.
• Growing concern for the level of intermodulation due to the radiation of many HF- carriers
via one antenna.
• Dua1 polarization.
• Electrical down-tilting of the vertical diagram.
• Unobtrusive design.
Types of antennas:
1. Omnidirectional Antenna
An omnidirectional antenna is an antenna that has a non-directional pattern (circular pattern) in a
given plane with a directional pattern in any orthogonal plane. Examples of omnidirectional
antennas are dipoles and collinear antennas.
2. Dipole Antennas
A dipole antenna most commonly refers to a half-wavelength (L/2) dipole. The physical antenna
is constructed of conductive elements whose combined length is about half of a wavelength at its

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intended frequency of operation. This is a simple antenna that radiates its energy out toward the
horizon.

Fig 4.24: Dipole antenna

3. Collinear Omni Antennas:
In order to create an omnidirectional antenna with higher gain, multiple omni directional
structures (either wires or elements on a circuit board) can be arranged in a vertical, linear
fashion to retain the same omnidirectional pattern in the azimuth plane but a more focused
elevation plane beam which then has higher gain. This is frequently referred to as a collinear
array.
4. Directional Antennas
 A directional antenna is one that radiates its energy more effectively in one (or some)
direction than others. Typically, these antennas have one main lobe and several minor lobes.
Examples of directional antennas are patches and dishes.
 Directional antennas are used for coverage as well as point-to-point links. They can be patch
antennas, dishes, horns or a whole host of other varieties. They all accomplish the same goal:
radiating their energy out in a particular direction.
5. Patch Antennas
 A patch antenna, in its simplest form, is just a single rectangular (or circular) conductive plate
that is spaced above a ground plane.
 Patch antennas are attractive due to their low profile and ease of fabrication. The radiation
pattern of a single patch is characterized by a single main lobe of moderate beamwidth.
 Frequently, the beamwidths in the azimuth and elevation planes are similar, resulting in a
fairly circular beam, although this is by no means universal.
 The beamwidths can be manipulated to produce an antenna with higher or lower gain,
depending on the requirements. An antenna built with a single patch will have a maximum
gain of about 9 dBi or a bit less.
 The patch antenna in Fig. 4.25 shows how simple these antennas can be. This is a simple
rectangular patch built over a rectangular ground plane.
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Fig 4.25: Patch antenna

6. Patch Array Antennas:
 A patch array antenna is, in general, some arrangement of multiple patch antennas that are all
driven by the same source. Frequently, this arrangement consists of patches arranged in
orderly rows and columns (a rectangular array) as shown in Fig. 4.26.
 The reason for these types of arrangements is higher gain. Higher gain commonly implies a
narrower beamwidth and that is, indeed, the case with patch arrays. The array shown here has
a gain of about 18 dBi with an azimuth and elevation plane beamwidth of about 20 degrees.

Fig 4.26: 4x4 patch array antenna Fig 4.27: Yagi-Antenna model
7. Yagi Antennas
 A Yagi antenna is formed by driving a simple antenna, typically a dipole or dipole-like
antenna, and shaping the beam using a well-chosen series of non-driven elements whose
length and spacing are tightly controlled.
 The Yagi shown here in Fig. 4.27 is built with one reflector (the bar behind the driven
antenna) and 14 directors (the bars in front of the driven antenna).
 Many times, these antennas are designed so that they can be rotated for either horizontal or
vertical polarization, so having the same 3-dB beamwidth in each plane is a nice feature in
those instances. Again, the Yagi antenna is a directional antenna that radiates its energy out in
one main direction. Their directional nature seems to be somewhat intuitive due to their
common, tubular form factor. It is easy to visualize aiming these antennas much like a rifle.

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